Faculty of Engineering & Information Technology

Department of Engineering
(Renewable Energy Engineering)

Grid Integration of Renewable Energy

Variable Renewable Energy
Solar Power
Dr. Mohammed Mahdi
Introduction
Variable Renewable Energy
Variable Generation
• The term variable generation generally refers to generating
technologies whose power output varies over time and cannot
reasonably be controlled to address such variation.
• These variable generation sources, which include wind, solar,
ocean and some hydro, are all renewable-based.
• There are two major attributes of this variable renewable energy
(VRE) that distinguish it from conventional forms of generation
and may affect planning and operations for bulk power systems:
the variability and a higher degree of uncertainty.
• In this lecture we will focus on “utility-scale” – i.e., generally over 5
megawatts (MW) – implementations of solar photovoltaic (PV)
and wind energy power plants in the bulk power system.
VRE Sources, PV & WP
• The increasing size of global renewable markets and the diversity of
suppliers have resulted in more-competitive markets for renewable
technologies.
• The penetration of VRE usually brings with its environmental benefits
involving the reduction of CO2 emissions from the electric sector.
• Solar photovoltaic (PV) technology has an installed capacity greater
than 386 gigawatts (GW) worldwide in 2017, and a record annual
addition of about 94 GW in 2017 (substantially higher than the average
40 GW additions in previous years).
• PV technology has become an increasingly important energy supply
option as a substantial decline in the total cost of solar PV power plants
has improved its competitiveness with other power generation options.
VRE Sources, PV & WP, cont.
• The total cost takes into consideration a combination of
equipment cost, installed project cost, fixed and variable operating
and maintenance costs.
• Wind energy has also been growing at a fairly steady pace of about
50 GW each year, reaching a total installed capacity of 514 GW in
2017 (IRENA 2018).
• The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) (New
Energy Update 2017) and the Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC)
(GWEC 2017) have each projected that annual worldwide
installations will continue to grow at about 90GW/year for solar
and more than 60 GW/year over the next five years.
VRE Sources, PV & WP, cont.
• Conceptually, modern VRE generation sources differ significantly from
traditional energy sources in terms of behavior during network faults,
impacts on power quality, and response to frequency changes.
• Consequently, grid codes have recently established new rules for VRE
technical connections that often must be implemented not only by
individual generators, but through a system approach.
• For immature grid codes or codes under development, the VRE
connection still requires a technical analysis, an evaluation of
connection viability, and possibly implementation of supporting means
to address the fluctuating nature of the generated power from the
standpoint of system reliability, performance, and power quality.
VRE Power
Plants
Solar Power
Solar Power
• Solar generation consists of two broad technologies: solar thermal and
solar PV. The focus of this lecture is on the PV system for utility-scale
power plants as it is the prevailing technology for many modern power
plant implementations.
• The International Electrotechnical Commission’s (IEC) 61836 standard
defines solar PV as an
• “assembly of components that produce and supply electricity by the
conversion of solar energy. Solar PV converts the electromagnetic
radiation in sunlight directly into direct current (DC). PV can use both
diffuse solar radiation and direct normal irradiance (DNI). The power
produced depends on the material involved and the intensity of the
solar radiation incident on the cell. In order to interconnect with the AC
power system, a PV system must use a power electronic inverter to
convert its DC output at the terminals of the PV panel into AC.”
Photovoltaic Generation Technology
• The distinguishing feature of PV generation technology is solar
modules that convert electromagnetic radiation received directly
from the sun into useful electricity.
• In addition to solar modules, PV systems contain a large amount of
supporting equipment, which serves to balance the system and to
make it sustainably operational.
• The extra components includes wiring, controllers, energy storage
devices, trackers, mounting hardware, inverters, and grid
connections.
• These components may vary depending on the scale and
application.
Photovoltaic Generation Technology, cont.
• PV systems are typically modular in design, so that additional
sections can be added to the plant or removed for repairs without
significantly disrupting its infrastructure.
• The main components of a PV power plant are a transformer, a
DC/AC inverter, a charge regulator, and PV modules.
Photovoltaic Generation Technology, cont.
• Although PV plants do not traditionally have an energy storage
system as part of their basic design, some utilities have begun
incorporating battery energy storage into PV plant design to
support the generation output.
