UNIT 9 CURVE TRACING

Structure
9.1 Introduction
Objectives
9.2 Graphing a Function and Curve Tracing
9.3 Tracing a Curve : Cartesian Equation
9.4 Tracing a Curve : Parametric Equation
9.5 'Tracing a Curve : Polar Equation
9.6 Summary
9.7 Solutions and Answers

9.1 INTRODUCTION

A picture is worth a thousand words. A curve which is the visual image of a functional
relation gives us a whole lot of information about the relation. Of course, we can also
obtain this information by analysing the equation which defines the functional relation.
But studying the associated curve is often easier and quicker. In addition to this, a curve
which represents a relation between two quantities also helps us to easily find the value of
one quantity corresponding to a specific value of the other. In this unit we shall try to
understand what is meant by the picture or the graph of a relation like f(x, y) = 0, and
how to draw it. We shall be using many results from the earlier units here. With this unit
we come to the end of Block 2, in which we have studied various geometrical features of
functional relations with the help of differential calculus.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to
list the properties which can be used for tracing a curve
trace some simple curves whose equations are given in Cartesian, parametric or polar
forms.

9.2 GRAPHING A FUNCTION AND CURVE TRACING

Recall that by the graph of a function f : D -- R we mean the set of points {(x, f(x)) :x ED).
Similarly, the set of points {(x, y) : f(x, y) = 0] is known as the graph of the functional
relation f(x, y) = 0.Graphing a function or a functional relation means showing the points
of the corresponding set in a plane. Thus, essentially curve tracing means plotting the
points which satisfy a given relation. However, there are some difficulties involved in this.
Let's see what these are and how to overcome them.

It is often not possible to plot all the points on a curve. The standard technique is to plot
some suitable points and to get a general idea of the shape of the curve by considering
tangents, asymptotes, singular points, extreme points, inflection points, concavity,
monotonicity, periodicity etc. Then we draw a free hand curve as nearly satisfying the
various properties as is possible.

The curves or graphs that we draw have a limitation. If the range of values of either (or
both) variable is not finite, then it is not possible to draw the complete graph. In such
cases the graph is not only approximate, but is also inconiplete. For example, consider the
-
simplest curve, a straight line. Suppose we want to draw the graph o f f : R R such that
f(x) = c. We know that this is a line paraiiel to the x-axis. But it is not possible to draw a
complete graph as thls line extends infinitely on both sides. W e indicate this by arrows at Curve Tracing
both ends as in Fig. 1.

Fig. I

In the next section we shall take up the problem of tracing of curves when the equation is
given in the Cartesian form.

9.3 TRACING A CURVE : CARTESIAN EQUATION

Suppose the equation of a curve is f(x, y) = 0.We shall now list some steps which, when
taken, will simplify our job of tracing this curve.

1) The first step is to determine the extent of the curve. In other words we try to find a A curve is symmetr~cala b t ~ ~ . t
region or regions of the plane which cannot contain any point of the curve. For line if, when we fold the culve cn
the lice, the two portions of the
example, no point on the curve y2 = x, lies in the second or the third quadrant, as the ,o,nclde.
x-coordinate of any point on the curve has to be non-negative. This means that our
curve lies entirely in the first and the fourth quadrants.

A point to note here is that it is easier to determine the extent of a curve if iis equation
can be written explicitly as y = f(x) or x = f(y).

2) The second step is to find out if the curve is symmetrical about any line, or about the .4curve is symmetrical about the
origin. We have already discussed symmetry of curves in Unit 1. Fig. 2, shows you origin if we get the same curve after
rotating it through 180°
some examples of symmetric curves.

(a) Symmetric ?bout the x-axis. (b) Symmetric about the origin. (c) Symmetric about the line y = x.

