Chapter 7 Motivation Concepts

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Chapter 7
Motivation Concepts

BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. Motivation Defined
A. What Is Motivation?
1. The level of motivation varies both between individuals and within
individuals at different times.
2. Motivation is the processes that account for an individual’s intensity,
direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
3. We will narrow the focus to organizational goals in order to reflect our
singular interest in work-related behavior.
4. The three key elements of our definition are intensity, direction, and
persistence.
II. Early Theories of Motivation
A. Introduction
1. In the 1950s, three specific theories were formulated and are the best known.
2. These early theories are important to understand because they represent a
foundation from which contemporary theories have grown.
B. Hierarchy of Needs Theory
1. Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is the most well-known theory of
motivation. He hypothesized that within every human being there exists a
hierarchy of five needs. (Exhibit 7-1)
a. Physiological: Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.
b. Safety: Includes security and protection from physical and emotional
harm.
c. Social: Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
d. Esteem: Includes internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and
achievement; and external factors such as status, recognition, and
attention.
e. Self-actualization: The drive to become what one is capable of becoming;
includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment.
2. As a need becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
No need is ever fully gratified; a substantially satisfied need no longer
motivates.
3. Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower orders.
4. Maslow’s need theory has received wide recognition, particularly among
managers.

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a. Research does not generally validate the theory.

C. Two-Factor Theory
1. The two-factor theory is sometimes also called motivation-hygiene theory.
2. Proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg when he investigated the
question, “What do people want from their jobs?” He asked people to
describe, in detail, situations in which they felt exceptionally good or bad
about their jobs. (Exhibit 7-2) These responses were then tabulated and
categorized.
3. From the categorized responses, Herzberg concluded:
a. Intrinsic factors, such as advancement, recognition, responsibility, and
achievement, seem to be related to job satisfaction.
b. Dissatisfied respondents tended to cite extrinsic factors, such as
supervision, pay, company policies, and working conditions.
c. The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction.
d. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily
make the job satisfying.
e. Job satisfaction factors are separate and distinct from job dissatisfaction
factors. Managers who eliminate job dissatisfaction factors may not
necessarily bring about motivation. (Exhibit 7-3)
f. When hygiene factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied;
neither will they be satisfied. To motivate people, emphasize factors
intrinsically rewarding that are associated with the work itself or to
outcomes directly derived from it.
4. Criticisms of the theory:
a. The procedure that Herzberg used is limited by its methodology.
b. The reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is questioned.
c. No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized.
D. McClelland’s Theory of Needs
1. McClelland’s theory of needs focuses on three needs: achievement, power,
and affiliation.
a. Need for achievement (nAch): the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to
a set of standards.
i. High achievers perform best when they perceive their probability of
success as 50/50.
ii. They like to set goals that require stretching themselves a little.
iii. The view that a high achievement need acts as an internal motivator
presupposes two U.S. cultural characteristics—willingness to accept
moderate risk and concern with performance.
b. Need for power: the need to make others behave in a way that they would
not have behaved otherwise.
i. The need for power (nPow) is the desire to have impact, to be
influential, and to control others.
c. Need for affiliation (nAfl): the desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships.
2. McClelland’s theory has research support, particularly cross-culturally (when
cultural dimensions including power distance are considered).

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a. Unfortunately, the theory is difficult to put into practice.

III. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
A. Introduction
1. In contrast, contemporary theories have one thing in common: each has a
reasonable degree of valid supporting documentation.
B. Self-Determination Theory
1. Self-determination theory proposes (in part) that people prefer to feel they
have control over their actions, and anything that makes a previously enjoyed
task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine
motivation.
2. Much research on self-determination theory in OB has focused on cognitive
evaluation theory, which hypothesizes that extrinsic rewards will reduce
intrinsic interest in a task.
3. Self-determination theory also proposes that in addition to being driven by a
need for autonomy, people seek ways to achieve competence and positive
connections to others.
4. What does self-determination theory suggest for providing rewards?
a. If a computer programmer values writing code because she likes to solve
problems, a reward for working to an externally imposed standard she
does not accept, such as writing a certain number of lines of code every
day, could feel coercive, and her intrinsic motivation would suffer.
b. A recent outgrowth of self-determination theory is self-concordance,
which considers how strongly peoples’ reasons for pursuing goals are
consistent with their interests and core values.
5. Implications
a. For individuals, it means choose your job for reasons other than extrinsic
rewards.
b. For organizations, it means managers should provide intrinsic as well as
extrinsic incentives.
C. Goal-Setting Theory
1. Goal-setting theory: in the late 1960s, Edwin Locke proposed that intentions
to work toward a goal are a major source of work motivation.
2. Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is needed.
3. Evidence strongly suggests that specific goals increase performance, that
difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy
goals, and that feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback.
4. Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than do the generalized
goals.
5. If factors like ability and acceptance of the goals are held constant, we can
also state that the more difficult the goal, the higher the level of performance.
6. There are contingencies in goal-setting theory. In addition to feedback, three
other factors influence the goals-performance relationship: goal commitment,
task characteristics, and national culture.
7. Goal Commitment
a. Goal-setting theory presupposes that an individual is committed to the
goal.

