ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

THEORY

CHAPTER 3
ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS IN
MATERIAL SPACE
 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

When electric field is going through a medium, two

phenomena can take place:

If the material is conductive:

Which has free electrons, electric current can be
created.
This current is related to the electric field by material
conductivity σ which is described by Ohm’s law.
J=ςE
If the material is dielectric:
Which has no free electrons, polarization of the
molecules of the material can be take place.
 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Materials may be classified in terms of their
conductivity σ as conductors and nonconductors (or
technically as metals and insulators (or dielectrics).

σ = [mhos per meter (℧/m)] or [Siemens per meter

(S/m)].

If (σ >> 1) the material is referred to as a metal

If (σ << 1) the material is referred to as an insulator.

A material whose conductivity lies between those of

metals and insulators is called a semiconductor.
 CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION CURRENTS
The electric current is generally caused by the motion
dQ
of electric charges: I=
dt

The current Density: J = ΔI / ΔS

Thus, the total current flowing through a surface s is:

I= s
J . ds

Depending on how I is produced, there are different

kinds of current densities: convection, conduction
and displacement current density. The above
equation applies to any kind of current density.
 CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION CURRENTS

Conduction current requires a conductor.

A conductor is characterized by abundance of free

electrons that provide conduction current due an
impressed electric field.

Thus the conduction current density (steady current

density) is defined by Ohm's law:

J=ςE
 CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION CURRENTS
Convection current does not involve conductors and
consequently does not satisfy Ohm's law.

It occurs when current flows through an insulating

medium such as liquid, rarefied gas, or a vacuum.

A beam of electrons in a vacuum tube, for example,

is convection current.

Displacement current density is defined by:

𝜕𝐷
𝐽𝑑 = −
𝑑𝑡
 CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION CURRENTS
Displacement current density 𝐽𝑑 is one of the major
contributions of Maxwell.

Maxwell inserted this term in his equation number (4)

which was mentioned in the PREFACE of this book.

That is:
d𝐃
𝛻×𝐇= 𝐉+
dt

Without this insertion, the electromagnetic wave

propagation (radio or TV waves, for example) would
be impossible.
 ELECTRIC FIELD IN CONDUCTORS
A conductor has abundance of charge that is free to
move.

When an external electric field Ee is applied:

The positive free charges are directed along the

same direction as the applied field.

The negative free charges move in the opposite

direction.
 ELECTRIC FIELD IN CONDUCTORS
The free charges do two things.

First, they accumulate on the surface of the

conductor and form an induced surface charge.
Second, the induced charges set up an internal
induced field E in which cancels the externally
applied field Ee resulting zero field.

This leads to an important property of a conductor:

The perfect conductor cannot contain an electrostatic
field within it.

In this case, the conductor is called an equipotential

body.
ELECTRIC FIELD IN CONDUCTORS
 Resistance and Capacitance Using Ohm's Law
When a conductor ends are maintained at a potential
difference V, as shown in Figure, the electric field E
inside the conductor will not equal zero because
there is no static equilibrium.
 ELECTRIC FIELD IN CONDUCTORS
The electric field applied is uniform and its magnitude
is given by:
V I
𝐄= , J= , J=ςE
l S
Thus:
I V
=ς
S l
V l ρc l 1
∴ R= = = =
I ςS S G
Where:
− G is the conductance of the material [mho]
m
− ρc = 1/ς is the resistivity of the material [ ]
mho
 ELECTRIC FIELD IN CONDUCTORS
The electric capacitance is defined by:

Q Q Q D εE 1 ε
C= = = = = =
V IR JSR J R ς𝐄 R R ς

The electric power, P can be defined as the rate of

change of energy W (in joules), or force times
velocity. It can be derived by Joule’s law.

dP = I. dV = (ς 𝐄 ds) . (E. dl) = ς 𝐄 2 dl ds = ς 𝐄 2 dv

P= ς 𝐄 2 dv = V . I watt
v
 ELECTRIC FIELD IN CONDUCTORS
V l ρc l 1
The equation R = = = = is useful in
I ςS S G
determining the resistance of any conductor of
uniform cross section.

If the cross section is not uniform, the resistance

calculation is considered as a boundary value
problems.