Fig. 2 :

Here we give you some'hink to help you determine the symmetry of a curve.
a) If all the powers of x occurring in f(x, y) = 0 are even, then f(x, y) = f(- x, y) and
the curve is symmetrical about the y-axis.
Drawing Curves In this case we need to draw the portion of the graph on only one side of the y-axis.
Then we can take its reflection in the y-axis to get the complete graph. We can
similarly test the symmetry of a curve about the x-axis.

b) If f(x, y) = 0 * f(- x, - y) = 0, then the curve is symmetrical about the origin. In

such cases, it is enough to draw the part of the graph above the x-axis and rotate it
through 180' to get the complete graph.
c) If the equation of the curve does not c$ange when we interchar.de x and y, then the
curve is symmetrical about the line y = x. Table 1 illustrates the application of these
criteria for different curves.
Table 1

Equation Symmetry
I
I x' + + y4 = 0
y2 I About the x-axis (even powers of y) i
I x4 + + y2 = 0
y3 I
About the origin
(f(- x, - y) = 0
Aboui both axes
-
About the y-axis (even powers of x)

f(x, y) = 0)

(f(x, Y) = f(- x, Y),f(x, Y) = f(x, - Y))

I

About the line y = x

(f(x, Y)= f(y, x))
About both axes, (even powers of x and y) but not about
y = x.
(f(x, Y)# f(y, x))

3) The next step is to determine the points where the curve intersects the axes. If we put
y = 0 in f(x, y) = 0, and solve the resulting equation for x, we get the points of.
intersection with the x-axis. Similarly, putting x = 0 and solving the resulting
equation for y, we can find the points of intersection with the y-axis.

4) Try to locate the points where the function is discontinuous.

5) Calculate dy/dx. This will help you in locating the portions where the curve is rising
(dy/dx > 0) or faifing (dy/dx < 0) or the points where it has a corner (dy/dx does
not exist).
6) Calculate d2y/dx2.This will help you in locating maxima (dy/dx = 0, d2y/dx2< 0)
and minima (dy/dx = 0, d 2 y / d ~>
2 0). YOUwill also be able to determine the points
of inflection (d2y/dx2= 0). These will give you a good idea about the shape of the
curve.
7) The next step is to find the asymptotes, if there are any. They indicate the trend of the
branches of the curve extending to infinity.
8) Another important step is to determine the singular points. The shape of the curve at
these points is, generally, more complex, as more than one branch of the curve passes
through them.
9) Finally, plot as many points as you can, around the points already plotted. Also try to
draw tangents to the curve at soqe of these plotted points. For this you will have to
calculate the derivative at these points. Now join the plotted points by a smooth curve
(except at points of discontinuity). The tangents will guide you in this, as they give
you the direction of the curve.

We shall now illustrate this procedure through a number of examples. You will notice,
that it may not be necessary to take all the nine steps mentioned above, in each case. We
begin by tracing some functions which were introduced in Unit 1.

Example 1 Consider the function y = ( x 1. Here y can take only positive values. Thus, the
graph lies above the x-axis. Further, the function y = 1x1is symmetric about the y-axis. On
the right of the y-axis, x > 0 and so 1 x I = x. T'nus the graph reduces to that of y = x and
you know that this is a straight line equally inclined to the axes (Fig. 3(a) below).
 The curve meets the y-axis only at the origin. Taking its reflection in the y-axis, we get the Curve Tracing

complete graph as shown in Fig. 3(b). We have drawn arrows at the end of the line
segment to indicate that the graph extends indefinitely.

~ i g 3. : (a) Graph to the right of the y-axis. (h) Complete graph.

Example 2 The greatest integer function y = [x] is discontinuous at every integer point.
+
Hence there is a break in the graph at every integer point n. In every interval In, n 1[ its
value is constant, namely n. Hence the graph is as shown in Fig. 4. Note that a hollow circle
around a point indicates that the point is not included in the graph.

Fig. : 4 Graph tl(x) = I*]

Example 3 Consider the curve y = x3. Now (x, y) lies on the curve
y = x 3 e - y = (- x)'- (- x, - y) is on the curve. This means that the
curve is symmetric about the origin. Thus, it is sufficient to draw the graph above the
x-axis and join to it the portion obtained by rotating it through 180°.
Above the x-axis, y is positive. Hence x =fi must be positive. Thus, there is no
portion of the graph in the second quadrant. The curve meets the axes of coordinates only
at the origin and the tangent there, is the x-axis.
dy
-dx
= 3x2 which is always non-negative. This means that as x increases, so does y. Thus

1 the graph keeps on rising.

