Kinetics and Kinematics

An Introduction
ENGG 409
Engr. Tiffany Jade Medrano
Introduction to Dynamics
Introduction to Dynamics
Dynamics is the branch of mechanics which deals with the study of
bodies in motion.
The experiments which form the foundation of dynamics require the
use of three kinds of units: force, length, and time.
Branches of Dynamics
1. Kinematics - is the geometry of motion and used to define the
motion of a particle or body without consideration of the forces
causing the motion. (e.g. displacement, velocity, and acceleration).
2. Kinetics - is the analysis of the forces causing the motion. It relates
the force acting on a body to its mass and acceleration.
Rectilinear and Curvilinear Motion
The motion of the particle may either be rectilinear motion or
curvilinear motion.
Rectilinear motion refers to the particle as it moves along a straight line
while particle in a curvilinear motion moves along a curved line in two
or three dimensions. (Beer, 2019)
Application of Dynamics in Engineering
1. Structural design of any vehicle such as automobile or airplane.
2. Design of mechanical devices such as motors, pumps, movable
tools, industrial manipulators, and machinery.
3. Predictions of the motions of artificial satellites, projectiles, and
spacecraft.
Definition of Terms
Body. It denotes a system of particles which form an object of
appreciable size.
Particle. It usually denotes an object of point size. (Singer). It has a
mass but negligible size and shape.
Position. It is used to specify the location of a particle at any given
instant.
Displacement
Displacement is defined to be the change in position of an object. Say, a
particle moves from the initial position s0 to a final position sf, then the
displacement is the difference in distance between the two positions.
Displacement
Mathematically, displacement can be defined as:
∆s = sf − so
where:
Δs – displacement
sf – final position
so – initial position
If the final position (sf) is to the right of the initial position (s0), the
displacement is positive. Likewise, if the final position (sf) is to the left of the
initial position (s0), the displacement is negative.
Displacement
The displacement is a vector quantity. This means it has a direction as well
as a magnitude and is represented visually as an arrow that points from the
initial position to the final position.
Velocity
Velocity is defined as a vector measurement of the rate and direction of
motion; the speed at which something moves in one direction. The speed
of a car traveling north on a major freeway and the speed a rocket
launching into space can both be measured using velocity.
Velocity
In calculus terms, velocity is the first derivative of position with respect to
time. You can calculate velocity by using a simple formula that includes rate,
distance, and time.
Velocity
The average velocity of the particle over the time interval Δt is defined as the
quotient of the displacement Δs and the time interval Δt as

The average velocity is expressed in meters per second (m/s) or in feet per second
(ft/s).
Velocity
The instantaneous velocity v of a particle at the instant t is determined by
allowing the time interval Δt to become infinite similarly small. Thus,

The instantaneous velocity is also expressed in m/s or ft/s.

Velocity
The most common way to calculate the constant velocity of an object
moving in a straight line is with this formula:

where:
v - velocity or rate of speed
s - distance travelled
t - time it takes to complete the movement
Velocity
The SI (international) units for velocity are m/s (meters per second),
but velocity may also be expressed in any units of distance per time
[e.g. miles per hour (mph), kilometers per hour (kph), and kilometers
per second (km/s)].
Difference Between Speed and Velocity
Speed is a scalar quantity that indicates the rate of motion distance per time.
Its units are length and time. Speed is often described simply as the distance
traveled per unit of time. It is how fast an object is moving.

Velocity is a vector quantity that gives the rate of motion of a particle in a

certain direction.
Acceleration
Acceleration is defined as a vector quantity that indicates the rate of
change of velocity. It has dimensions of length and time over time.
Acceleration is often referred to as “speeding up”, but it really measures
changes in velocity. An object is accelerating if it is changing its velocity.
Acceleration can be experienced every day in a vehicle. You step on the
accelerator and the car speeds up, increasing its velocity.
Acceleration
Consider the velocity v of the particle at time t and also its velocity v + Δv at a
later time t + Δt.
Acceleration
If the velocity of the particle is known at any two points, the average acceleration
during the time interval ∆t is defined as:

The average acceleration is expressed in m/s2 or in ft/s2 .

Acceleration
The instantaneous acceleration a of the particle at the instant t is obtained by again
allowing the time interval Δt to approach zero.

The instantaneous acceleration at time t is a vector that is found by taking the

smaller and smaller values of ∆t and corresponding small values of ∆v, so that

The instantaneous acceleration is also expressed in m/s2 or ft/s.

