CHAPTER 1:

THE STUDY OF POLITICS AS A

SCIENCE
The theoretical and practical study of the state and of politics dates back at
least to the Ancient Greeks (about 500 to 300 B.C.) The word “politics” comes from the
Greek word for “ city-state” ( polis ), the only form of government known to the Ancient
Greek. The word polis comes from other derivatives, such as polites ( citizen) and
politikos ( government officials).

Along this line, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) began his famous Politics with the observation
that “ man by nature is a political animal”. This is a common saying and it gives the
following meanings:

a. The essence of social existence is interaction with other people. When two
or more people interact with each other, they are simply invariably
involved in political relationships ( power, authority, legitimacy and
influence ).
b. Relating with other people is an inevitable phenomenon in which very few
people would want to live in isolation from others.
c. As people crave for social companionship, they are engaged in politics.
d. Involving one’s self in a setting designed to resolve social conflict and set
collective goals means engaging in politics.

Between the sixteenth and early twentieth centuries, “politics” was understood
more narrowly than it was by the Greeks when Jean Bodin (1530-1596 ), a French
political philosopher coined the term “ Political Science ”. The concern of the field was
more on the organization of institutions related to law. The restricted scope of it was
reinforced by Montesquieu (1689-1755), who believed that all the functions of
government could be encompassed within the categories of legislations, execution and
the adjudication of law. These categories found their way into the Constitution of the
United States. It is in this view that Political Science, as a field of study focus on the
three branches of government: the Executive that enforces laws, the Legislative that
makes laws and the Judiciary that interprets and settles controversies about law. From
these branches arise other and more different groups in politics like political parties,
interest groups or pressure groups, lobbies and with formal institutions of the state
formed to carry its functions.

Let us bear in mind however, that these three branches of government

interrelate and coordinate with each other in carrying the functions of the state.
 POLITICS AS A SCIENCE

“ Is Political Science really scientific “, is a question which probably would

give readers different answers and interpretations. Political Science to be equated with
physics, geology, biology, astronomy and other fields of study under the natural
sciences could really be a big question. The answer to the question would probably lead
to a better analysis if it is answered not in “yes “ or “ no “ but on “ more ” or “ less “. This
is because it is very difficult to treat completely the study of politics into a very scientific
manner as it concerns itself with social phenomena. Since social phenomena change
from time to time, given different angles of interpretations, focus on many behavioral
options, deal with large numbers of people, it becomes a difficult thing to measure. In
fact, in terms of scientific potential, Political Science gets low compared to other natural
and social science disciplines. Here are some examples:

1. Economics as one field of social sciences, it can measure changes in society by

its Gross National Product ( GNP ) and it also can measure scientifically its
wealth in terms of per capita income;
2. Unlike Chemistry, Physics and other natural sciences, it has no standard criteria
or natural laws to observe and evaluate its findings;
3. The subjects of Political Science as people and its laboratory as states, there is
no scientific accuracy because humans and situations in the society are
unpredictable.

Later, Political Science finally won its spurs as a science since it becomes a
systematic field of study, with its theories, principles and laws and because modern
political scientists use empirical methods, mathematics and statistics and logic for their
research and analysis.

EARLY AND MODERN TRENDS IN THE STUDY OF POLITICS

If Plato ( 427-347 B.C. ) is considered the father of Political Philosophy,

Aristotle is also the father of Political Science. However, they have one thing in
common despite differences in their field; i.e. they viewed the state from the perspective
of the Philosopher to whom all knowledge was an integrated whole.

The Ancient Rome contributed much to the study of Political Science. Its
focus was more chiefly in the fields of law, jurisprudence and public administration. The
imprint of Stoic notions of human equality, the brotherhood of all men, the Fatherhood of
God, and the unique value of the individual, gave a deeper view about the divine reason
animating the universe. Included as part of Stoicism, is the philosophy of democracy
with the assumptions of human rationality, morality and equality and concepts of natural
law and natural rights. This was later on incorporated to Western Political Thought.
 Let us consider that during the Middle Ages, The Church was a very powerful
institution; more important than the state. It possessed even the power to crown and
dispose princess and to dictate public policy. It is in this view that Political Philosophy
was inferior to the branch of Theology. This medieval age left a legacy of concepts that
are still vital parts of modern political thought, such as the influence of church over the
state in terms of policy or decision-making. The Christian philosophers called it as the “
peace of God ”, the “ fair wage”, the “ just price”, and the idea of a “ higher law”, that
was necessarily superior to the commands of a ruler or the state. This thing carried the
idea of Plato about the so called, “philosopher-king” (pope) that becomes the
embodiment of absolute truth ( God’s revealed law).