This implies that there are no extreme points, and that (0,O) is a point of inflection. The
graph has no asymptotes parallel to the axes. Further lim
X'
Y
-
= lim x2 and
x--
Drawing Curves obviously, this does not exist. This means that the curve does not have any oblique
asymptotes. You can also verify that it has no singular points. The graph is shown in
Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 : Graph of y =x3

1
Example 4 Consider y = - . The y-coordinates of any point on the curve cannot be
x2
negative. So the curve must be above the x-axis. The curve is also symmetric about the
y-axis. Hence we shall draw the graph to the right of the y-axis first.

The curve does not intersect the axes of coordinates at all.

dy - 2 d2y 6 dy
- - --
and - = 7. Since -< 0 for all x > 0, the function is
ds x3 dx2 x dx
non-increasing in 10, m[, that is, the graph keeps on fatling as x increases. Further, since
dy
-is non-zero for all x, there are no extreme points.
dx
d2y
Similarly, since - is non-zero, there are no points of inflection. Writing the equation of
dx2
the curve as x~~ = 1, we see that both the axes are asymptotes of the curve.
There are no singular points. Therefore, the curve does not fold upon itself. The curve is
shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6 :Graph of y = l/x2

Example 5 Let us try to trace the curve given by the equation xy = 1.

Here we can see that either x and y both will be positive or both will be negative. This
i
\ means that the curvo.Iies in the first and the third quadrants.

'Further, it wymmetric about the origin and hence, it is sufficient to trace it in the first
quadrant an*tate - - this through 180°to get the portion of the curve in the third quadrant
1
I
(1, 1) is a point on the curve and x = l/y means that as x increases in the first quadrant, y
decreases.
Curve Tracing

I
I
1
Now the distance of any point (x, y) on the curve from the x-axis = J y1 = y = -
X
- 0 as
x -- =. This means that the x-axis is an asymptote. Arguing on the same lines we see that
the y-axis is also an asymptote.
-dy- --- I # 0 for any x. That is, there are no extrema.
dx X2

dy
At the point (1, 1) we have, -
dx = - 1, which implies that the tangent at (1, 1) makes
an angle of 135' with the x-axis. Considering all these points we can trace the curve in the
I first quadrant (see Fig. 7(a)). Fig. 7(b) gives the complete curve.
A

I
(a)
Fig. 7 (a) Graph of xy = 1 in thc tlrst Qudranf (b) complete graph

The curve traced in Example 5 is a hyperbola. If we cut a double cone by a plane as in

Fig. 8(a), we get a hyperbola. It is a section of a cone. For this reason, it is also called a
conic section. Figs. 8(b), (c) (d) and (e) show some other conic sections. You are already
familiar with the circle in Fig. 8(d) and the pair of intersecting lines in Fig. 8(e). The curve
in Fig. 8(b) is called a parabola and that in Fig. 8(c) is called an ellipse.

Fig. 8

The earliest mention of these curves is found in the works of a Greek mathematician
Menaechmas (fourth century B.C). Later Apollonius (third century B.C.) studied them
extensively and gave them their current names.

In the seventeenth century Rene Descartes discovered that the conic sections can be
characterised as curves which are governed by a second degree equation in two variables.
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) presented them as projections of a circle. (Why don't you try
this? Throw the light of a torch on a wall at different angles and watch the different conic
sections on the wall). Galileo (1564-1642) showed that the nath nf rr nrni-~t;ln+h*n-=,-
Drawing Curves obliquely (Fig. 9) is a parabola. Paraboloid curves are also used in arches and suspension
bridges (Fig. 10). Paraboloid surfaces are used in telescopes, search lights, solar heaters .
and radar receivers.

Fig.

L-

C--2-- --=--c -
Fig. 10

In the seventeenth century Johannes Kepler discovered that planets move in elliptical orbits
around the sun. Halley's comet is also known to move along a very elongated ellipse.
A comet or meteorite coming into the solar system from a great distance moves in a
hyperbolic path. Hyperbolas are also used in sound ranging and navigation systems.

Let's look at the next example now.

Example 6 Consider the curve y = g3 + x2.
There is no symmetry and the curve meets the axes at (0,O) and (- 1,O).