• In these cases, the consideration of energy storage is integrated
into the relevant power purchase agreement.
Charge Regulator
• The charge controller, or regulator, manages the flow of electricity
between the solar module arrays, energy storage, and loads.
• The appropriate charge-control algorithm and charging currents
need to be matched to the batteries (or other energy storage
devices) used in the system.
• The charge controller protects batteries from damage.
• Typically, the regulator operates in switch-on/off mode, and the
hysteresis cycle protects the battery from overcharging and
excessive discharging.
• Charge controllers also help with voltage conversion and
maximum-power tracking.
Batteries
• Batteries are used in PV systems to supply power at night and
during periods of low irradiance.
• Additionally, batteries are required in solar PV systems because of
the fluctuating nature of the PV output.
• Battery size/capacity is selected according to the plant size, the
battery’s capability to sufficiently absorb high resource
fluctuations, and the need to reduce curtailment losses.
• The need to reduce curtailment losses refers to a situation where
the power output from the renewable power generation project
exceeds the regulated level, and the plant is required to
temporarily shut down to avoid financial penalties.
Batteries, cont.
• Batteries are usually connected in parallel to match higher
capacity.
• There are several types of batteries commercially available for
solar applications, including lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, nickel
hydride, and lithium.
• The main design criteria for batteries used as energy storage for
solar systems are that they must be able to go through deep
charging and discharging cycles without too much degradation or
guarantee a certain lifetime required.
• Batteries are classified by nominal capacity, which is the maximum
amount of energy – in ampere-hours, from which the megawatt-
hours (MWh) can be derived – the battery can sustainably produce
under standard conditions.
Photovoltaic Inverter
• At the heart of every PV plant is the PV inverter, which converts
the DC power coming from the solar modules into AC power.
• The inverter is a key component in both grid-connected and
distributed-power applications and usually represents a
significant part of the system cost.
• Inverters can convert DC power from either batteries or solar
modules into 60 or 50 Hz AC power.
• As with all power system components, the use of inverters results
in certain energy losses due to conversion; the typical efficiency of
an inverter well matched to the array is around 90 percent.
• The inverter enclosures are grounded for safety reasons according
to grid code requirements.
Photovoltaic Inverter, cont.
• Currently various types of PV inverter are available on the market,
and the devices are classified based on three important
characteristics: power output, module wiring, and circuit topology.
• 1) The available power output starts at two kilowatts (kW) and
extends into the megawatt range. Typical outputs are 5 kW for
private home rooftop plants, 10–20 kW for commercial plants (e.g.
factories or barn roofs) and 500–800 kW for use in PV power
stations or farm sites.
• 2) For module wiring (or “erection topology”), distinctions are
made between string, multistring and central inverters, whereby
the term "string" refers to a string of modules connected in series.
Multistring inverters have two or more string inputs, each with its
own maximum power point tracker (MPPT).
Photovoltaic Inverter, cont.
• 3) With regard to circuit topology, distinctions are made between
one- and three-phase inverters, and between devices with and
without transformers. Single-phase inverters are usually used in
small plants up to 5–10 kW. Large utility-scale PV plants use either
three-phase inverters or a network comprising several single-
phase inverters. The three-phase inverter, which distributes the
solar power evenly across all three phases, consists of a DC bus
and three pairs of electronic power switches.
Photovoltaic Inverter, cont.
• The inverters have the following important features:
• 1) Low-loss conversion, the essential characteristic of an inverter,
determines conversion efficiency, which is usually around 98 percent.
• 2) Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is essential characteristic
for defining the energy output of a PV plant. The power characteristic
curve of a PV module strongly depends on the radiation intensity and
temperature at which the module operates. The optimal operating point
is called the "maximum power point" (MPP), and the search for, and
tracking of, such MPP is correspondingly called “MPP tracking”. Central
inverters only have one MPP tracker despite a relatively higher power
output. They are especially well-suited for large-scale plants with a
central inverter approach.
• 3) Grid code compliancy include low-voltage ride-through (LVRT),
reactive power control, and frequency and voltage control, all in
compliance with the most advanced standards.
Photovoltaic Inverter, cont.
• The inverter usually employs power-electronics technology based
on insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBT), with pulse-width
modulation (PWM) for the modulation technique.