Acceleration
The limit of the quotient, which is, the derivative of v with respect to t, measures
the rate of change of the velocity. We have
Acceleration
The acceleration a is represented by an algebraic number that can be positive
or negative.
A positive value of a indicates that the velocity (i.e., the algebraic number v)
increases. This may mean that the particle is moving faster in the positive direction
or that it is moving more slowly in the negative direction; in both cases, Δv is
positive.
A negative value of a indicates that the velocity decreases; either the particle is
moving more slowly in the positive direction, or it is moving faster in the negative
direction. Sometimes the term deceleration is used to refer to a when the speed of
the particle (i.e., the magnitude of v) decreases; the particle is then moving more
slowly.
Acceleration
Acceleration
Another way to define acceleration is,

where:
a- acceleration
vf – final velocity
vo – initial velocity
t – time
Relationship Between Velocity and Acceleration
Velocity and acceleration are all related to each other, though they represent
different measurements.

Velocity is a vector quantity that indicates displacement, time, and direction

while acceleration is the rate at which an object changes its velocity.
Procedure for Analysis: Velocity and Acceleration
A. Coordinate System

1. Establish a position coordinate s along the path and specify its fixed origin and
positive direction.

2. Since motion is along a straight line, the vector quantities position, velocity, and
acceleration can be represented as algebraic scalars. For analytical work the sense of
s, v, and a is then defined by their algebraic signs.

3. The positive sense for each of these scalars can be indicated by an arrow shown
alongside each kinematic equation as it is applied.
Procedure for Analysis: Velocity and Acceleration
B. Kinematic Equations.

1. If a relation is known between any two of the four variables a, v, s, and t, then a
third variable can be obtained by using one of the kinematic equations, a = dv/dt, v
= ds/dt or a ds = v dv, since each equation relates all three variables.

2. Whenever integration is performed, it is important that the position and velocity

be known at a given instant in order to evaluate either the constant of integration if
an indefinite integral is used, or the limits of integration if a definite integral is used.
Important Points
1. Dynamics is concerned with bodies in motion.

2. Kinematics is the study of the geometry of motion.

3. Kinetics is the study of the forces that causes the motion.

4. The motion of the particle may move either in a straight line or in a curved line.
Important Points
5. Speed refers to the magnitude of velocity.

6. A particle that is slowing down is decelerating,

7. The differential equations of kinematics are given by the equations:

Kinematics of Particles
Kinematics of Particles
Depending on the path of the particles, the motion may either be:

1. Rectilinear Motion

2. Curvilinear Motion
Rectilinear Motion
Rectilinear Motion of Particles
Rectilinear motion is another name for straight-line motion. This type of
motion describes the movement of a particle or a body.
A body is said to experience rectilinear motion if any two particles of the
body travel the same distance along two parallel straight lines.
Rectilinear Motion of Particles
Following are the rectilinear motion examples:

● Use of elevators in public places is an example of rectilinear motion.

● Gravitational forces acting on objects resulting in free fall is an example of
rectilinear motion.
● Kids sliding down from a slide is a rectilinear motion.
● Motion of planes in the sky is a rectilinear motion.
Types of Rectilinear Motion
There are three types of rectilinear motion and they are:

1. Uniform rectilinear motion

2. Uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion

3. Rectilinear movement with non-uniform acceleration:

The three-basic equation of rectilinear motion
The three-basic equation of rectilinear motion are as follows:

Where,
t - the time of motion in seconds
s - the distance(m) covered during the time t.
vo - the initial velocity(m/s), at t="0.
vf - the final velocity(m/s) after time t.
a - the rate of acceleration(m/s2)
Uniform Rectilinear Motion
When an object travels at a constant speed with
zero acceleration it is known as uniform
rectilinear motion.
Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion
One of the most common cases of straight-line motion is that in which the
acceleration is constant.

A body moves with constant acceleration motion or uniformly accelerated rectilinear

motion is when its trajectory is a straight line and its acceleration is constant and
different from 0. This implies that the velocity increases or decreases its magnitude
uniformly.
Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion
The three kinematic equations of uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion are as
follows:
Rectilinear Movement with Non-Uniform Acceleration
When an object travels at an irregular speed and acceleration it is known as
rectilinear movement with non-uniform acceleration.