When national states of Western Europe emerged, it shook off the shackles
of both the pope and the Holy Roman Emperor. Reforms were introduced. Niccolo
Machiavelli tried to divorce politics from religion. Other political scientists were
influenced by new discoveries and theories in politics. Newton and Descartes, not only
in mathematics and physics, also contributed concepts in Political Science.

In the eighteenth century, concepts on separation of governmental powers

and checks and balances were applied to the mechanical principles and structure of the
government especially in the making of laws.

Prior to the 19th century, Political Science was regarded as only a minor
branch of philosophy or history. It was then known as “Political Philosophy” or “Political
Economy”. It was not given academic status as an independent discipline.

In the mid-nineteenth century, the evolution and natural selection theory of

Darwin that began to exert a powerful influence upon Political Science. Biology came to
reinforce history in the study of the political institutions, which helped in the introduction
of the concept of evolution. The economic theories that evolved based on Marxism
principles led to the understanding that through economic activities, industrialization
takes place. More sociologists reviewed different and changing situations in the society,
how capitalism and business affect their lives and how economy relates to politics in
terms of law-making and its implementation.

Political Science first attained recognition as a separate field of study in 1856

when Columbia College (later University) changed its chair of History and Political
Economy into two different professorships. This significant innovation was done upon
the request of Professor Francis Lieber, a German born American Scholar who wrote
Manual of Political Ethics (1838), the first systematic treatise in Political Science
published in the United States. Thus, it was the Americans who first made the study of
poltics a separate course of study.

In 1886, twenty one years after the Civil War, Columbia University published
the Political Science Quarterly, the first Political Science journal of the world. About the
same period, various books appeared, written by academic experts such as T.D.
Woolsey, Woodrow Wilson and James Bryce. Woodrow Wilson was then the President
of Princeton University and became one of the Presidents of the United States ( 1913-
1921).

It is also the Americans who founded the first courses on Political Science,
and as part of their colonial heritage of the Philippines, they encouraged the Filipinos in
the study of government. In 1908, the University of the Philippines was founded by the
American colonial government with the Department of Political Science.

Political Science also achieved its academic independence in Europe. In

1872, the Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques in Paris was founded for the study of
Political Sciences. Later, this school became a part of the University of Paris. When
London School of Economics (LSE) and Political Science was founded by the Webbs in
1895, it became a distinct discipline and was included in its curriculum. The LSE is now
deemed as one of the world’s best training ground for technocrats. In 1928, Cambridge
University followed LSE in establishing a professorial chair in Political Science.

Under the auspices of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization (UNESCO), an international conference of political scholars was held in
Paris in 1948. At this conference, they adopted the name “Political Science” and the
International Political Science Association was officially established.

POLITICAL SCIENCE IN THE LATE 1990s

As people move through life, politics becomes more of an inevitable
circumstance. As life becomes more complex, all the more that politics comes into play.
As industrialization takes place, as poverty arises, as big business firms known over the
world and the country control the economy of a nation, as one or two or many countries
become super powers and others remain poor and underdeveloped, one wonders how
powerful politics could be and how their political leaders handle the same. Because
politics enters every aspect of human lives, people become interested each day to
political concerns. Apparently, everybody seems to like politics, be it in the name of
service or vested interests.

With the advent of a rigorous application of scientific methodology alongside

basic descriptive studies that document change in institutions or processes, they call
this post-behavioral period of Political Science, combining scientific approach and
principles of ethics, wisdom and judgment.

Many political scientists today could be classified as “soft scientists”. They

recognize the basic work to document changes in societies and political institutions and
that intuitive accounts are needed to supplement empirical studies to provide the big
picture of society as a whole.

Modern Political Science seeks to discover generalizations or regularities of

behavior that govern the political process. Because human behavior is involved, with
various and multiple factors in each situation, Political Scientists have to work with these
variations. They adopt a critical perspective about the causes and effects of political
phenomena using evidences to support claims, clear methods, results and conclusions
and adherence to scientific principles.
Approaches to the study of Political Science

It is very important to remember that there are two general approaches to the
study of politics:

1. Political Philosophy- concerns itself with institutions and behavior, it

focuses on normative judgement and attempts to derive principles from
objective facts with as much qualification as the evidence will allow. It is
more on prescriptive ( the “ shoulds ” and “ oughts ” of politics ) analysis
of things.