• The technology has protection logic for short-circuit, over-
temperature, DC overvoltage and AC over-/undervoltage, and AC
over/under-frequency conditions.
• For large-scale applications, three-phase inverters are normally
used.
Photovoltaic Inverter, cont.
• The main electrical characteristics of the AC side of the inverter:
1. Nominal voltage
2. Operating frequency 50 or 60 Hz
3. AC output voltage
4. Power factor >0.9
5. Maximum current imbalance ≤2 percent
6. Total harmonic distortion (THD) ≤3 percent
The "European efficiency" is an
7. European efficiency 98 percent averaged operating efficiency
8. Maximum efficiency 98 percent during a year of power
9. Static MPPT efficiency 99.8 percent distribution corresponding to a
middle-Europe climate.
10. Dynamic MPPT efficiency 99 percent
11. Output waveform: sinusoidal
Photovoltaic Inverter, cont.
• The inverters must be protected against overloads and short
circuits through devices installed on board the unit that can be
easily handled by the operator.
• The contribution to the short-circuit current must be limited to a
value of 𝐼𝑠𝑐 < 4𝐼𝑛 , where 𝐼𝑛 is nominal current.
• On the AC side, the inverter must be equipped with a sectioning
circuit breaker (in accordance with IEC standard 60947-2) and a
disconnecting switch.
• On the DC side, the inverter must be equipped with a circuit
breaker for interrupting direct currents, with a sectioning
function, as stipulated in IEC 60947.
Photovoltaic Inverter, cont.
• Grid-tied inverters are used to “tie,” or connect, the PV system to
the utility grid.
• They convert DC power to AC power in synchronization with the
grid.
• For example, if grid fails for any reason, the inverter will shut
down as well.
• The main considerations related to PV-grid interconnection are
safety, power quality, and “anti-islanding.”
Photovoltaic Inverter, cont.
• Islanding occurs when the power grid shuts down and the inverter
(one without an anti-islanding feature) attempts to power the grid
using energy from the PV panels, which will continue to power the
line as long as solar radiation is present.
• This can result in equipment damage and safety risks to technical
personnel.
• To prevent this “island” mode of operation – i.e., a powered line in
an unpowered grid – most of the modern AC grid-tied inverters
have an “anti-islanding” feature, which can reduce power to zero
less than 0.2 seconds after the grid shuts down.
Photovoltaic Inverter, cont.
• Inverters are usually designed to comply with the requirements of each
country’s grid code. At a minimum, the following features are generally
required:
1. Tolerance of frequency and voltage deviations
2. Controlling of the active power production
3. Controlling of the reactive power production
4. Controlling of the power factor
5. Controlling of the voltage at the point of interconnection (POI)
6. Reactive power support during under- and over-voltage at the POI
7. A P-Q capability curve for leading and lagging power factor at POI to
regulate voltage in the operational range required by the grid
operator generally between 0.9-1.1 p.u.
Sample P-Q capability curves
from different transmission
operators in Europe
Power Quality
• The power quality and especially system harmonics of PV plants
must be also strictly regulated.
• Filters and systems for reducing harmonic currents are often
installed on both the AC and DC sides in order to
a) drastically reduce ripple voltage and
b) protecting grid components from the harmonic current flowing
through them.
Operation & Maintenance
• The operation and maintenance (O&M) phase of a PV plant covers
its operation for the expected lifetime of about 25 to 30 years.
• Usually, PV plants do not require elaborate maintenance, but a
damaged component must be quickly repaired or replaced.
• Preventive and corrective maintenance, such as cleaning the
panels, is required, and it represents a large share of the total O&M
of a utility-scale PV plant.
Essential Considerations
for Technical Specification
of PV Plants
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification
• Large PV plants have the potential to provide fast ramping
resources in a power system on demand.
• Under certain weather conditions, PV installations can change
output by +/- 70 percent in a time frame of two to ten minutes,
many times per day.
• Therefore, these plants should consider incorporating the ability
to manage ramp rates and/or curtail power output.
• The technical specifications for the construction and
commissioning of solar power plants address many aspects of the
contractor’s work, including both civil and electrical works as well
as equipment supply and installation.
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, cont.