When bodies are acted upon by variable forces, they move with variable
acceleration.). Since the acceleration may vary in many ways, there is no general
equation as in constant acceleration.

Basically, there are three principal variables s, v and a, related by a common

parameter which is t. Each of these principal variables may be expressed in terms of
time t , or even a combination of the others.
Cases of Rectilinear Movement with Non-uniform acceleration

Case 1: The displacement is given in terms of time; i.e. s = f(t) to find velocity and
acceleration.
Cases of Rectilinear Movement with Non-uniform acceleration

Case 2: The acceleration is expressed in terms of time; a = f(t) to find velocity and
distance.
Cases of Rectilinear Movement with Non-uniform acceleration

Case 3: The velocity is given in terms of time; v= f(t); to find acceleration and
distance. This case is a combination of Case I and Case II. Differentiating the given
velocity-time relation determines the acceleration,

while integrating it determines the displacement,

Cases of Rectilinear Movement with Non-uniform acceleration

Case 4: One of the principal variables is expressed in terms of adjacent variable; i.e.,
a =f(v) or v=f(s).

The procedure here is to use either to relate to the given

variable in terms of the time. Say, a = f(v), apply
Cases of Rectilinear Movement with Non-uniform acceleration

Case 5: The given variables are not adjacent, i.e. a =f(s). In this case, we substitute
the given relation in vdv = ads , separate the variables and integrate to obtain one
variable in terms of its adjacent variable.
Comparison Between Uniform Acceleration and Non-uniform acceleration:
Curvilinear Motion
Curvilinear Motion
Curvilinear motion is defined as motion that occurs when a particle travels
along a curved path. The curved path can be in two dimensions (in a plane),
or in three dimensions.
Curvilinear Motion
In curvilinear motion, the displacement vector will change in both magnitude and
inclination.
Curvilinear Motion
Following are the curvilinear motion examples:
● cyclist racing on curved tracks of velodrome
● earth moving around the sun
● a car taking a turn on a road
● a ball thrown upwards at an angle
● throwing of a javelin
● motion of a snake
● motion of cycle wheels
● motion of an earthworm
● motion of a spring
● Curved jet motion,
● Large sea waves,
● Running race in curved track
Rectangular Components of Curvilinear Motion
The motion of a particle can best be described along a path that can be expressed in
terms of x, y and z coordinates.
Rectangular Components of Curvilinear Motion
Position

Position vector of a particle at time t is defined by a vector between origin O of a

fixed reference frame and the position occupied by particle.

If a particle is at point (x, y, z) on the curved path s as shown in the figure, then its
location is defined mathematically by the position vector:

r = xi + yj + zk
Rectangular Components of Curvilinear Motion
If the particle moves, the x, y, z components of r will be functions of time:

Such that,

Therefore, defined mathematically as,

Rectangular Components of Curvilinear Motion
Velocity

The velocity of the particle is the first derivative of r:

Rectangular Components of Curvilinear Motion
Acceleration

The equation of the particle

is obtained by taking the first
derivative of:
Procedure for Analysis
Coordinate System

1. A rectangular coordinate system can be used to solve problems for which the
motion can conveniently be expressed in terms of its x, y, z components.
Procedure for Analysis
Kinematic Quantities.
1. Since rectilinear motion occurs along each coordinate axis, the motion along each
axis is found using v = ds/dt and a = dv/dt; or in cases where the motion is not
expressed as a function of time, the equation ads = vdv can be used.
2. In two dimensions, the equation of the path y = f(x) can be used to relate the x
and y components of velocity and acceleration by applying the chain rule of calculus.
3. Once the x, y, z components of v and a have been determined, the magnitudes of
these vectors are found from the Pythagorean theorem, and their coordinate
direction angles from the components of their unit vectors.
Tangential and Normal Components of Curvilinear Motion
The velocity vector of particle is tangent to the path of the particle while in general,
the acceleration vector is not.
Tangential and Normal Components of Curvilinear Motion
Tangential and Normal Components of Curvilinear Motion

The normal and tangential components of the acceleration are:

Tangential and Normal Components of Curvilinear Motion

The tangential components of the acceleration reflect the change of speed while
the normal components reflect the change of direction.

The tangential component may either be positive or negative while the normal
component always points towards the center of path curvature.