2. Political Science- seeks to establish by observation, and if possible by

measurements the existence of uniformities in political behavior and to
draw correct inference from these data. It is more on observation or/
and description of facts. It aims to be objective and value-free on its
measurement and description.

The Subject Matter of Political Science:

A. Political Philosophy
 Indicates that every political act implies some underlying political value.
Values are regarded as essential to the good citizen and the just state. It is
the least scientific sub-discipline of Political Science since it is concerned
with the normative implications of political organization and behavior- the way
the state and society ought to be organized and the way the citizen ought to
behave.

B. Judicial and Legal Process

 Gives emphasis on institutional description and historical narrative of the
development and application of laws which regulate activities of businesses,
corporations, labor unions. It covers how constitutions affect the operations of
government, how laws are administered, interpreted and enforced.

C. Executive Process
 It covers the most visible symbol of the state: its Chief Executive, his powers
and functions and responsibilities toward its citizens. Being the head of the
state and government, his performance is likewise measured on the type
and status of the country’s foreign relations. Through his good leadership,
the bureaucracy is seen as well-organized with all its agencies functioning
under the “good governance”.
D. Administrative Organization and Behavior
 Covers administrators of the bureaucratic levels with their respective roles,
responsibilities and personality types, including their decision-making and
planning capacities. The inter-related functions of the different agencies and
departments, with operational and effective collaboration among them,
connotes an organized bureaucracy.

E. Legislative Politics
 It covers how laws are made, not only in terms of constitutional prescription
or the unwritten conventions but on the clash of interests inside and outside
the legislative arena.

F. Political Parties and Interests Groups

 From the standpoint of group theory, “a law passed by the legislature
expresses simply the prevailing distribution of influence among competing
groups, each of them seeking to advance its own particular interests.

G. Voting and Public Opinion

 The voting behavior and preferences of people affect how a government is
organized and how it functions. The political participation of citizens through
exercising their right to vote provide a great impact not only in choosing best
leaders but to produce policies advancing the interests of the people.
 Public opinion on social issues and controversies could be the basis of better
policy-making and legislative acts, for it brings out the interests of the many
in the most rational way as possible.

H. Political Socialization and Political Culture

 Culture shapes greatly the behavior of men. Their beliefs, values, norms,
mores are carried out in their commonality of opinions and perspectives
which are strengthened through continuous interaction and socialization.
Culture becomes important to consider in making policies work and easily
implemented.

I. Comparative Politics
 It looks into some universal characteristics of political processes, but more
intently to consider the differences underlying operations of the bureaucracy.
There can never be an identification of the best political approaches in all
nations, because each has their own unique characteristics that make up
their own political system like culture, race, religion, ideologies and among
others.

J. Political Development
  This differs with political growth and modernization. It is more encompassing
as it could include both terms. Political growth for example covers an
increase in IGP and modernization includes the presence of fashion and fads
which people adhere for the time being.

K. International Politics and Organization

 To understand why countries differ in terms of its foreign relations expansion,
there is a need to study the political system of other countries and identify
significant characteristics as points of comparison in terms of availability and
utilization of resources, political behavior, socialization, culture and
participation/ involvement of people in the political arena.

L. Political Theory and Methodology

 Political theories can be tested empirically. It can be proved or disproved or
confirmed or disconfirmed. It begins with a simple political thought which
could be applied and tested to possible become a fact depending on the
applicability of that theory to a given situation, scenario, place and time.

METHODOLOGY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Observational or Empirical Method

 Observing facts and phenomenon in the society, centering on the different

interactions of different political institutions, can be made useful if made
scientifically or through empirical method. The society, made and turned as
laboratories of Political Science as a field of study, with the people having
variants of ideas, ideologies, culture, color, religion etc. make the method
complicated. An empirical study of every change in their operation and
structure, every method in the formulation and determination of their laws
and policies, and every new system of administration in a state is very
essential for a better political analysis. The empirical or observational method
may best be employed, also, in determining the voting behavior of the
electorate in which election statistics and opinion polls are measures used to
predict the election winner. By these devices, the students of Political
Science have much to learn about voters’ motivations and how votes are
influenced by political issues and political candidates.