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i. Believes he or she can achieve the goal and wants to achieve it.
8. Task Characteristics
a. Goals themselves seem to affect performance more strongly when tasks
are simple rather than complex, well learned rather than novel, and
independent rather than interdependent.
b. On interdependent tasks, group goals are preferable.
9. National Culture
a. Goal-setting theory is culture bound.
i. In collectivistic and high-power distance cultures, achievable moderate
goals can be more motivating than difficult ones.
10. When learning something is important, goals related to performance
undermine adaptation and creativity because people become too focused on
outcomes and ignore changing conditions.
11. Goals can lead employees to be too focused on a single standard to the
exclusion of all others.
12. Despite differences of opinion, most researchers do agree that goals are
powerful in shaping behavior.
13. Research has also found that people differ in the way they regulate their
thoughts and behaviors during goal pursuit.
14. Generally, people fall into one of two categories, though they could belong to
both.
a. Those with a promotion focus strive for advancement and
accomplishment and approach conditions that move them closer toward
desired goals.
b. Those with a prevention focus strive to fulfill duties and obligations and
avoid conditions that pull them away from desired goals.
15. Which is the better strategy? Ideally, it’s probably best to be both promotion
(related to higher levels of task performance, citizenship behavior and
innovation) and prevention (related to safety performance) oriented.
16. Implementing goal-setting.
a. How do you make goal-setting operational in practice?
i. Management by Objectives (MBO)
(a) Participatively set goals that are tangible, verifiable, and
measurable.
ii. Organizations’ overall objectives are translated into specific objectives
for each succeeding level. (Exhibit 7-4)
b. Four ingredients common to MBO programs:
i. Goal specificity.
ii. Participation in decision making.
iii. Explicit time period.
iv. Performance feedback.
17. Goal Setting and Ethics.
a. The relationship between goal-setting and ethics is quite complex: if we
emphasize the attainment of goals, what is the cost?
b. We may forgo mastering tasks and adopt avoidance techniques so we
don’t look bad, both of which can incline us toward unethical choices.

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IV. Other Contemporary Theories of Motivation

A. Self-Efficacy Theory
1. Self-efficacy theory, a component of social cognitive theory or social
learning theory, refers to an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task.
a. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your
ability to succeed in a task.
b. Self-efficacy can (but not always) create a positive spiral in which those
with high efficacy become more engaged in their tasks and then, in turn,
increase performance, which increases efficacy further. (focused attention
and -ve feedback)
2. Goal setting theory and self-efficacy theory don’t compete with one another;
they complement each other. (Exhibit 7-5)
3. Albert Bandura, developer of self-efficacy theory:
a. Enactive mastery—gaining relevant experience with the task or job.
b. Vicarious modeling—becoming more confident because you see someone
else doing the task.
c. Verbal persuasion—more confident because someone convinces you that
you have the skills. (motivational speakers)
d. Arousal—leads to an energized state driving a person to complete the task.
i. The best way for a manager to use verbal persuasion is through the
Pygmalion effect or the Galatea effect.
(Intelligence, emotionally stable & confident personality in a smart person =
increase SE; by-product)
4. Influencing self-efficacy in others.
a. Training programs often make use of enactive mastery by having people
practice and build their skills.
B. Reinforcement Theory
1. Goal-setting is a cognitive approach, proposing that an individual’s purposes
direct his action.
2. Reinforcement theory, in contrast, takes a behavioristic view, arguing that
reinforcement conditions behavior.
a. Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the individual and
concentrates solely on what happens when he or she takes some action.
3. Operant Conditioning/Behaviorism and Reinforcement
a. Operant conditioning theory argues that people learn to behave to get
something they want or to avoid something they don’t want.
i. Unlike reflexive or unlearned behavior, operant behavior is influenced
by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by its
consequences.
ii. Reinforcement strengthens a behavior and increases the likelihood it
will be repeated.
iii. B. F. Skinner, one of the most prominent advocates of operant
conditioning, argued that creating pleasing consequences to follow
specific forms of behavior would increase the frequency of that
behavior.