In same manner, capacitance calculation can be also

considered as a boundary value problems.
 Resistance Calculation as a Boundary Value Problem

In general case, the electric resistance is defined by:

V 𝐄 . dl 𝐄 . dl
R= = =
I 𝐉 . ds ς 𝐄. ds

To evaluate the resistance of a material of any

geometrical shape, this equation is used along the
given limits of the shape.

l1 dV l1 𝐄 . dl l1 𝐄
R= 0
= 0 J . ds
= 0 l2 l3 dl1
I ς 𝐄 (dl2 dl3 )
0 0

where (l1 , l2, , l3 ) are the distances in the direction of

coordinate axes. (see examples 3.1 and 3.2).
Capacitance Calculation as a Boundary Value Problem

The capacitance C of the capacitor is defined as the

ratio of the magnitude of the charge on one of the
plates to the potential difference between them:

Q ε 𝐄 . ds
C= =
V 𝐄 . dl

The (-) sign before V = - 𝐄 . dl is dropped because

we only interest with the absolute value of V.

Three cases for capacitance calculation as boundary

value problem are introduced.
Capacitance Calculation as a Boundary Value Problem

Case 1: Parallel Plate Capacitor:

Q
Q= ε 𝐄 . ds = − ε Ex S, hence: 𝐄 =- 𝐚x
εS

1 d
Q Qd
V=− 𝐄 . dl = − − . dx =
2 0 εS εS

Q εS
Therefore: C= =
V d
Capacitance Calculation as a Boundary Value Problem

Case 2: Coaxial Capacitor:

Q
Q= ε 𝐄 . ds = εEρ 2 πρl, Hence: 𝐄 = 𝐚ρ
ε 2 πρl

1 a
Q Q 𝑏
V=− 𝐄 . dl = − . dρ = ln
2 b ε 2 πρl 2πεl 𝑎

Q 2πεl
Therefore: C= = 𝑏
V ln𝑎
Capacitance Calculation as a Boundary Value Problem

Case 3: Spherical Capacitor:

Q
Q= ε 𝐄 . ds = εEr 4 π𝑟 2 , Hence: 𝐄 = 𝐚r
4 πε𝑟 2

1 a
Q Q 1 1
V=− 𝐄 . dl = − 2
. dr = −
2 b 4 πε𝑟 4 πε 𝑎 𝑏

Q 4 πε
Therefore: C= = 1 1
V −
𝑎 𝑏
Capacitance Calculation as a Boundary Value Problem

EXAMPLE 3.1
Find the resistance of a part of infinite cylindrical
conductor shown in figure. Then find the capacitance.
Capacitance Calculation as a Boundary Value Problem

SOLUTION
Case A: Is not a practical case, but it shown here for
demonstration.

V L E
R= = 0 2π b dz
I ς E r dr dϕ
ϕ=0 r=a
L
𝐄 L
= dz =
0 r2 b ς π(b 2 − a2 )
ς E 2π| |a
2
1 ε ε π (b2 − a2 )
C= =
R ς L
Capacitance Calculation as a Boundary Value Problem

Case B: For a part of infinite coaxial cable:

In this case R and C can be calculated as a boundary
value problem by solving Laplace equation in
cylindrical coordinates.
Note that E is dependent only on r:
V b E
∴ R= = a 2π L dr
I
ϕ=0 z=a ς E r dϕ dz

b
E dr 1 b
= = ln[ ]
a ς E 2π L r 2π ς L a
1 ε 2π ε L
C= = b
R ς ln[ a]
Capacitance Calculation as a Boundary Value Problem

EXAMPLE 3.2
A conducting material of uniform thickness h and
conductivity ς has a shape of a flat circular washer
with inner radius a and outer radius b as shown in
figure. Find the resistance between the two ends.
Capacitance Calculation as a Boundary Value Problem

SOLUTION
l E
R= 0
dl
s ς E ds
π
2 E
= 0 b
r dϕ
0 ςE z=−h r=a
dr dz

π π
1 2
= 2
0 h ς b dr
dϕ = b
r=a
h ς ln[ ]
r a

b
1 ε ε h ln[ a]
C= = π
R ς
2
 Current Continuity Equation

Due to the principle of charge conservation, the time

rate of decrease of charge within a given volume
must be equal to the outward current flow through the
closed surface of this volume.
Thus, this current Iout is defined as:

dQ𝑖𝑛
Iout = J . ds = −
dt

Dividing both sides by the volume Δ v we get the

continuity divergence equation of the current:

J . ds d Q𝑖𝑛 d ρv
= − , then 𝛻. J=−
Δv dt Δv dt
 POLARIZATION IN DIELECTRICS

When the electric field go through a dielectric medium,

the atoms of the medium get polarized (separated).
The positive charges is displaced in the direction of E.
The negative charges is displaced in the inverse
direction of E.
The polarization flux density P is added to the applied
electric field density D, and the total flux density inside
the medium will be:
𝐃 = 𝛆𝟎 𝐄 + 𝐏
 POLARIZATION IN DIELECTRICS

The polarization flux density P is defined by dipole

moment per unit volume which align themselves in
the direction of E.

