PRINCIPLES IN M A T H E M A T I C S

CARTESIAN/RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM STANDARD EQUATION OF LINES

1. Point-Slope form
Given a point 𝑃1 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 and slope 𝑚.

𝒚 − 𝒚 𝟏 = 𝒎 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏

2. Slope-Intercept form
Given a slope 𝑚 and 𝑦-intercept 𝑏:

𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃

3. Intercept form
Given x-intercept 𝑎 and y-intercept 𝑏:

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS 𝒙 𝒚

+ =𝟏
𝒂 𝒃
4. Two-point form
The distance between two point Given two points 𝑃1 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 and 𝑃2 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 :
𝑃 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 and 𝑄 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 is:
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒅= 𝒙 𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 𝟐 =
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

EQUATION OF A LINE
SLOPE OF THE LINE
The angle between lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 is the angle 𝜃 that
The slope of the line passing through points 𝑃 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 and 𝐿1 must be rotated in a counter clockwise direction
𝑄 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 is: to make it coincide with 𝐿2

𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆, 𝒎 = =
𝒓𝒖𝒏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

Where:
m is positive if the line is inclined upwards to the right.
m is negative if the line is inclined downwards to the right.
m is is zero for horizontal lines

EQUATION OF A LINE

GENERAL EQUATION OF A LINE 𝒎 𝟐 − 𝒎𝟏

𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 =
𝟏 + 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
The general equation of a straight line is:
Lines are parallel if 𝑚1 = 𝑚2
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 Lines are perpendicular if 𝑚2 =
−1
𝑚1

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 PRINCIPLES IN M A T H E M A T I C S

DISTANCE FROM A POINT TO A LINE MIDPOINT OF A LINE SEGMENT

The distance (nearest) from a point 𝑃1 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 to a line The midpoint 𝑃𝑚 𝑥𝑚 , 𝑦𝑚 of a line segment
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 is: through from 𝑃1 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 to 𝑃2 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 is:

𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
𝒙𝒎 = 𝒚𝒎 =
𝟐 𝟐

CONIC SECTIONS

Conic sections a locus (or path)that moves such

the ratio of its distance from a fixed point (called
the focus)and a fixed line (called the directrix) is
𝑨𝒙𝟏 + 𝑩𝒚𝟏 + 𝑪 constant. This constant ratio is called the
𝒅=
± 𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩 𝟐 eccentricity, e of the conic.

The term conic section is based on the fact that

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL LINES these are the sections formed if a plane is made
to pass through a cone.
The distance between two parallel lines 𝐿1 ∶ 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶1
and 𝐿2 ∶ 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶2 is: If the cutting plane is parallel to the base of a
cone, the section formed is a circle. If it is
parallel to the element (or generator) the
section formed is a parabola. If it is
perpendicular to the base of the cone, the
section formed is a hyperbola. If it is oblique to
the base or element of the cone, the section
formed is an ellipse.

𝑪𝟐 − 𝑪𝟏
𝒅=
𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐

DIVISION OF LINE SEGMENT

GENERAL EQUATION OF CONICS

𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑩𝒙𝒚 + 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎

If 𝐵 ≠ 0, the axis of the conic is oblique with the

coordinate axes ( i.e. not parallel to X or Y axes).
Thus if the axis is parallel to either X or Y-axes, the
equation becomes
𝒙𝟏 𝒓𝟐 +𝒙𝟐 𝒓𝟏 𝒚𝟏 𝒓𝟐 +𝒚𝟐 𝒓𝟏
𝒙𝒑 = 𝒓𝟏 +𝒓𝟐
𝒚𝒑 = 𝒓𝟏 +𝒓𝟐
𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎

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 PRINCIPLES IN M A T H E M A T I C S

GENERAL EQUATION OF CONICS PARABOLA

𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑩𝒙𝒚 + 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎 PARABOLA – is the locus of a point that moves

such that its distance from a fixed point called
𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎
the focus is always equal to its distance from a
fixed line called the directrix.
From the foregoing equations:
If 𝐵2 < 4𝐴𝐶, the conic is an ellipse
If 𝐵2 = 4𝐴𝐶, the conic is a parabola
If 𝐵2 > 4𝐴𝐶, the conic is a hyperbola

Also, a conic is a circle if A=C, an ellipse if A≠C

but have the same sign, a parabola if either A=0
or C=0, and a hyperbola if A and C have
different signs.

CIRCLE

CIRLE – is the locus of a point that moves such

that it is always equidistant from a fixed point
called the center. The constant distance is called a = distance from the vertex to focus
the radius of the circle. LR = length of latus rectum

r = radius General equation of Parabola (A or C is zero)

(h,k) = center
C=0
General equation of a Circle (A=C)
𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 0
𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑨𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎 or
or 𝒙𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎
𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎
A=0

To solve a circle, either one of the following two 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎

conditions must be known: or
4. Three point along the circle, 𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎
Solution: Use the general form
5. Center (h,k) and the radius, To solve a parabola, either one of the following
Solution: Use the standard form two conditions must be known:
1. Three point along the parabola and an
Standard Equation of a Circle axis (either vertical or horizontal),
Solution: Use the general form
𝟐 𝟐
Center at (h,k) 𝒙−𝒉 + 𝒚−𝒌 = 𝒓𝟐 2. Vertex (h,k), distance from the vertex to
focus a and axis,
Center at (0,0) 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚 𝟐 = 𝒓 𝟐 Solution: Use the standard form
3. Vertex (h,k), and the location of the
focus.
For the circle
Solution: use the standard form
𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑨𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎
Eccentricity
−𝑫 −𝑬 𝑫𝟐 + 𝑬𝟐 − 𝟒𝑨𝑭 The eccentricity of a conic is the ratio of its
𝒉= ;𝒌 = ;𝒓 = distance from the focus d2 and the directrix d1
𝟐𝑨 𝟐𝑨 𝟒𝑨𝟐
For a parabola, the eccentricity is equal to 1.