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iv. The concept of operant conditioning was part of Skinner’s broader

concept of behaviorism, which argues that behavior follows stimuli in
a relatively unthinking manner.
v. Of course, the linkage can also teach individuals to engage in
behaviors that work against the best interests of the organization.
4. Social Learning Theory and Reinforcement
a. Individuals learn by being told or by observing what happens to other
people, as well as through direct experience.
i. The view that we can learn through both observation and direct
experience is called social-learning theory.
(a) Models are central to the social-learning viewpoint. Four processes
determine their influence on an individual:
(i) Attentional processes. People learn from a model only when
they recognize and pay attention to its critical features.
(ii) Retention processes. A model’s influence depends on how
well the individual remembers the model’s action after the
model is no longer readily available.
(iii) Motor reproduction processes. After a person has seen a new
behavior by observing the model, watching must be converted
to doing.
(iv) Reinforcement processes. Individuals are motivated to exhibit
the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are
provided.
C. Expectancy Theory
1. Expectancy theory is one of the most widely accepted explanations of
motivation. Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory has its critics but most of the
research is supportive.
2. Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain
way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by
a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
3. It says that an employee will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when
he/she believes that:
a. Effort will lead to a good performance appraisal.
b. That a good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards.
c. That the rewards will satisfy his/her personal goals.
d. Three key relationships: (Exhibit 7-8)
i. Expectancy: the effort-performance relationship: the probability
perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will
lead to performance.
ii. Instrumentality: the performance-reward relationship: the degree
to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level
will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.
iii. Valence: the rewards-personal goals relationship: the degree to
which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or
needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the
individual.

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V. Equity Theory/Organizational Justice

A. What role does equity play in motivation?
B. Equity theory: Individuals make comparisons of their job inputs and
outcomes relative to those of others and then respond to eliminate any
inequities. (Exhibit 7-6)
1. If we perceive our ratio to be equal to that of the relevant others with
whom we compare ourselves, a state of equity is said to exist. We perceive
our situation as fair.
2. When we see the ratio as unequal, we experience equity tension.
C. Employees who perceive inequity will make one of six choices:
1. Change their inputs.
2. Change their outcomes.
3. Distort perceptions of self.
4. Distort perceptions of others.
5. Choose a different referent.
6. Leave the field.
D. Some of these propositions have been supported, but others haven’t.
1. First, inequities created by overpayment do not seem to significantly affect
behavior in most work situations.
2. Second, not all people are equity sensitive.
E. Organizational justice (fairness in the workplace) draws a bigger picture.
1. For the most part, employees evaluate how fairly they are treated along
four dimensions. (Exhibit 7-7)
F. Distributive justice is concerned with the fairness of the outcomes, such as
pay and recognition that employees receive.
G. Although employees care a lot about what outcomes are distributed
(distributive justice), they also care a lot about how outcomes are distributed.
H. Procedural Justice
1. While distributive justice looks at what outcomes are allocated,
procedural justice examines how outcomes are allocated.
a) Having direct influence over how decisions or made, or at the very
least being able to present your opinion to decision makers, creates a
sense of control and makes us feel empowered.
b) Employees also perceive that procedures are fairer when decision
makers follow several “rules.”
2. It turns out that procedural and distributive justice combine to influence
people’s perceptions of fairness.
a) If outcomes are favorable and individuals get what they want, they
care less about the process, so procedural justice doesn’t matter as
much when distributions are perceived to be fair.
I. Interactional Justice
1. Beyond outcomes and procedures, research has shown that employees care
about two other types of fairness that have to do with the way they are
treated during interactions with others.
2. Both of these fall within the category of interactional justice (see Figure
7-7).