= 3x2 + 2x. The x-axis is the tangent at the origin as -= 0, at x = 0. Since

dy dy
-
dx dx
dy
-= I when x = - 1,tangent at ( - 1,O) makes an angle of 45' with the x-axis (Fig. 1 l(a)).
dx

in Fig. 1l(b),O is a valley and P is a peak.

A A
Y Y Y

/
I
I

/I P
,'-

I
I
 Curve Tracing
-
d2y = O a t x = - - 1
and changes sign from negative to positive as x passes
dx2 3
through - 1/3.
Hence (- 1/3,2/27)js a point of inflection.
-dy
+
= x(3x 2). Hence -dy
> 0 when x < - - 2 or x > 0.
dx dx 3
2 dy
If - '3 < x < 0, then -< 0. Thus the graph rises in ] - *,- 2/3 [ and 10, oo[, but
dx
falls in 1- 2/3,0[.
As x tends to infinity, so does y. As x -- - *, so does y. There are no asymptotes.
Hence the graph is as shown in Fig. 1l(c).
So far, all our curves were graphs of functions. We shall now trace some curves which are
not the graphs of functions, but have more than one branch.
Example 7 To trace the semi cubical parabola y2 = x3, we note that x3 is always pon-
negative for points on the curve. This means x is always non-negative and no portion of
the curve lies on the left of the y-axis.
There is symmetry about the x-axis (even powers of y).
The curve meets the axes only at the origin.
The tangents at the origin are given by y2 = 0 so that the origin is a cusp. (see Sec. 4 in
Unit 8).
In the first quadrant y increases with x and y -- 00 as x -- oo.
Thete are no asymptotes, extreme points and points of inflection.
Taking.reflection in the x-axis we get the complete graph as shown in Fig. 12.
Example 8 Suppose we want .to trace the curve
Fig. 12 :Semi cubical
parabola, y' =xJ

If x < 2, we get a negative value for Y2 which is impossible. So, no portion of the curve
lies to the left of the line x = 2. For the same reason, no portion of the curve lies bebween
the lines x = 3 and x = 4. .
sin& y occurs with even powers alone, the c&ve is symmetrical about the x-axis. We may
thus trace it for points above the x-axis and then get a reflection in the x-axis to complete
the graph.
The curve meets the axes in points A(2, O), B(3,O) and C(4, Q). At each of these points,
the curve has a vertical tangent (see Sec. 2 of Unit 8). Combining these facts, the shape of
.the curve near A, B, C must be as shown in Fig. 13(a).

Fix. 13
Drawing Curves Let us take y > 0 (i.e., consider points of the curve above the x-axis). Then
dy--
dx
3x2-18xt26 *

24(x - 2) (x - 3) (X- 4)
.
This is zero at x = 3 * 1 / 6 . If cu = 3 + 1 / a
and p = 3 - 1 / 6 then a lies between 3 and 4, and can therefore be ignored. Also,
+
3x2 - 18x 26 = 3(x - p) (x - a) and 2 < fl < 3 < a.For x E]2,3[, x - a remains
dy
negative. Hence for 2 < x < fl, - > 0 since (x - a ) and (x - p) are both negative.
dx
dy
Similarly for j3 < x < 3, < 0. Hence the graph rises in 12, p[ and falls in ]P, 3[. Thus
the shape of the curve is oval above the x-axis, and by symmetry about the x-axis, we can
complete the graph between x = 2 and x = 3 as in Fig. 13(b).
Now let us consider the portion of the graph to the right of x = 4. Shifting the origin to
(4, O), the equation of the curve becomes
+
Y2 = X(X 1) (x + + +
2) = x3 3x2 2x.
As x increases, so does y. As x -- w, so does y (considering points above the x-axis).
When x is very small, x3 and 3x2are negligible as compared to 2x, so that near the (new)
origin, the curve is approximately of the shape of y2 = Zx. For large values of x, 3x2and
2x are negligible as compared to x3,so that the curve shapes like y2 = x3 for large x. Thus,
at some point the curve changes its convexity.
This conclusion could also be drawn by showing the existence of a point of inflection.
There are no asymptotes or multiple points.
Considering the reflection in the x-axis, we have the complete graph as shown in Fig. 13 (c).
Example 9 Let us trace the curve (x2 - 1) (y2- 4) = 4 . .
There is symmetry about both axes. We can therefore sketch the graph in the first
quadrant only and then take its reflection in thiy-axis to get the graph above the x-axis.
The reflection of this graph in the x-axis will give the complete graph.
Notice that the origin is s point on the graph and the tangents there, are given by
+
4x2 y2 = 0. These being imaginary, the origin is an isolated point on the graph. The
curve does not meet the axes at any other points.
For x > 0, y > 0, the equation (x2 - 1) (Y2- 4) = 4 shows that x should be greater than
1 and y should be greater than 2.
 Curve Tracing
Equating to zero the coefficients of the highest powers of x and y, we get y = f2 and
.x = f 1 as asymptotes of the curve. Thus, the portion of the curve in the first quadrant
approaches the lines x = 1 and y = 2 in the region far away from the origin.