The relationship for the normal and tangential components also apply for
particle moving along a space curve.
Important Points:
● Curvilinear motion can cause changes in both the magnitude and direction of the
position, velocity, and acceleration vectors.
● The velocity vector is always directed tangent to the path,
● In general, the acceleration vector is not tangent to the path but rather, it is
tangent to the hodograph.
● If the motion is described using rectangular coordinates, then the components
along each
Projectile
Projectile is any object thrown into space upon which the only acting force is
the gravity. In other words, the primary force acting on a projectile is gravity. This
doesn’t necessarily mean that the other forces do not act on it, just that their effect
is minimal compared to gravity.

The path followed by a projectile is known as a trajectory. A baseball batted or

thrown and the instant the bullet exits the barrel of a gun are all examples of
projectile.

A projectile is any object that once projected or dropped continues in motion by

its own inertia and is influenced only by the downward force of gravity.
Projectile Motion
When a particle is thrown obliquely near the earth’s surface, it moves along a
curved path under constant acceleration that is directed towards the center of the
earth (we assume that the particle remains close to the surface of the earth). The
path of such a particle is called a projectile and the motion is called projectile
motion. Air resistance to the motion of the body is to be assumed absent in projectile
motion.
Projectile Motion
In a projectile Motion, there are two simultaneous independent rectilinear motions:

1. Along x-axis: uniform velocity, responsible for the horizontal (forward) motion of
the particle.

2. Along y-axis: uniform acceleration, responsible for the vertical (downwards)

motion of the particle.
Projectile Motion
Below are the steps for a projectile motion analysis:

1. Calculate the components of velocity.

• The horizontal velocity component vx , vx = v cos α

• The vertical velocity component vy, vy = v sin α

Projectile Motion
2. Write down the equations of motion.

Distance

● Horizontal distance traveled can be expressed as

Where: t – time

● Vertical distance from the ground is described by,

Projectile Motion
Acceleration
● Horizontal acceleration is equal to 0.
● Vertical acceleration is equal to -g (because only gravity acts on the
projectile).
Projectile Motion
3. Calculate the time of flight.

● Flight ends when the projectile hits the ground. We can say that it happens
when the vertical distance from the ground is equal to 0.
Projectile Motion
4. Calculate the range of the projectile.

● The range of the projectile is the total horizontal distance traveled during the
flight time. Again, if we're launching the object from the ground (initial height
= 0), then we can write the formula as

● For initial elevation differing from 0 (h ≠ 0). Then, the formula will be:
Projectile Motion
5. Calculate the maximum height.

● When the projectile reaches the maximum height, is stops moving up and starts
falling. It means that its vertical velocity component changes from positive to
negative, in other words, it is equal to 0 for a brief moment at time t

● In the case of launching a projectile from some initial height h, we need to

simply add that value into the final formula:
Projectile Motion Equations
Kinetics of a Particle
Kinetics
Kinetics is a branch of dynamics that deals with the relationship between the change
in motion of a body and the forces that cause this change. The basis for kinetics is
Newton’s second law, which states that when an unbalanced force acts on a particle,
the particle will accelerate in the direction of the force with a magnitude that is
proportional to the force.
Newton’s Second Law of motion
Newton’s second law is a quantitative description of the changes that a force
can produce on the motion of a body. It is one of the most important in all of physics.

For a body whose mass “m” is constant, it can be written in the form F = ma,
where “F” (force) and “a” (acceleration) are both vector quantities. If a body has a
net force acting on it, it is accelerated in accordance with the equation. Conversely, if
a body is not accelerated, there is no net force acting on it.
Newton’s Second Law of motion
This law can be verified experimentally by applying a known unbalanced force
“F” to a particle, and then measuring the acceleration “a”. Since the force and
acceleration are directly proportional, the constant of proportionality, “m”, may be
determined from the ratio m = F/ a.