• The following items are usually covered in the specification of a
utility-scale PV plant:
1. Contractor Responsibilities c) Structural Engineering
a) Performance Characterization d) Civil Engineering
b) Permitting e) Roads and Construction Access
c) Construction and Installation f) Earthwork
2. Site and Plant Description g) Plant Design and State
3. Design and Engineering Requirements
a) Engineering Design Package h) Communication System
b) Site Layout, Maps, Line i) Security
Drawings
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, cont.
• The following items are usually covered in the specification of a
utility-scale PV plant:
4. Equipment i) Single Axis Tracking Structure
a) Equipment Supply j) Direct Current Fused Combiner Boxes
b) Signage and Labelling k) Meteorological Stations
c) Grounding and Bonding l) Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
d) Surge and Lightning Protection m)Revenue Meter
e) Photovoltaic Modules n) Security Cameras and Related Equipment
f) Step-Up Transformers o) Wire, Cable, and Connectors
g) Inverters p) Plant Switchgear
h) Fixed Tilt Racking Structure q) Emergency Direct Current Battery System
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, cont.
• The following items are usually covered in the specification of a
utility-scale PV plant:
5. Warranties 6. Applicable Codes and Standards
a) General Contractor Warranty
7. Interconnection requirements (Grid
b) Solar Module Warranty Code Compliance)
c) Racking and Tracking System
Warranty 8. Operations and Maintenance,
Manuals and Training
d) Inverter Warranty
1. a) Documentation
e) Transformer Warranty
2. b) Training
f) SCADA Monitoring System and
Security Equipment Warranty 3. c) Maintenance Procedures
g) Performance Warranty 4. d) Operation Procedures
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, cont.
• The following items are usually covered in the specification of a
utility-scale PV plant:
9. Mechanical and Electrical 11. Procedure for Plant
Completion Acceptance
10. Synchronization Procedures a) Quality Assurance/Quality
and Requirements Control
b) Commissioning and Startup
c) Interim Operating Period
d) Capacity Test Procedure
e) Substantial Completion
f) Final Completion
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, cont.
• Out of this fairly comprehensive list, we will here elaborate on two
key components of a solar plant that differentiate it from others:
the photovoltaic modules and the inverter.
• However, it is recognized that there are other key components that
must be specified in the bidding document.
• A list of important standards for the design, testing, and
implementation of solar power plants is presented in PDF text
document “Applicable Standards for the interconnection of the VRE
sources” to be sent to you later.
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, Photovoltaic Modules
• It is usually required in the specification that the PV modules meet
specific standards that regulate the quality of the supply and
functionality requirements.
• For example, it must be listed to UL standard 1703 for the voltage
specified, as well as adhering to the requirements outlined in the
following IEC standards:
1. IEC 61215 (“Crystalline silicon PV modules”) or IEC 61646
(“Thin-film terrestrial photovoltaic modules”)
2. IEC 61730, “Photovoltaic module safety qualification”
3. IEC 61701, “Salt mist corrosion testing of photovoltaic modules,”
Severity 6
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, Photovoltaic Modules
• The specification usually requires the demonstration of a 25-year
rated lifetime via long-term outdoor testing and/or accelerated-
lifetime laboratory testing.
• Also, the supplier should be able to demonstrate manufacturing
quality via electroluminescence (EL) testing of every module for
defects.
• The technical specification also usually requires a demonstration
of the quality of supply and batch consistency; in this case, the
vendor typically provides documentation that the batch of
modules proposed for the project meets performance
requirements.
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, Photovoltaic Modules
• Several modules (e.g., 5–10, depending on
the size of the plant scale) are tested to
ensure performance and reliability under
accelerated lifetime tests.
• Documentation may include flash test
results and EL images before and after
the tests, as shown next slide.
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, Photovoltaic Modules
Module Manufacturing and Batch Quality Assurance Testing
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, Photovoltaic Modules
• Solar flash tests (also known as “sun simulator tests”) measure the
output performance of a solar PV module and are a standard
testing procedure at manufacturers to ensure the conforming
operability of each PV module.
• During a flash test the PV module is exposed to a short (1–30 ms),
bright (100 MW per cm2) flash of light, usually from a xenon-filled
arc lamp.