4
In the first quadrant, as x increases, so does x2 - 1, and since x2 - 1 = ,
(Y*- 4)
y decreases as x increases.

There are no extreme points, singular points or points of inflection.

As x -- =, y -- 2 and as y -- a,x -- 1. Hence the graph is as shown in Fig. 14.

Example 10 To trace the curve y2 = (x - I) (x - 2)2 we note that there is symmetry

about the x-axis.
No portion of the curve lies to the left of x = 1.
Points of interseition with the axes are A(l, 0) and B(2,O) and the tangent at (1.0) is
+
vertical. Shifting the origin to B(2, O), the curve transforms into y2 = x2(x 1). The
tangents at the new origin B, are given by y2 = x2. This means that B is a node, and the
tangents ataBare equally inclined to the axes. Let us try to build up the graph above the
x-axis between x = 1 and x = 2. Differentiating the equation of the curve with respect to
x, we get
+
2yy' = (x - 212 2(x - I ) (x - 2),
= (x - 2)(3x - 4).

when L < x < 2, (x - 2) < 0. If y is positive, then > 0 provided 3x - 4 < 0. Thus
y' > 0 when x E ]1,4/3[ and y' < 0 which x E ]4/3, 2[. The tangent is parallel to the
x-axis when 3x - 4 = 0, that is, when x = 4/3 (see Fig. 15(a)). Hence, for 1 < x < 2,
the curve shapes as in Fig. 15(b).
-
Now for x > 2. As x -- = g -- 00, y ?r in the first quadrant. Note that when B(2.O) is taken
as the origin, the equation of the curve reduces to
Y2 = x2(x + +
I ) = x3 x2
This shows that when x > 0 and y > 0, the curve lies above the line y = x (on which
Y2 = x2). Hence the final sketch (Fig. IS (c)) shows the complete graph.
Drawing Cllrves
*If you have gone through Examples 1-10 carefully, you should be able to do the
following exercise.
E 1) Trace the curves given by

(Graph paper is provided at the end of this unit.)

9.4 TRACING A CURVE :PARAMETRIC EQUATION

Sometimes a functional relationship mav be defined with the help of a parameter. In such
cases we are given a pair of equations wEich relate x and y with the parameter. You have
already come across such parametric equations in Unit 4. Now we shall see how to trace a
curve whose equation is in the parametric form.
We shall illustrate the p r d through an example.
+
Example 11Let us trace the cycloid x = a(t sint), y = a(l
.
- cos t) as t varies
from - n to T.
dx
-=
dt
+
a(l cos t), x=
dy
a sin t, so that

dy dx
- = tan (t/2). Since -> 0 for all t E ] - n, n[, x increases with t from - a n (at
dx dt
t = - n) to 0 (at t = 0) to a n (at t = n).
dy
Also, -is negative when t E ]-A, 0[ and positive when t E 10, T[. Hence y decreases
dx
from 2a to 0 in [- T, 01 and increases from 0 to 2a in [0, n]. Let us tabulate this data.

t E [- T,0] t E 10, TI

i) x increases from - a to 0 i) x increases from 0 to a

ii) y decreases from 2a to 0 ii) y increases from 0 to 2a
iii) Hence the curve falls iii) Hence the curve rises

Also, at the terminal points - n, 0 and T of the intervals [- T, 01 and [O,,n], we have the
following.