This positive scalar m is called the mass of the particle. Being constant during
any acceleration, m provides a quantitative measure of the resistance of the particle
to a change in its velocity, that is its inertia.
Newton’s Second Law of motion
According to the book “Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics
Twelfth Edition by Beer, et al., (2019)”, Newton’s second law of motion is best
understood by imagining the following experiment as stated in the previous
paragraph: A particle is subjected to a force F1 of constant direction and constant
magnitude F1.Under the action of that force, the particle moves in a straight line
and in the direction of the force (Fig. 1 a).
Newton’s Second Law of motion
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
By determining the position of the particle at various instants, we find that its
acceleration has a constant magnitude a1. If we repeat the experiment with forces
F2, F3, . . . of a different magnitude or direction (Fig. 1 b and c), we find each time
that the particle moves in the direction of the force acting on it and that the
magnitudes a1, a2, a3, . . . of the accelerations are proportional to the magnitudes
F1, F2, F3, . . . of the corresponding forces.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
The constant value obtained for the ratio of the magnitudes of the forces and
accelerations is a characteristic of the particle under consideration; it is called the
mass of the particle and is denoted by m. When a particle of mass m is acted upon by
a force F, the force F and the acceleration a of the particle must therefore satisfy the
relation.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
This relation provides a complete formulation of Newton’s second law; it states
not only that the magnitudes of F and a are proportional, but also (because m is a
positive scalar) that the vectors F and a have the same direction (Fig. 2). Note that
the equation above still holds when F is not constant but varies with time in
magnitude or direction. The magnitudes of F and a remain proportional, and the two
vectors have the same direction at any given instant. However, they are not, in
general, tangent to the path of the particle. When a particle is subjected
simultaneously to several forces, the equation above should be replaced by:

where ΣF represents the sum or resultant of all the forces acting on the particle.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Dynamic Equilibrium: Equations of Motion
When more than one force acts on a particle, the resultant force is determined by a
vector summation of all the force. In this case, the equation of motion may be written
as
Dynamic Equilibrium: Equations of Motion
We can illustrate the application of this equation by drawing a free-body diagram. A
free- body diagram is a graphical representation showing the relative magnitude and
direction of all forces acting upon an object or a particle in a given situation. Since
the resultant of this forces produces the vector ma, its magnitude and direction can
be represented graphically on the kinetic diagram.
Dynamic Equilibrium: Equations of Motion
If the sum of all the forces is zero, it means that the particle or object is not
accelerating of has zero acceleration, thus, the object or particle is at rest or moving
at a constant velocity. This condition is called Static Equilibrium. If the particle or
object is moving with acceleration, the sum of all the forces produces the vector ma.
This condition is called the Dynamic Equilibrium.
Free-body diagram and Kinetic Diagram
Two of the most important tools you will use in solving dynamics problems,
particularly those involving Newton’s second law, are the free-body diagram (FBD)
and the kinetic diagram (KD). These diagrams will help you to model dynamic
systems and apply appropriate equations of motion.
Free-body diagram and Kinetic Diagram
Free-body diagram and Kinetic Diagram
According to the book “Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics
Twelfth Edition by Beer, et al., (2019)”, free-body diagram is usually done in
Statics and consists of the following steps.

● Body: Define your system by isolating the body (or bodies) of interest. If a
problem has multiple bodies, you may have to draw multiple free-body diagrams
and kinetic diagrams.
● Axes: Draw an appropriate coordinate system (e.g., Cartesian, normal and
tangential, or radial and transverse).
Free-body diagram and Kinetic Diagram
● Support Forces: Replace supports or constraints with appropriate forces (e.g.,
two perpendicular forces for a pin, normal forces, friction forces). Applied
Forces and Body
● Forces: Draw any applied forces and body forces (also sometimes called field
forces) on your diagram (e.g., weight, magnetic forces, a known pulling force).
● Dimensions: Add any angles or distances that are important for solving the
problem.
Free-body diagram and Kinetic Diagram
Kinetic diagram is done in Dynamics and unlike in Statics, the inertial term in
Newton’s second law is not equal to zero. The only difference between FBD and KD
is the inertial term.

● Body: This is the same body as in the free-body diagram; place this beside the
free-body diagram.
● Inertial Terms: Draw the ma term to be consistent with the coordinate system.
Generally, draw this term in different components. If they are unknown
quantities, it is best to draw them in the positive directions as defined by your
coordinates.
Inertial Reference Frame
When applying the equation of motion, it is
important that the acceleration of the
particle be measured with respect to a
reference frame that is either fixed or
translates with a constant velocity. In this
way, the observer will not accelerate, and
measurements of the particle’s acceleration
will be the same from any reference of this
type. Such a frame of reference is commonly
known as a Newtonian or inertial reference
frame.
Equations of Motion in Different Coordinate Systems
We can resolve vectors into components using several different coordinate systems
depending on the type of problem we are solving. We have three common coordinate
systems that are being used to solve these vectors. These are the following:

● Cartesian (Rectangular)
● Tangential and Normal
● Radial and Transverse
Equations of Motion: Rectangular Components
According to the book “Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics, Fourteenth Edition by
R.C. Hibbeler”, when a particle moves relative to an inertial x, y, z frame of
reference, the forces acting on the particle, as well as its acceleration, can be
expressed in terms of their x, y, z components. We may write the following three
scalar equations:
Equations of Motion: Rectangular Components
The equations of motion are used to solve problems which require a relationship
between the forces acting on a particle and the accelerated motion they cause. These
are the procedures on how to solve these problems:
Equations of Motion: Rectangular Components
1. Free-Body Diagram

● Select the inertial coordinate system. Most often, rectangular or x, y, z

coordinates are chosen to analyze problems for which the particle has rectilinear
motion.
● Once the coordinates are established, draw the particle’s free-body diagram.
Drawing this diagram is very important since it provides a graphical
representation that accounts for all the forces (ΣF) which act on the particle,
and thereby makes it possible to resolve these forces into their x, y, z
components.
Equations of Motion: Rectangular Components
● The direction and sense of the particle’s acceleration a should also be
established. If the sense is unknown, for mathematical convenience assume that
the sense of each acceleration component acts in the same direction as its
positive inertial coordinate axis.
● The acceleration may be represented as the ma vector on the kinetic diagram.
● Identify the unknowns in the problem.
Equations of Motion: Rectangular Components
2. Equation of motion

● If the forces can be resolved directly from the free-body diagram, apply the
equations of motion in their scalar component form.
● If the geometry of the problem appears complicated, which often occurs in three
dimensions, Cartesian vector analysis can be used for the solution.
Equations of Motion: Rectangular Components
3. Kinematics
● If the velocity/ position of the particle is to be found, it will be necessary to
apply the necessary kinematic equations once the acceleration is determined
from ΣF = ma.
● In all cases, make sure the positive inertial coordinate directions used for
writing the kinematic equations are the same as those used for writing the
equations of motion; otherwise, simultaneous solution of the equations will
result in errors.
● If the solution for an unknown vector component yields a negative scalar, it
indicates that the component acts in the direction opposite to that which was
assumed.
Equations of Motion: Tangential and Normal Components
According to the book “Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics, Fourteenth Edition by
R.C. Hibbeler”, when a particle moves along a curved path which is known, the
equation of motion for the particle may be written in the tangential, normal, and
binormal directions. Note that there is no motion of the particle in the binormal
direction since the particle is constrained to move along the path.
Equations of Motion: Tangential and Normal Components

Where: at (= dv/dt) represents the

time rate of change in the
magnitude of velocity.

an (= v2 /ρ) represents the time

rate of change in the velocity’s
direction.
Equations of Motion: Tangential and Normal Components

When a problem involves the motion of a particle along a known curved path, normal
and tangential coordinates should be considered for the analysis since the
acceleration components can be readily formulated. The procedures on how to solve
these problems are as follows:
Equations of Motion: Tangential and Normal Components

1. Free-Body Diagram

● Establish the inertial t, n, b coordinate system at the particle and draw the
particle’s free- body diagram.
● The particle’s normal acceleration an always acts in the positive n direction.
● If the tangential acceleration at is unknown, assume it acts in the positive t
direction
● There is no acceleration in the b direction.
● Identify the unknowns in the problem
Equations of Motion: Tangential and Normal Components

2. Equation of motion

• Apply the equations of motion

Equations of Motion: Tangential and Normal Components

3. Kinematics

● Formulate the tangential and normal components of acceleration.

Equations of Motion: Radial and Transverse Components
According to the book “Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics, Fourteenth Edition by
R.C. Hibbeler”, when all the forces acting on a particle are resolved into cylindrical
components, the equation of motion may be written in the radial and transverse
components.
Equations of Motion: Radial and Transverse Components
Equations of Motion: Radial and Transverse Components

Cylindrical or polar coordinates are a suitable choice for the analysis of a problem for
which data regarding the angular motion of the radial line r are given, or in cases
where the path can be conveniently expressed in terms of these coordinates. Once
these coordinates have been established, the equations of motion can then be applied
in order to relate the forces acting on the particle to its acceleration components.
The following is a summary of this procedure.
Equations of Motion: Radial and Transverse Components

1. Free-Body Diagram

● Establish the r, θ, z inertial coordinate system and draw the particle’s free-body
diagram.
● Assume that ar, au, az act in the positive directions of r, θ, z if they are
unknown.
● Identify the unknowns in the problem
Equations of Motion: Radial and Transverse Components

2. Equation of motion

• Apply the equations of motion

Equations of Motion: Radial and Transverse Components

3. Kinematics

Formulate the radial and transverse components of acceleration.