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 PRINCIPLES IN M A T H E M A T I C S

Latus Rectum ELLIPSE

Latus rectum is the chord passing through the
focus and parallel to directrix or perpendicular to
ELLIPSE
the axis.
𝑳𝑹 = 𝟒𝒂 The locus of the point that moves such that the
sum of its distances from two fixed points called
the foci is constant. The constant sum is the
Standard Equation of Parabola
length of the major axis, 2a. It can also be
defined as the locus of the point that moves such
Vertex at (0,0)
that the ratio of its distance from the fixed point,
called the focus and the fixed line called the
𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒙 opens to right
directrix, is constant and less than one (1).
𝒚𝟐 = −𝟒𝒂𝒙 opens to left

𝒙𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒚 opens upward

𝒙𝟐 = −𝟒𝒂𝒚 opens down ward

Vertex at (h,k)

𝟐
𝒚−𝒌 = 𝟒𝒂 𝒙 − 𝒉 opens to right

𝟐
𝒚−𝒌 = −𝟒𝒂 𝒙 − 𝒉 opens to left

𝟐
𝒙−𝒉 = 𝟒𝒂 𝒚 − 𝒌 opens upward

𝟐
𝒙−𝒉 = −𝟒𝒂 𝒚 − 𝒌 opens down ward

For the parabola 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0

(axis vertical) Elements of Ellipse

−𝑫 𝑫𝟐 − 𝟒𝑨𝑭 −𝑬 𝒂 𝟐 = 𝒃 𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐
𝒉= ;𝒌 = ;𝒂 =
𝟐𝑨 𝟒𝑨𝑬 𝟒𝑨
𝒅𝟑 𝒄
Eccentricity (first eccentricity), 𝒆 = = < 𝟏. 𝟎
𝒅𝟒 𝒂

For the parabola 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 𝒂

(axis horizontal) Distance from the center to directrix, 𝒅 =
𝒆

𝟐𝒃𝟐
Length of latus rectum, 𝑳𝑹 =
𝑬𝟐 − 𝟒𝑪𝑭 −𝑬 −𝑫 𝒂
𝒉= ;𝒌 = ;𝒂 =
𝟒𝑪𝑫 𝟐𝑪 𝟒𝑪 𝒄
Second eccentricity, 𝒆′ =
𝒃

𝒄
Angular eccentricity, 𝜶 =
𝒂

𝒂−𝒃
Ellipse flatness, 𝒇 =
𝒂

𝒂−𝒃
Second flatness, 𝒇 =
𝒃

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General equation of Ellipse HYPERBOLA

𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎 HYPERBOLA

The locus of the point that moves such that the
To solve an ellipse, either one of the following difference of its distances from two fixed points
conditions must be known: called the foci is constant. The constant
1. Four points along the ellipse, difference is the length of the transverse axis, 2a.
Solution: Use the general form It can also be defined as the locus of the point
2. Center (h,k), semi-major axis a, and semi- that moves such that the ratio of its distance from
minor axis b the fixed point, called the focus and the fixed
Solution: Use the standard form line called the directrix, is constant and is greater
than one (1).
Standard Equations of Ellipse

Center at (0,0)

𝒙 𝟐 𝒚𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃 𝟐

𝒙 𝟐 𝒚𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝒃𝟐 𝒂𝟐

Elements of Hyperbola
Center at (h,k)
𝒄𝟐 = 𝒂 𝟐 + 𝒃 𝟐

𝟐 𝟐 𝒅𝟑 𝒄
𝒙−𝒉 𝒚−𝒌 Eccentricity 𝒆 = = > 𝟏. 𝟎
+ =𝟏 𝒅𝟒 𝒂
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
𝒂
Distance from the center to directrix, 𝒅 =
𝒆

Equation of asymptotes

𝒙−𝒉 𝟐
𝒚−𝒌 𝟐 𝒚 − 𝒌 = ±𝒎 𝒙 − 𝒉
+ =𝟏
𝒃𝟐 𝒂𝟐
Where (h,k) is the center of the hyperbola and m
is the slope. Use (+) for upward asymptote and (-)
for down ward asymptote.
Note: a>b 𝒃
𝒎= if the axis is horizontal
𝒂
For the Ellipse
𝒂
𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎 𝒎= if the axis is vertical
𝒃

−𝑫 −𝑬
𝒉= 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒌 =
𝟐𝑨 𝟐𝑪

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 PRINCIPLES IN M A T H E M A T I C S

General equation of Hyperbola

𝑨𝒙𝟐 − 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎

Standard Equations of Ellipse

Center at (0,0)

𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
− axis
Major
𝟐
=𝟏
𝟐 vertical
Major axis horizontal
𝒂 𝒃

𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝟐
𝟐
− =𝟏 Major axis vertical
𝒂 𝒃𝟐

Center at (h,k)

𝒙−𝒉 𝟐 𝒚−𝒌 𝟐
− =𝟏 Major axis horizontal
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐

𝒚−𝒌 𝟐 𝒙−𝒉 𝟐
+ =𝟏 Major axis vertical
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐

Note: “a” may be greater, equal or less than “b”

For the Hyperbola

𝑨𝒙𝟐 − 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎

−𝑫 −𝑬
𝒉= 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒌 =
𝟐𝑨 𝟐𝑪

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