-
dy dx
-
t (x, Y) Tangent
dx dy

-n (- an, 2 a) not defined 0 vertical

0 (0,o) 0 not defined horizontal
T (am, 2a) not defined 0 vertical

On the basis of the data tabulated above, the graph is drawn in Fig. 16.
 Remark 1 If t is increased by 27r, x is increased by 2na and y does not change. Thus the Curve Tracing
complete graph can be obtained in intervals ..... [- 5n, - 3 ~ 1[-, 3n. - n], [n, 3 ~ 1 ,
[3n, 5n] .....by mere translation through a proper distance.
The cycloid is known as the Helen of geometry because it was the cause of many disputes
among mathematicians. It has many interesting properties. We shall describe just one of
them here. Consider this question : What shape should be given to a trough connecting
two points A and B, so that a ball rolls from A to B in the shortest possible time?
Now, we know that the shortest distance between A and B would be along the line AB
(Fig. 17). But since we are interested in the shortest time rather than distance, we must
also consider the fact that the ball will roll quicker, if the trough is steeper at A. The Swiss
mathematicians Jakob and Johann Bernoulli proved by exact calculations that the trough
should be made in the form of an arc of a cycloid. Because of this, a cycloid is also called
the curve of the quickest descent. . A -
F.3.
- \\..
The cycloid is used in clocks and in teeth for gear wheels. It can be obtained as the locus =+.:';\,'
\:. .\.
of a fixed point on a circle as the circle rolls along a straight line. \'I\\ \\ -2w
:-
\
:
\
,:\ \ \
See if you can do this exercise now.
:- \..I
\:q* '5:.
E 2) Trace the following curves on the graph paper given at the end of this unit.
*
\-: --:>>==
----------a
-
&
B

a) x = a(t + sin t), y = a(l + cos t), - n 5 t 5 T.

Fig. 17

9.5 TRACING A CURVE : POLAR EQUATION

In this section we shall consider the problem of tracing those curves, whose equations are
given in the polar form. The following considerations can be useful in this connection.

Symmetry : If the equation remains unchanged when 8 is replaced by - 8, then the curve
is symmetric with re~pectto the initial line.
If the equation does not change when r is replaced by - r, then the curve is symmetric
about the pole (or the origin).
Finally if the equation does not change when 8 is replaced by n - 8, then the curve is
symmetric with respect to the line 8 = n/2.

Extent : (i) Find the limits within which r must lie for the permissible values of 8. If r <a
(r > a) for some a > 0, then the curve lies entirely within (outside) the circle r = a.
(ii) If rZis negative for some values of 8, then the curve has no portion in the
corresponding region.
Angle between the line joining a point of the curve to the origin and the tangent : At
suitable points, this angle can be determined easily. It helps in knowing the shape of the
de
curve at these points. Recall that angle 4 is given by the relation tan 4 = r -.dr

We shall illustrate the procedure through some examples. Study them carefully, so that
you can trace some curves'on your own later.

Example 12 Suppose we want to trace the cardioid r = a (1 + cos 8). We can make the
, following observations.
Since cos 8 = cos (- 8), the curve is symmetric with respect to the initial line.
Since - 1 5 cos6 I 1, the curve lies inside the circle r = 2a.

dr dr
- = - a sin 6. Hence - < 0 when 6< 8 < n. Thus r decreases as 8 increases in
d8 de
I
Drawing Curves the interval 10, a[. Similarly, r increases with 8 in ]a/2, a[. some corresponding values of
r and 8 are tabulated below.

d8 +
a(1 cos 0)
= - cot (0/2) = tan . This shows that the angle
dr = -asin8
between the line joining a point (r, 8) on the curve to the origin and the tangent is 0 or
7r/2 according to 8 = a or 0. Hence the line joining a point on the curve to the origin is
orthogonal to the tangent when 8 = 0 and coincides with it when 8 = a .
Combining the above facts, we can easily draw the graph above the initial line. By
reflecting this portion in the initial line we can completely draw the curve as shown in
Fig 18. Notice the decreasing radii 2a, cl, c2, c3 etc.
u This curve is called a cardioid since it resembles a heart.
Fig. 18
Example 13 Let us trace the equiangular spiral r = aee CO"u. We proceed as follows.
When 8 = 0, r = a.
dr
-
d8
= r cot a , which is positive, assuming cot a > 0. Hence as 8 increases so does r.
d8
r - = tan a . Thus, at every point, the angle between the line joining a point on the,
dr
curve to the origin and the tangent is the same, namely a. Hence the name.