If any of the acceleration components is computed as a negative quantity, it indicates

that it acts in its negative coordinate direction
Kinetics of a Particle
Subtopic: Principles of Work and Energy
Work and Energy
In science and engineering, work and energy have very specific definitions that
involve forces, displacements, masses, and velocities. These two concepts are of
great value in analyzing a wide range of engineering problems.
The difference between work and energy are tabulated below.
Work of a Force
The work done on a system by a constant force is the product of the component of
the force in the direction of motion times the distance through which the force acts.
This is expressed in equation form as

where W is work, F is the magnitude of the force on the system, d is the magnitude
of the displacement of the system, and θ is the angle between the force vector F and
the displacement vector d.
Work is expressed in units acquired by multiplying units of length by units of force.
If we use English units, work is expressed in ft·lb or in·lb. If we use SI units, work is
expressed in N·m. The unit of work N·m is called a joule (J).
Work of a Variable Force
If the particle acted upon by the force F undergoes a finite displacement along its
path from r1 to r2 or s1 to s2 , the work of force F is determined by integration.
Work of a Variable Force
This relation may be obtained by using experimental data to plot a graph of F cos θ
vs. s. Then the area under this graph bounded by s1 and s2 represents the total
work.
Work of a Constant Force Moving Along a Straight Line
If the force Fc has a constant magnitude and acts at a constant angle θ from its
straight-line path, then the component of Fc in the direction of displacement is
always Fc cos θ. The work done by Fc when the particle is displaced from s1 to s2 is
determined by integration.
Work of a Constant Force Moving Along a Straight Line
Work of a Weight
Consider a particle of weight W, which moves up along the path s shown in the
figure below from position s1 to position s2. At an intermediate point, the
displacement dr = dxi + dyj + dzk. Since W = -Wj we have this equation:
Work of a Weight
Work of a Weight
The work is independent of the path and is equal to the magnitude of the particle’s
weight times its vertical displacement. The W is negative since its direction opposes
the reference plane x-z, but the Δy is positive since it is above reference plane x-z. If
the particle is displaced downward (-Δy), the Work of the weight will be positive.
Work of a Spring Force
If an elastic spring is elongated a distance ds, then the work done by the force that
acts on the attached particle is dU = -Fsds = -ks ds. The work is negative since Fs
acts in the opposite sense to ds. If the particle displaces from s1 to s2, the work of
Fs is then,
Work of a Spring Force
Principle of Work and Energy
The work-energy principle states that an increase in the kinetic energy of a rigid
body is caused by an equal amount of positive work done on the body by the
resultant force acting on that body. Conversely, a decrease in kinetic energy is
caused by an equal amount of negative work done by the resultant force. Consider
the particle which is located on the path defined relative to an inertial coordinate
system. If the particle has a mass m and is subjected to a system of external forces
represented by the resultant FR = ΣF, then the equation of motion for the particle
in the tangential direction is ΣFt = mat.
Procedure for Analysis
Work (Free-Body Diagram)

• Establish the inertial coordinate system and draw a free-body diagram of the
particle in order to account for all the forces that do work on the particle as it moves
along its path.
Procedure for Analysis
Principle of Work and Energy.
• Apply the principle of work and energy,
• The kinetic energy at the initial and final points is always positive, since it involves
the speed squared.
• A force does work when it moves through a displacement in the direction of the
force.
• Work is positive when the force component is in the same sense of direction as its
displacement, otherwise it is negative.
Procedure for Analysis
• Forces that are functions of displacement must be integrated to obtain the work.
Graphically, the work is equal to the area under the force-displacement curve.

• The work of a weight is the product of the weight magnitude and the vertical
displacement. It is positive when the weight moves downwards.