• EL imaging provides quality assessment and defect detection (e.g.,
micro-cracks, broken contact fingers) in solar cells and modules
using high-resolution EL techniques.
• The module sampling, EL imaging, flash testing, and summary
report must be properly documented and submitted to the project
implementation team for review.
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, Inverter
• The inverter units must be calibrated so that the AC output, after
inverter clipping and losses occurring between the inverter and
the meter, does not exceed the plant’s AC capacity at the meter.
• The contractor usually supplies and installs inverters, transformer
pads, and wiring/cabling to this equipment in accordance with the
country code standard.
• The inverters are tied to an existing medium-voltage distribution
system, connecting the system to the new generation facilities via
medium-voltage transformers.
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, Inverter
• Inverters must comply with IEEE 1547-2003, including testing to
IEEE 1547.1 and IEEE C62.45 standards.
• Regulatory standards compliance also includes IEEE C62.41.2 and
CSA107.1-01.1.
• Inverters must have voltage and frequency ride-through
functionalities, as well as be capable of actively regulating voltage
levels by providing adjustable active and reactive power.
• The inverters/plant controllers must have the capability of
reducing their active power during certain predetermined
conditions, which are usually specified in the interconnection
agreement between the plant owner and electrical utility or
market operator.
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, Inverter
• Inverters must also be in compliance with UL 1741, the “Standard
for Inverters, Converters, Controllers and Interconnection System
Equipment for Use with Distributed Energy Resources.”
• It is important to stipulate at least the following requirements for
inverters. They must:
1. Carry a minimum 5-year standard warranty with options for at
least a 20-year extended warranty;
2. Be designed for a 30-year lifetime, assuming regular
maintenance (including replacement of inverter components);
3. Have a maximum harmonic distortion less than 3 percent of total
harmonic distortion at rated power output;
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, Inverter
4. Have an efficiency greater than 97.5 percent without a medium-
voltage step-up transformer.
5. Be capable of providing rated output at temperatures of 50oC or
higher; and
6. Incorporate a no-load, two-pole, lockable disconnect switch or
fusible disconnect for main DC power disconnect, for
maintenance of personnel safety (DC load-break switches should
be installed at the combiner boxes and at the inverters, located
as close to the array as possible); and
7. Be equipped with lightning protection.
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, Inverter
• Inverters located outdoors must be enclosed in lockable
enclosures and have coatings in accordance with Corrosion
Protection codes.
• Any sensitive electronic equipment associated with, or part of, the
inverter must be installed in a NEMA 4 rated enclosure.
• The inverter output must be protected by a circuit breaker with
short- and long-time adjustable over-current protection.
• This circuit breaker must be externally operated or an external
on/off (start/stop) switch must be provided.
• The inverter must include a fused and disconnectable control
power transformer (CPT).
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, Inverter
• Inverters must employ an MPPT scheme to optimize inverter
efficiency over the entire range of PV panel output for the given
site design conditions.
• Usually, inverters are also equipped with the hardware required
for data collection and communication to the central SCADA server
and for direct external communication and controls, if
communications to the transmission provider’s SCADA system is
required by the interconnection agreement (IA) annexed to the
power purchase agreement (PPA).
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, Inverter
• For some procurements, it may be admissible to explicitly
stipulate that the inverter
a) has been supplied by a reputable or shortlisted equipment
manufacturer regarded as either an original equipment
manufacturer or a Tier 1 Supplier (i.e., a direct supplier to the
original equipment manufacturer) and
b) has been certified to ISO 9001 and ISO 14001 standards.
PV Power Plant Testing
PV Power Plant Testing
• The testing of PV systems encompasses many electrical,
mechanical, safety, and other test procedures which are based on
verifying that both the individual components and the overall
solar power plant are in compliance with known international
standards.
• The comprehensive coverage of all PV plant components is beyond
the scope of this course and is better addressed through an
analysis of the applicable standards.
PV Power Plant Testing, cont.
• The following topics have been selected because they constitute an
important part of the design quality validation, performance
testing, and safety of PV power plant implementation:
1. PV modules design qualifications
2. PV plant commissioning
3. Capacity testing
4. PV system AC performance
• Each of these topics will now be discussed in turn; all four should
be included in the checklist of PV power plant contract
implementation.