Historical Method

 The historical method enlightens the students of politics on the origin and
evolution of the state and institutions, by seeking to explain what they were in
the past, what they are present are and what they will be. The historical
approach will make the students interested in knowing not only the origin of
 the state, its government and practices, but also the forces and factors that
influence its growth and development. In other words, students should
depend much upon the evidence of past experiences of the state in order to
be able to explain the present and future development of its institutions.

Comparative Method

 The comparative method in the study of Political Science brings into focus
contemporary political institutions and practices of various countries at
different periods of history. From this focus, students can draw similarities
and differences in the structures and systems of the governments of these
countries, in their laws and constitutions, in their judicial system, in their Local
Government Units, in their electoral processes, political parties, and even in
the culture and customs of their peoples.

 The employment of the comparative approach has been very helpful to

Political Scientists in prescribing solutions to certain political problems. It
presents to students of politics and to government leaders the different
processes of political institutions and their various aspects, and gives them
the opportunity to select the best that can be adopted and suited to present
conditions.

Analytical Method

 This field of endeavor is aimed at discovering the significant or essential

elements of political institutions in an attempt to analyze and examine their
worth and value on how they work. The analytical method when used by the
Political scientists would force them to make a detailed study of these
political institutions, evaluating their interrelations in the exercise of their
powers and performance of their functions for maximizing government in their
relations with other functional groups in society. Therefore, a large part of the
analytical study of these institutions is devoted to understanding the
mechanics and operation of institutional systems and how they are belated to
the policy within which they function.

RELATIONSHIP OF POLITICAL SCIENCE TO OTHER STUDIES

Political Science & History

 The study of a state and its political institutions depend on history in knowing
its origin, its growth and development, and its institutions. An analysis of the
causes and factors that influence the state’s growth and development makes
it necessary for political writers to rely on historical facts. Thus, knowledge of
 historical foundations of the state will help political thinkers in analyzing and
describing present political phenomena, and consequently enables them to
provide, through the lessons of the past, direction to and meaning for the
future.

 It can be stressed that all political institutions can be better understood in

their structure, organization and operation, in their laws and constitution by
employing the historical approach.

Political Science & Economics

 Economics is a social science or branch or a study that concerns itself with

the problem of allocating scarce resources so as to attain the optimum
satisfaction of society’s unlimited wants. It is in this essence that the Political
Science receives energy from economics. By employing the economic
approach, a student of Political Science gains an insight into the economic
conditions of the state. He learns how the government shapes and
determines economic policies on the use of resources in order to achieve the
best of national goals-the economic welfare of the people.

Political Science and Sociology

 Sociology is the study of the society as a whole. It is a Social Science course

that enriches Political science by its contributions to the study of social
problems which are also problems of the government. The sociologist’s
investigations and inquiries on crime, marital relations problems, juvenile
delinquency, housing problems are data available to Political Scientists to
evaluate, and which may later become interesting and basic subjects of
legislation.

Political Science and Psychology

 It has been said by some political writers that Psychology is the foundation of
Political Science. This is through the study of men’s political behavior. The
close relationship of Political Science to psychology may also be understood
in the study of political dynamics where students learn a lot about the
operation of political parties to achieve their main goal of controlling the
government. Psychology’s contribution to Political science can also be
appreciated in the study of public opinion which is influenced by two factors:
propaganda and pressure groups.

Political Science and Anthropology

 There is also a close association of Political science with anthropology.

Students of politics are benefited by the anthropological theory of the state.
Anthropologists believe that the state evolved from the family, and from the
 clan into bigger or more extensive groupings ( i.e. tribe ) and finally the
nation, bound by common ties and goals.

Political Science and Geography

 The knowledge of geography is very useful in the study of Political science,

especially those aspects related to external political problems, frontiers or
boundaries, national power, and trade relations, which have led to the
galvanization of regional arrangements or associations

The Ideals of the Study of Politics

Ideally, the study of politics should contribute to the general progress and
development of humanity and not to perpetuate the greed for power of few individuals,
which from time immemorial, has been the root cause of man’s inhumanity towards
each other. Students of Politics should use the knowledge they acquire from their study
to educate people, assuming of course that by dealing with the study of politics they
have already educated themselves, for better citizenship. Students of Politics, in short,
should help equip people with intellectual resources that will catapult them to greater
heights of human resources and which will make their existence more meaningful and
satisfying. On the end view, politics should be for advancing the general interests and
not personal interests. Deviations from the “oughts” of politics should be considered as
to arouse each individuals to correct the common notion of politics as a dirty thing.