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J. Informational Justice
1. Research has shown that employees care about two other types of fairness
that have to do with the way they are treated during interactions with
others.
a) The first type is informational justice, which reflects whether
managers provide employees with explanations for key decisions and
keep them informed of important organizational matters.
K. Interpersonal Justice
1. The second type of justice relevant to interactions between managers and
employees is interpersonal justice, which reflects whether employees are
treated with dignity and respect.
L. Justice Outcomes
M. How much does justice really matter to employees?
1. A great deal, as it turns out. When employees feel fairly treated, they
respond in a number of positive ways.
2. All four types of justice discussed in this section have been linked to
higher levels of task performance and citizenship behaviors such as
helping coworkers, as well as lower levels of counterproductive behaviors
such as shirking job duties.
a) Distributive and procedural justices are more strongly associated with
task performance, while informational and interpersonal justices are
more strongly associated with citizenship behavior.
3. Despite all attempts to enhance fairness, perceived injustices are still
likely to occur.
a) Fairness is often subjective; what one person sees as unfair, another
may see as perfectly appropriate.
N. Others’ Reactions to Injustice
1. Research is beginning to suggest that third party, or observer, reactions to
injustice can be important.
2. One model of third-party injustice suggests that several factors play into
how we react:
a) Our own traits and characteristics
b) The transgressor and victim’s traits and characteristics (including an
attribution of blame)
c) The specifics of the justice event or situation.
3. In turn, those who observed mistreatment perceive unfairness and react
accordingly, such as when a coworker watches you berated by your
supervisor (if you deserved it, they would probably be content—if you
didn’t, they would probably be angry with your supervisor).
4. Research also suggests that how your coworkers and supervisors treat
customers also affects your justice perceptions—two studies in healthcare
organizations found that patient mistreatment by one’s supervisor led to
employee distrust and less cooperative behavior.
O. Promoting Justice

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1. It might be tempting for organizations to adopt strong justice guidelines in

attempts to mandate managerial behavior, but this isn’t likely to be
universally effective.
2. In cases where managers have more rules and less discretion, those who
calculate justice are more likely to act fairly, but managers whose justice
behavior follows from their affect may act more fairly when they have
greater discretion.
P. Culture and Justice
1. In terms of cultural differences, research shows individuals in both
individualistic and collectivistic cultures prefer an equitable distribution of
rewards over an equal division (everyone gets paid the same regardless of
performance).
a) International managers must consider the cultural preferences of each
group of employees when determining what is “fair” in different
contexts.
VI. Job Engagement
A. Job engagement: the investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive, and
emotional energies into job performance.
B. Many studies attempt to measure this deeper level of commitment.
C. What makes people more likely to be engaged in their jobs?
1. One key is the degree to which an employee believes it is meaningful to
engage in work.
2. Another factor is a match between the individual’s values and those of the
organization.
3. Leadership behaviors that inspire workers to a greater sense of mission also
increase employee engagement.
D. One of the critiques of engagement is that the construct is partially redundant with
job attitudes like satisfaction or stress.
E. Engagement may also predict important work outcomes better than traditional job
attitudes.
VII. Integrating Contemporary Motivation Theories
A. Exhibit 7-9 integrates much of what we know about motivation. Its basic
foundation is the expectancy model.
B. Expectancy theory predicts that an employee will exert a high level of effort if
he/she perceives that there is a strong relationship between effort and
performance, performance and rewards, and rewards and satisfaction of personal
goals.
1. The final link in expectancy theory is the rewards-goals relationship.
2. The model considers the achievement, need, reinforcement, and
equity/organizational justice theories.
C. Reinforcement theory recognizes that the organization’s rewards reinforce the
individual’s performance.
VIII. Summary and Implications for Management
A. Motivation describes the processes (e.g., intensity, direction, and persistence)
underlying how employees and other individuals in the workplace direct their
efforts toward a goal.

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B. Although not well supported, many foundational early theories of motivation

focused on the needs that employees have along with the consequences of need
satisfaction.

C. More contemporary theories focused on such topics as intrinsic and extrinsic

motivation, setting goals in organizations, self-efficacy, reinforcement, along with
our expectations regarding effort, performance, reward, and outcome
relationships.

D. Beyond these theories, various forms of organizational justice (e.g., distributive,

procedural, and interactional), all deriving from equity theory, are important in
motivating employees.

E. Motivation is key to understanding employees’ contributions to their work,

including their job engagement.

F. Overall, motivation underlies how and why employees exert effort to engage in
performance activities, which in turn meet personal or organizational goals.

G. Specific implications for managers are below:

1. Make sure extrinsic rewards for employees are not viewed as coercive, but
instead provide information about competence and relatedness.
2. Either set or inspire your employees to set specific, difficult goals and provide
quality, developmental feedback on their progress toward those goals.
3. Try to align or tie in employee goals to the goals of your organization.
4. Model the types of behaviors you would like to see performed by your
employees.
5. Expectancy theory offers a powerful explanation of performance variables
such as employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover.
6. When making decisions regarding resources in your organization, make sure
to consider how the resources are being distributed (and who’s impacted), the
fairness of the decision, along with whether your actions demonstrate that you
respect those involved.

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