Its value depend upon electric field intensity and

material properties so it can defined by:

P = χ . (ε0 𝐄)

Where χ is the electric susceptibility (sensitivity) of

the material.

𝐃 = ε0 𝐄 + P = ε0 𝐄 + ε0 χ𝐄 = ε0 𝐄 1 + χ = ε0 εr E = ε𝐄
 POLARIZATION IN DIELECTRICS

εr = relative permittivity (dimension less), always >1

Farad
ε0 = the free space permittivity .
m

In general, in homogenous isotropic media D and E

are in the same direction.

Dielectric is linear if ε dose not change with E.

is homogenous if ε dose not change from
point to point.
is isotropic if ε dosn’t change with direction

All formulas used in free space can be applied in

material space by replacing ε0 by ε, εr.
 POLARIZATION IN DIELECTRICS

EXAMPLE 3.3
The electric field intensity in polystyrene (εr = 2.55)
filling the space between the plates of a parallel-plate
capacitor is 10 [kV/m]. The distance (d) between the
plates is 1.5 [mm]. Calculate:
(a) D
(b) P
(c) The surface charge density of free charge on the
plates
(d) The surface density of polarization charge
(e) The potential difference between the plates
 POLARIZATION IN DIELECTRICS

SOLUTION

10−9 nC
a) D = ε0 εr E = . 2.55 . (10)4 = 225.4 2
36π m
10−9
b) P = χe ε0 E = . 1.55 . (10)4 = 137 nC/m2
36π

c) ρs = D . an = Dn = 225.4 nC/m2

d) ρPs = P . an = Pn = 137 nC/m2

e) V = E d = 104 1.5x10−3 = 15 V
 POLARIZATION IN DIELECTRICS

EXAMPLE 3.4

A dielectric sphere (𝛆𝐫 = 5.7) of radius 10 [cm] has a

point charge 2 [pC] placed at its center.

Calculate:
(a) The surface density of polarization charge on the
surface of the sphere

(b) The force exerted by the charge on a -4 [pC] point

charge placed on the sphere
 POLARIZATION IN DIELECTRICS

SOLUTION
a) apply Coulomb's or Gauss's law to obtain Q

Q χe Q
𝐄= 𝐚𝐫 , P = χe ε0 E = 𝐚𝐫
4πε0 εr r2 4π εr r2

(𝛆𝐫 −1)Q 4.7 2 x 10−12 pC

ρPs = P . 𝐚𝐫 = 4π 𝛆𝐫 𝐫 𝟐
=
4π 5.7 100 x 104
= 13.12
m2

b) Using Coulomb’s law, we have:

Q1 Q2 −4 2 10−24
𝐅= 𝐚𝐫 = 10−9
𝐚𝐫
4π𝛆𝟎 𝛆𝐫 𝐫 𝟐 4π 𝟓.𝟕 𝟏𝟎𝟎 (𝟏𝟎)−𝟒
36π
= −1.263 𝐚𝐫 [pN]
 POLARIZATION IN DIELECTRICS

EXAMPLE 3.5
A dielectric spherical shell having a dielectric
constant εr (R, θ, φ) where R i ≤ R ≤ R 0 , A positive
charge Q1 is located at the center of the shell. Find
the electric field intensity E the displacement vector D
(electric flux density), the polarization vector P, and
the electrostatic potential V, in the regions:
a) R 0 ≤ R < ∞, b) R i ≤ R < R 0 , c) R i ≤ R < 0
 POLARIZATION IN DIELECTRICS

SOLUTION
Use Gauss theorem to find D at any distance R:
2 Q
D. dS = D ∗ 4πR  D R = 2, 0<R<∞
4πR

Define the three regions as follows:

Region 1 Region 2 Region 3
R 0 ≤ R1 < ∞ Ri ≤ R2 < R0 Ri ≤ R3 < 0
D D D
E(R1 ) = E(R 2 ) = E(R 3 ) =
ε0 ε0 εr ε0
P(R1 ) = D − ε0 E(R1 ) P(R 2 ) = D − ε0 E(R 2 ) P(R1 ) = D − ε0 E(R 3 )
=0 = ε0 E(R 2 )(εr − 1) =0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
V(R1 ) = KQ V(R 2 ) = KQ + − + +
R R 0 εr R R 0 R 0 εr R i R 0
V(R 3 ) = KQ
1 1
+ −
R Ri
 POLARIZATION IN DIELECTRICS

Note: Apply the voltage Law to get the potential :

R0 R
1 1 1
V(R1 ) = − E. dl = KQ 2 dR = KQ −
R=∞ R=∞ R R ∞

Ri R
1 1 1 1 1 1
V(R 2 ) = − KQ 2 dR − KQ 2 dR = KQ + −
R=∞ R R0 R R 0 εr R R0

0 R R
1 1 1
V(R 3 ) = − KQ 2 dR − KQ 2
dR − KQ 2 dR
R=∞ R R0 εr R Ri R

1 1 1 1 1 1
= KQ + − + −
R 0 εr R i R 0 R RI
 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

So far, we have considered the existence of the

electric field in a homogeneous medium.

If the field exists in a region consisting of two different

media, the conditions that the field must satisfy at the
interface separating the media are called boundary
conditions.

These conditions are helpful in determining the field

on one side of the boundary if the field on the other
side is known.
 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The conditions will be dictated by the types of

material the media are made of.

Two cases will be introduced:

The boundary conditions at an interface separating a

dielectric (εr1 ) and another dielectric (εr2 ).

The boundary conditions at an interface separating

two conducting materials given by (ε1 , ς1 and ε2 , ς2 ) .
 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS OF 2 DIELCTRIC MATERIALS

Assuming two mediums 𝛆𝟏 , 𝛆𝟐 separated by the

boundary surface S and having 𝐄1 , 𝐄2 respectively .

Assuming one of them is known and the other need to

be determined
 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS OF 2 DIELCTRIC MATERIALS

To find relation for tangential fields apply voltage’s law

over the shown rectangular path
E. dl = 0 = E2t W − E1t W = 0

D2 t D1 t
∴ E2t = E1t , =
𝛆𝟐 𝛆𝟏

E is continuous across the surface, D is discontinuous

across the surface.

Note the integration over the two sides normal to the

boundary are zero why?
since h is too small, h  o.
 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS OF 2 DIELCTRIC MATERIALS

To find relation for Normal fields apply Gauss’s law

over a cylindrical surface of axis Normal to the
boundary as in Figure
 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS OF 2 DIELCTRIC MATERIALS

𝐃 . ds = Q in
S

−𝐃𝟏𝐧 ∆𝐬 + 𝐃𝟐𝐧 ∆𝐬 = 𝐐 𝐢𝐧 = 𝛒𝐬 ∆𝐬

∴ 𝛆𝟐 𝐄𝟐𝐧 = 𝛆𝟏 𝐄𝟏𝐧 + 𝛒𝐬

To find angle θi , of incidence θ1 and existence θ2 .

−1 Eit
Use the equation θi = tan
Ein

Note: the integration over the cylindrical side is zero

why? Because l  0
 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS OF 2 CONDUCTING MATERIALS

Assuming two mediums 𝛆𝟏 , 𝛆𝟐 separated by the

boundary surface S and having ς1 , ς2 respectively .

Assuming one of them is known and the other need to

be determined.

To find the boundary conditions between these two

mediums, apply the divergence equations at the
surface points for J and D.

Assume the current inside the surface is zero:

dρv
That is: =0
dt
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS OF 2 CONDUCTING MATERIALS
 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS OF 2 CONDUCTING MATERIALS

For horizontal component of E:

Do closed loop integration along the boundary you
get. Tangential components of electric field E at the
boundary should be equal to:
J1t J2t
𝐄1t = 𝐄2t , then, =
ς1 ς2
For vertical component of E:
Do a closed surface integration over a normal cylinder
across the boundary, the vertical components of
current and field density should be equal to:
J1n = J2n , then ς1 E1n = ς2 E2n

D1n = D2n , then ε1 E1n = ε2 E2n

 CURRENT AND FLUX DENISITIES DUALITY

Duality between Current Density J and Flux Density D

J=σE 𝛻. 𝐣=0 J1n = J2n J1t J2t ς G

=
ς1 ς2

D= ε E 𝛻 . 𝐃 = 0 D1n = D2n D1t D2t ε Q=Ψ

=
ε1 ε2