• The work of a spring is of the form , where k is the spring stiffness and
s is the stretch or compression of the spring.
Power and Efficiency
Power

The term “power” provides a useful basis for choosing the type of motor or machine
which is required to do a certain amount of work in a given time. For example, two
pumps may each be able to empty a reservoir if given enough time; however, the
pump having the larger power will complete the job sooner. This is given by the
formula,
Power and Efficiency
Power is a scalar, where in this formulation v represents the velocity of the particle
which is acted upon by the force F. The basic units of power used in the SI and
English systems are the watt (W) and horsepower (hp), respectively.
Power and Efficiency
For conversion between the two systems of units, 1 hp = 746 W.
Power and Efficiency
Efficiency

The mechanical efficiency of a machine is defined as the ratio of the output of useful
power produced by the machine to the input of power supplied to the machine.
Power and Efficiency
If energy supplied to the machine occurs during the same time interval at which it is
drawn, then the efficiency may also be expressed in terms of the ratio.

Power output will be always be less than power input and so the efficiency of a
machine is always less than 1. This is due to frictional losses developed in the
machine.
Procedure for Analysis
• First determine the external force F acting on the body which causes the motion.
This force is usually developed by a machine or engine placed either within or
external to the body.

• If the body is accelerating, it may be necessary to draw its free body diagram and
apply the equation of motion (ΣF = ma) to determine F.
Procedure for Analysis
• Once F and the velocity v of the particle where F is applied have been found, the
power is determined by multiplying the force magnitude with the component of
velocity acting in the direction of F, (i.e., P = Fv = Fv cos θ).

• In some problems the power may be found by calculating the work done by F per
unit of time
Conservative Forces and Potential Energy
Conservative Force
If the work of a force is independent of the path and depends only on the force’s
initial and final positions on the path, then we can classify this force as a
conservative force.
Examples of conservative forces are
• weight of a particle
• force developed by a spring
Conservative Forces and Potential Energy
Energy
Energy is defined as the capacity for doing work. It is a conserved quantity; the law of
conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or
destroyed. The SI unit of energy is the joule, which is the energy transferred to an object
by the work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 Newton.
Examples of Energy
• Kinetic Energy
• Potential Energy
Conservative Forces and Potential Energy
Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is a measure of the particle’s capacity to do work, which is associated

with the motion of the particle. It is equal to the work that must be done on the
particle to bring it from a state of rest to a speed v.
Conservative Forces and Potential Energy
Potential Energy

Potential energy is a measure of the amount of work a conservative force will do

when it moves from a given position to the datum.
Conservative Forces and Potential Energy
Gravitational Potential Energy
Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an object as the result of its
vertical position or height. The energy is stored as the result of the gravitational
attraction of the Earth for the object. It is given by the formula

Where W is weight and y is the displacement. The sign of y depends on the datum
line. If y is above the datum line, y is positive. If it is below the datum line, y is
negative.
Conservative Forces and Potential Energy
Elastic Potential Energy

Elastic potential energy is Potential energy stored as a result of deformation of an

elastic object, such as the stretching of a spring. It is equal to the work done to
stretch the spring, which depends upon the spring constant k as well as the distance
stretched. According to Hooke's law, the force required to stretch the spring will be
directly proportional to the amount of stretch.
Conservation of Energy
When a particle is acted upon by a system of both conservative and nonconservative
forces, the portion of the work done by the conservative forces can be written in
terms of the difference in their potential energies. As a result, the principle of work
and energy can be written as
Procedure for Analysis
The conservation of energy equation can be used to solve problems involving
velocity, displacement, and conservative force systems. It is generally easier to apply
than the principle of work and energy because this equation requires specifying the
particle’s kinetic and potential energies at only two points along the path, rather
than determining the work when the particle moves through a displacement. For
application it is suggested that the following procedure be used.
Procedure for Analysis
Potential Energy.

• Draw two diagrams showing the particle located at its initial and final points along
the path.

• If the particle is subjected to a vertical displacement, establish the fixed horizontal

datum from which to measure the particle’s gravitational potential energy Vg.
Procedure for Analysis
• Data pertaining to the elevation y of the particle from the datum and the stretch or
compression s of any connecting springs can be determined from the geometry
associated with the two diagrams.

• Recall Vg = Wy, where y is positive upward from the datum and negative
downward from the datum; also, for a spring, which is always positive.
Procedure for Analysis
Conservation of Energy

• Apply the equation

• When determining the kinetic energy, remember that the particle’s

speed v must be measured from an inertial reference frame.
Thank you and God bless!
Assignment
1. Analyze the problem solving which can be found in the module.
Credits to the rightful owners/sources of this
presentation especially the formulas and images
used.