Combining these facts, we get the shape of the curve as shown in Fig. 19.
The equiangular (or logarithmic) spiral r = aee is also known as the curve of pursuit.
Suppose four dogs start from the four corners of a square, each pursues the dog in front
Fig. 19 with the same uniform velocity (always following the dog in front in a straight line), then
each will describe an equiangular spiral. Several shells and fossils have forms which are
quite close to equiangular spirals (Fig. 20). Seeds in the sunflower or blades of pine cones
are also arranged in this form.

This spiral was first studied by Descartes in 1638. John Bernoulli rectified this curve and
was so fascinated by it that he willed that an equiangular spiral be carved on his tomb
with the words 'Though changed, I rise unchanged' inscribed below it..
The spiral r = a8 is known as the Archimedean spiral. Its study was, however, initiated by
Conan. Archimedes used this spiral to square the circle, that is, to find a square of area
equal to that of a given circle. This spiral is widely used as a cam to produce uniform
linear motion. It is also used as casings of centrifugal pumps to allow air which increases
uniformly in volume with each degree of rotation of the fan blades to be conducted to the
outlet without creating back-pressure.
Fig. 20
The spiral r8 = a, due to Varignon, is known as the reciprocal or hyperbolic (recall that
xy = a is a hyperbola) spiral. It is the path of a particle under a central force which varies
as the cube of the distance.
#
Now let's consider one last example.
Example 14 To trace the curve r = a sin 38, a > 0, we note that there is symmetry about
the line 8 = a/2, since the equation is unchanged if 8 is replaced by a - 8.
* The curve lies inside the circle r = a, because sin 38 5 1. The origin lies on the curve and
this is the only point where the initial line meets the curve.
r =0 * 8 = n7r/3, where n is any integer. Hence the origin is a multiple point, the
lines 8 = 0, a/3, 27r/3, 7r, 4a/3, 5a/3, 27r etc. being tangents at the pole.
(0-a) dr
- = 3 cos 38. Hence r increases in the intervals 10, 7r/6[, ]a/2, 5a/6[, and
d8
]7i~/6,37r/2[, and decreases in the intervals ]7r/6, a/2[,]5a/6, 77r/6[ and ]3a/2, 5a/3[
Fig. 21 !'Jotice that r is negative when 8 E ]a/3,27r/3[ or 8 E IT, 4 ~ / 3 or
[ 8 E ]5a/3, 2 ~ [ .
 Hence the curve consists of three loops as shown in Fig. 21. The function is periodic and Curve Tracing
the curve traces,itself ai 8 increases from 2n on.
Now try to trace a few curves on your own.
E 3) Trace the following curves on the graph paper provided.
a) r = a(l - cos 8),a > 0. +
b) r = 2 4 cos 8.
C) r = a cos 38, a > 0. $) r = a sin 28, a > 0
(Graph paper is provided at the end of this unit.)

9.6 SUMMARY '

In this unit we have covered the following points.

1) Tracing a curve y = f(x) or f(x, y) = 0 means plotting the points which satisfy this
relation.
2) Criteria for symmetry and monotonicity, equations of tangents, asymptotes and points
'of inflection are used in curve tracing.
3) Curve tracing is illustrated by some examples when the equation of the curve is given
in
a) Cartesian form
b) Parametric form
c) Polar form

9.7 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Dotted lines represent tangents or asymptotes throughout.

i

b) Shifting the origin to (2,O) we get yZ = x3 which you know how to draw.
Drawing Curves C) $56
y = x is the tangent at the origin (0. 0).( -1. (-\Ti 3 arc point of
infections.i-axis is asasymptote. E~therx, y areioth positive or both negative.
f-unct~onrlses in 1- 1, I[ and falls elsewhere. Graph is shown alongside.

Y-
d) 7 = 1 - x2 shows that the entire curve lies within the lines x = f 1.
x-
+
Tangents at the origin are y = x. Tangents at x J f 1 are vertical.

Maxima at (f 1 / f i 1/4), symmetry about both axes.

t
Curve Tracing
I

~
I Drawing Curves c)