Hydrology Research
Hydrology Research
Hydrology Research
CEP302 (Hydrology) – 3B
1. Frontal Surface
Although fronts are a ubiquitous feature on surface weather charts both for hydrometeorologist
professionals and the public alike, there is still not a universally accepted definition of what constitutes a
front, especially where analysis of fronts on charts is concerned.
Some meteorologists and researchers have argued for a specific threshold to define a front, such as
8°C/220km being a “strong” synoptic-scale front or a minimum of 6°C/500km, while others have
espoused the less specific definitions that entail a synoptic front being an interface and/or transition
zone between airmasses of different density. Others have defined fronts as gradients or discontinuities
in certain weather fields, like temperature or moisture, but not others, such as wind direction, and vice
versa.
Herein we will examine both synoptic scale and mesoscale fronts, and treat them as weather features
possessing the following qualities or characteristics:
Frontal analysis in modern forecasting is still a critical part of a forecaster’s toolkit, and not just because
fronts are often associated with precipitation. Fronts can strongly impact local weather conditions via
wind changes, convective forcing, turbulence and more. While many computer-based weather
visualization packages can identify frontal zones on the large scale, they usually lack nuance in
positioning of the front on the regional and local scales, which poses issues for short-range forecasting
of all kinds, especially aviation.
Surface fronts mark the boundaries between airmasses at the Earth’s surface. They usually have the
following attributes:
In spite of this long list of attributes, fronts are usually labeled by the surface temperature change
associated with frontal passage.
Some weather features exhibit only a subset of attributes, and are not labeled as fronts. For example, a
trough (pronounced like “trof”) is a line of low pressure, high vorticity, clouds and possible precipitation,
wind shift, and confluence. However, it often does not possess the strong horizontal temperature and
moisture gradients characteristic of fronts.
Fronts are three dimensional. To help picture their structure, we next look at horizontal and vertical
cross sections through fronts.
Weather Fronts (from okfirst.mesonet.org)
Principle:
Fronts are zones of transition between two different air masses. The zone may be 20 miles across or it
may be 100 miles across, but from one side of a front to the other, one clearly would sense that the
properties of an air mass had changed significantly (e.g., contrasts in temperature and dew point, wind
direction, cloud cover, and on-going weather). The frontal zone represents the leading edge of a wedge
of cold/cool air. If the wedge is moving into an area of warmer air, the front is called a cold front. If the
wedge is retreating and warmer air is moving into an area previously occupied by cool air, the front is
termed a warm front.
Definition:
In meteorology, generally, the interface or transition zone between two air masses of different density.
Since the temperature distribution is the most important regulator of atmospheric density, a front
almost invariably separates air masses of different temperature. Along with the basic density criterion
and the common temperature criterion, many other features may distinguish a front, such as a pressure
trough, a change in wind direction, a moisture discontinuity, and certain characteristic cloud and
precipitation forms. The term front is used ambiguously for 1) frontal zone, the three- dimensional zone
or layer of large horizontal density gradient, bounded by 2) frontal surfaces across which the horizontal
density gradient is discontinuous (frontal surface usually refers specifically to the warmer side of the
frontal zone); and 3) surface front, the line of intersection of a frontal surface or frontal zone with the
earth's surface or, less frequently, with a specified constant-pressure surface. Types of fronts include
polar front, arctic front, cold front, warm front, and occluded front.
2. Cold Front
In central N. America, winds ahead of cold fronts typically have a southerly component, and can form
strong low-level jets at night and possibly during day. Warm, humid, hazy air advects from the south.
Sometimes a squall line of thunderstorms will form in advance of the front, in the warm air. These squall
lines can be triggered by wind shear and by the kinematics (advection) near fronts. They can also consist
of thunderstorms that were initially formed on the cold front, but progressed faster than the front.
Along the front are narrow bands of towering cumuliform clouds with possible thunderstorms and
scattered showers. Along the front the winds are stronger and gusty, and pressure reaches a relative
minimum. Thunderstorm anvils often spread hundreds of kilometers ahead of the surface front.
Winds shift to a northerly direction behind the front, advecting colder air from the north. This air is often
clean with excellent visibilities and clear blue skies during daytime. If sufficient moisture is present,
scattered cumulus or broken stratocumulus clouds can form within the cold airmass.
As this airmass consists of cold air advecting over warmer ground, it is statically unstable, convective,
and very turbulent. However, at the top of the airmass is a very strong stable layer along the frontal
inversion that acts like a lid to the convection. Sometimes over ocean surfaces the warm moist ocean
leads to considerable post-frontal deep convection.
Cold fronts are typically analyzed at the leading edge of a density discontinuity ahead of a cooler/colder
airmass. Cold frontal zones tend to be narrower than warm fronts because the trailing airmass is
normally of higher density and thus helps drive forward motion. They are analyzed as a blue line with
solid blue triangles pointing toward the warmer airmass. Typically, air behind the front will possess
lower temperatures, lower dewpoint temperatures and winds will have westerly component (in
midlatitudes)
3. Warm Front
In central N. America, southeasterly winds ahead of the front bring in cool, humid air from the Atlantic
Ocean, or bring in mild, humid air from the Gulf of Mexico.
An extensive deck of stratiform clouds (called a cloud shield) can occur hundreds of kilometers ahead of
the surface front. In the cirrostratus clouds at the leading edge of this cloud shield, you can sometimes
see halos, sundogs, and other optical phenomena. The cloud shield often wraps around the poleward
side of the low center.
Along the frontal zone can be extensive areas of low clouds and fog, creating hazardous travel
conditions. Nimbostratus clouds cause large areas of drizzle and light continuous rain. Moderate rain can
form in multiple rain bands parallel to the front. The pressure reaches a relative minimum at the front.
Winds shift to a more southerly direction behind the warm front, advecting in warm, humid, hazy air.
Although heating of air by the surface might not be strong, any clouds and convection that do form can
often rise to relatively high altitudes because of weak static stabilities throughout the warm airmass.
Photos of Warm Fronts (from geo.libretexts.org)
Warm fronts are typically analyzed at the equatorward edge of a density discontinuity behind a
retreating and modified cooler airmass. Warm frontal zones tend to be broader than cold frontal zones
because the denser airmass ahead of the front erodes slowly. Warm fronts are analyzed as a red line
with solid red semicircles that face into the warmer airmass. Typically, air behind the front will possess
warmer temperatures, higher dewpoint temperatures and winds will have southerly component (in
midlatitudes).
Photos of Cold Front (from meted.ucar.edu)