SMA3043 ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY

SEMESTER 1 2022/2023

THE INTEGERS,
INTEGER REPRESENTATIONS

PROF. MADYA DR ROHAIDAH MASRI

DR. NOR HAFIZAH MD HUSIN
WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?

• One of the oldest branches in mathematics.

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• The study of numbers, especially the positive integers, i.e. ℤ = 1,2,3, … .

Mathematics is the queen of the sciences and

number theory is the queen of mathematics.
-Gauss-

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WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?

1.1 Some Examples about the Study of Positive Integers

1. An integer is divisible by 3 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.

E.g:
345: 3+ 4+ 5 = 12 such that 12 is divisible by 3. Therefore, 345 is
divisible by 3.
2. Equations that has infinitely many solutions and equations that has no
solution.
E.g:
i. 3𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 18 has infinitely many solutions.
ii. 2𝑥 + 10𝑦 = 17 has no solution.

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WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?

3. The sum of consecutive integers beginning with 1 is called as triangular

number. Each of the numbers 1=1, 3 = 1+2, 6 = 1+2+3, 10 = 1=2+3+4 …
represents the number of dots that can be arranged evenly in an equilateral
triangle.
E.g:

1=1 3 = 1+2 6 = 1+2+3 10 = 1+2+3+4

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WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?

4. A positive integer n is said to be perfect if n is equal to the sum of all its

positive divisors, excluding n itself.
E.g:
The number 6 is a perfect number. Why?
Because 6 = 1+2+3.
Only four perfect numbers were known to ancient Greeks that are 6, 28, 496,
8 128.
th
The next perfect number (found in 15 century manuscript) is 33 550 336 and
8 589 869 056.
It is not yet known whether there are infinitely many or finitely many of perfect
numbers.

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WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?

5. Goldbach conjecture is one of the unsolved problems concerning prime

numbers. It stated that every even integer is the sum of two numbers that is
either prime or 1.
E.g.:

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WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?
6. At the beginning of Islamic century, the concern with the science of numbers
among muslims was closely connected with the study of magic squares and
amicable numbers (two numbers are called amicable if one of them is equal to
the sum of the divisors of the other, such as the numbers 220 and 284).

As far as magic squares concerned, they entered into alchemical speculation in

the writing of Jabir Ibn Hayyan, and were studied mathematically by Ikhwan al-
Safa’, who knew squares up to 36 components.
777 222 999
888 666 444
333 1 110 555

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WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?

1.2 Properties of Integers

1.2.1 Algebraic Property

Theorem 1.1
If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℤ, then:
1. 𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏 ∈ ℤ (closure property)
E.g.:
Let 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 3, then 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 2 + 3 = 5 ∈ ℤ.
Let 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 3, then 𝑎𝑏 = 2 3 = 6 ∈ ℤ.

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WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?

2. 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 and 𝑎𝑏 𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐) (Associative Property)

E.g.:
Let 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 3, 𝑐 = 4, then 2 + 3 + 4 = 2 + 3 + 4 .
Let 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 3, 𝑐 = 4, then 2 × 3 × 4 = 2 × (3 × 4).

3. 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 and 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 (Commutative Property)

E.g.: Let 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 3, 𝑐 = 4, then 2 + 3 = 3 + 2.
Let 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 3, 𝑐 = 4, then 2 × 3 = 3 × 2.

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WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?

4. ∃0 ∈ ℤ such that ∀𝑎 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎 (Additive identity)

5. ∀𝑎 ∈ ℤ, ∃ − 𝑎 ∈ ℤ such that 𝑎 + −𝑎 = 0 (Additive Inverse)
6. 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 (Distributive property)

ACTIVITY

Conduct your own example to check for (4) – (6).

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WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?

1.2.2 Ordering Property

Theorem 1.2 If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℤ, then it is possible that 𝑎 < 𝑏. Moreover,

1. (Trichotomy Property) If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, then only one of these is true;

𝑎 < 𝑏; 𝑎 = 𝑏; 𝑏 < 𝑎

2. (Transitive Property) if 𝑎 < 𝑏 and 𝑏 < 𝑐, then 𝑎 < 𝑐.

3. Suppose that 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℤ and 𝑎 < 𝑏. Then,

𝑎 + 𝑐 < 𝑏 + 𝑐; 𝑎𝑐 < 𝑏𝑐 for 𝑐 > 0

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WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?

4. Well Ordering Principle Every nonempty set S of nonnegative integers

contains a least element; that is, there is some integer 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆 such that 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏
for all 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆.

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5. (Archimedean Property) If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ , then there exists 𝑛 ∈ ℤ such that
𝑛𝑎 ≥ 𝑏.

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WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?

1.3 Principle of Finite Induction

1.3.1 The First Principle of Finite Induction

Theorem 1.3 Let 𝑆 be the set of positive integers with the following properties;
1. The integer 1 ∈ 𝑆
2. Whenever the integer k is in S, the next integer k+1 must also be in S.

Then, S is the set of all positive integers.

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WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?

1.3.2 The Second Principle of Finite Induction

Theorem 1.4 Let 𝑆 be the set of positive integers with the following properties;
1. The integer 1 ∈ 𝑆
2. If k is a positive integer such that 1,2,3,…, k belong to S, then the integer
k+1 must also be in S.

Then, S is the set of all positive integers.

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WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?

1.4 Binomial Theorem

1.4.1 Binomial Coefficients
For any positive integer n and any integer k satisfying 0 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑛, then

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Example
8
1. Calculate 3
.
50
2. Determine 1
.

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1.4.2 Pascal’s Rule

For any positive integer n and k satisfying 1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑛, then

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WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?
1.4.3 Pascal’s Triangle & Fibonacci Sequence
𝑛 𝑡ℎ
In Pascal’s Triangle, the binomial coefficient
𝑘
is the 𝑘 + 1 number in the
𝑡ℎ
𝑛+1 row.
The exterior numbers in the triangle are 1.
To find an interior number, add the two number in the positions above, and to
either side, of the position being filled.

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WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?

Pascal’s Triangle has many unusual properties and a variety of uses:

(a) Horizontal rows add to powers of 2 (i.e. 1,2,4,8,16, …)
(b) The horizontal rows represent powers of 11 (1, 11, 121, 1331,…)
(c) Adding any two successive numbers in the diagonal 1-3-6-10-15-21-28 …
results in a perfect square (1,4,9,16, …)
(d) It can be used to find combinations in probability problems (if, for instances,
you pick any two of five items, the number of possible combinations is 10,
found by looing n the second place of fifth row. Do not count the 1’s).
(e) When the first number to the right of the 1 in any row is a prime number, all
numbers in that row are divisible by that prime number.

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WHAT IS ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY?
1.4.4 The Binomial Theorem
Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be variable, and 𝑛 ≥ 1, then

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Example
5
1. Calculate (𝑎 + 𝑏) .
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2. Determine (2𝑎 + 3𝑏) .

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Exercise 1.1
70
1. By using Binomial coefficient, find 70
.
2. Verify the Binomial coefficient,
𝑛 𝑛(𝑛−1)⋯(𝑘+1) 𝑛(𝑛−1)⋯(𝑛−𝑘+1)
𝑘
= = .
𝑛−𝑘 ! 𝑘!

3. By using Binomial theorem, determine:

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a. (𝑥 + 𝑦)
7
b. (𝑚 − 𝑛)
8
c. (5𝑥 + 7)

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