PV Module Design Qualifications
• Solar panel warranties typically last about 25 years.
• PV modules need to be tested, however, to ensure they meet their
warranted performance level.
• Design qualification testing using tests such as those given in IEC
61215 and IEC 61730 has been key for achieving high reliability of
PV units.
• Additional standards – IEC 61646 and IEC 62108, along with new
emerging standards – are also gaining momentum based on field
observations and scientific investigations of observed equipment
failures.
PV Module Design Qualifications, cont.
• However, important new test proposals are current being developed
that, although they have not yet become fully accepted standards, are
nonetheless recommended as optional tests as they increase confidence
in the durability and reliability of PV modules:
1. New or revised accelerated tests for components and modules,
including tests applying system-voltage bias, ultra-violet light, and
mechanical stress.
2. Revised sampling procedures, including the requirement of random
sampling from the production line. Although testing of engineering
samples or modules that have been carefully selected from a
manufacturing line gives an indication of the durability of a PV
module design at its best, substantially greater confidence is obtained
when the samples are selected randomly from the production line.
PV Module Design Qualifications, cont.
3. Required audit of the quality management system – for example,
previous failure information incorporated into the requirements
of the quality management system, product and manufacturing
traceability, and incoming inspections of materials and
subassemblies.
PV Module Design Qualifications, cont.
• It is interesting to note that novel, automated PV testing
procedures are emerging in the industry.
• On-field testing equipment has been developed with a portable
SCADA tool based on DC and AC current and voltage sensors.
• Independent solar Global Horizontal Irradiation (GHI) delivers a
data flow of PV array output that allows for the evaluation of
overall PV system efficiency.
• The portable SCADA tool can collect testing data for many days
and transfer the data automatically at a long distance.
PV Module Design Qualifications, cont.
• Another promising method is the use of an autonomous video scan
of PV modules from the air, done using unmanned aerial vehicles
(commonly known as drones), which can be potentially very
advantageous for large PV plants.
• The goal of such scanning could be to identify hotspots (i.e.,
indicating panels that, for some reason, are not working properly,
or are completely turned off), or to provide the data to assess the
effects of dirt on solar panel performance, or any other parameters
that can be effectively assessed from the air.
PV Plant Commissioning
• The final, approved site acceptance test (SAT) and commissioning
procedures for PV plants usually include the following:
1. Safety plan during startup and commissioning
2. Review of all QA/QC testing on the DC and AC sides of inverters
3. Detailed procedure for plant startup, including switching sequencing
4. Testing and energizing the inverters in conformance with
manufacturer’s recommended procedures, noting operating voltages,
and confirming the inverter is performing as expected
5. Under full sun conditions, and after at least 15 minutes of operation,
taking and recording plant operating data―such as but not limited to
megawatts direct current (MWDC ), megawatts alternating current
(MWAC ), VDC , VAC , IDC , IAC , and solar radiation
PV Plant Commissioning, cont.
6. Testing the system control and monitoring system to verify that
it is performing correctly
7. Testing the communication system for offsite monitoring
8. Testing the Plant metering and protective relaying to verify they
meet utility requirements
9. Detailed procedure for interface and initialization with the grid
10. Documentation of successful startup and commissioning
procedure
• Upon successful completion of energizing and startup, the plant is
considered operable. The process then moves to the Interim
Operating Period, where the contractor makes the plant ready for
capacity testing.
Capacity Testing
• The capacity test determines a PV power plant’s generation capacity or
effective power rating.
• This test is often conducted prior to the plant’s commercial operation
date, typically during system commissioning, and compares the
facility’s expected capacity with its measured capacity.
• The capacity test is a critical step in the process of verifying that a PV
system is properly designed and installed.
• Different approaches to capacity tests are outlined in standards
published by ASTM International— including ASTM E2848, “Standard
Test Method for Reporting Photovoltaic Non-Concentrator System
Performance,” and ASTM E2939, “Standard Practice for Determining
Reporting Conditions and Expected Capacity for Photovoltaic Non-
Concentrator Systems”—as well as industry technical reports.
Capacity Testing, cont.
• The capacity test is usually incorporated into project
commissioning activities, and it can be performed over a period of
days or weeks.
• The power generation of a PV system is documented by a capacity
test that quantifies the power output of the system at set
conditions, such as an irradiance of 1,000 W/m2, an ambient
temperature of 20°C, and a wind speed of 1 m/s.
• The capacity test represents only a short-term evaluation of power
output, and a long-term test must be used to verify system
performance under a range of conditions.
AC Performance Testing
• The IEC 62446 functionality tests and jurisdictional authorities
define requirements for system safety and installation
completeness and functionality.
• However, they do not verify whether the system’s power
generation output meets requirements and design specification.
• The IEC standard does not call for an evaluation of power or long-
term energy production over the range of weather conditions
assumed in the original prediction.
• The AC performance evaluation is important because the
Predicted Energy production output is used in the financial model
to predict the long-term financial viability of the project through
metrics such as return on investment (ROI) and levelized cost of
electricity (LCOE).
AC Performance Testing, cont.
• The system AC performance test includes both an initial evaluation and
an evaluation of the first twelve months of operation.
• The initial evaluation of power and energy is designed to ensure that
the system is functioning properly.
• The extended evaluation compares the first full year of system actual
Measured Energy production to the Expected Energy production based
on actual weather conditions during the same year.
• Unlike a short-term performance ratio test or capacity test, which
establishes the power rating of a PV system under very specific
environmental conditions, a long-term energy test verifies PV system
performance over the entire range of environmental conditions at a
given site over a calendar year.
• An energy test can provide greater confidence that a PV system is
installed and operating properly.
AC Performance Testing, cont.
• The following two metrics are commonly used to evaluate PV
power plant performance:
• 1) Performance ratio (PR), defined as the relationship between the
actual and theoretical energy outputs of the PV plant. Commonly
conducted during commissioning, the PR is a short-term test of the
plant’s efficiency in converting sunlight incident on the PV array
into AC energy delivered to the utility grid. International standard
IEC 61724, “Photovoltaic System Performance Monitoring—
Guidelines for Measurement, Data Exchange and Analysis,”
published by the International Electrotechnical Commission,
defines this performance metric.
AC Performance Testing, cont.
• 2) Energy yield (EY), which is annual production of electricity delivered
at AC connection. An energy test is a long-term test designed to ensure
that a PV system is functioning correctly across the full range of site
conditions. A well-monitored energy test can provide good insight into
overall PV system operations. When the performance guarantee
requires an assessment of system performance under a range of
conditions, a long-term energy test is appropriate. A one-year test
period is useful for assessing all seasonal performance characteristics
since it samples weather, shading and energy production associated
with all seasons. While shorter test periods may integrate better with
project schedules, they can result in higher uncertainty due to seasonal
bias. This is especially true if the accuracy of the energy estimation
model is inconsistent over the course of a year, such as when shading is
incorrectly quantified.
AC Performance Testing, cont.
• Extended metrics for PV power plant performance may include
two indexes:
• 1) The Power Performance Index (PPI), calculated as the actual
Measured Power divided by the Expected Power; and
• 2) The Energy Performance Index (EPI), calculated as actual
Measured Energy divided by the Expected Energy.
• The PPI and EPI performance metrics are defined to use actual
irradiance, temperature, wind speed, and as-built system
configuration, all of which have an effect on the performance of the
system.
AC Performance Testing, cont.
• The PPI and EPI acceptance criteria must be defined by the
contract, e.g., 0.9 to 1.1 allowing a 10 percent tolerance.
• Although PR and EY are metrics commonly associated with PV
plant performance, the PR metric does not account for cell
temperature and wind speed, and EY does not account for cell
temperature or irradiance.
• Therefore, the PR and EY metrics may not fully evaluate system
function for PV plant commissioning, and a more elaborate
measure of PPI and EPI performance can be considered a
reasonably advanced replacement for the common PR and EY
metrics.
AC Performance Testing, cont.
• The power/energy test results are usually compiled in a formal report that
would include the following information items presented in various formats
and structures:
1. The date and time of the test start and finish
2. A description of the test boundary and conditions under which conducted
tests were conducted
3. Data validation documentation
4. A summary of test results
5. A comparison of test result parameters with project performance-
guarantee conditions
6. Test result conclusions
7. Appendix containing:
a) Formal test procedure
b) Instrument cut sheets
c) Sensor calibration records