Sinking cities

An integrated approach towards solutions

In many coastal and delta cities land subsidence exceeds absolute sea level rise up to a factor
of ten. Without action, parts of Jakarta, Ho Chi Minh City, Bangkok and numerous other
coastal cities will sink below sea level. Increased flooding and other widespread impacts of
land subsidence result in damage totalling billions of dollars per year. A major cause of severe
land subsidence is excessive groundwater extraction due to rapid urbanization and population
growth. A major rethink is needed to deal with the ‘hidden’ but urgent threat of subsidence.
Deltares presents a comprehensive approach to address land subsidence from the perspective
of more sustainable and resilient urban development.

There is abundant evidence that land subsidence detrimental impacts will increase in the near future,
causes major problems worldwide: making it necessary to address subsidence related
• In many coastal megacities around the world land problems now.
subsidence increases flood vulnerability (frequency, • The impacts of subsidence are further exacerbated
inundation depth and duration of floods), with floods by extreme weather events (short term) and rising
causing major economic damage and loss of lives. sea levels (long term).
• Land subsidence results in significant economic • Subsidence is an issue that involves many policy
losses in the form of structural damage and high fields, complex technical aspects and governance
maintenance costs. This effects roads and trans- embedment. There is a need for an integrated
portation networks, hydraulic infrastructure - such approach in order to manage subsidence and to
as river embankments, sluice gates, flood barriers develop appropriate strategies and measures that
and pumping stations -, sewage systems, buildings are effective and efficient on both the short and long
and foundations. The total damage worldwide is term. Urban (ground)water management, adaptive
estimated at billions of dollars annually. flood risk management and related spatial planning
• Because of ongoing urbanization and population strategies are just examples of the options available.
growth in delta areas, in particular in coastal mega- The figure below illustrates the current subsidence
cities, there is, and will be, more economic develop- problems related to socio-economic development and
ment in subsidence-prone areas. Consequently, climate change.

Climate change Socio-economic development

• Accelerated sea level rise • Urbanization and population growth
• Extreme weather events • Increased water demand

Sea level rise

3 - 10 mm/year Impacts
• Increased flood risk
• Damage to buildings, infrastructure
• Disruption of water management

Subsidence Causes
6 - 100 mm/year • Groundwater extraction
• Oil, gas, coal mining
• Tectonics

Figure 1. Land subsidence in a multi-sectoral perspective

 Sinking cities - An integrated approach towards solutions

Current global mean absolute sea level rise is around observed subsidence rates in coastal megacities are in
3 mm/year and projections until 2100 based on IPCC the range of 6-100 mm/year and projections till 2025
scenarios expect a global mean absolute sea level expect similar subsidence rates, depending on future
rise in a range of 3-10 mm/year. However current measures. This is illustrated in figure 2.

Year

1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2025

1
SLR (m)

-1
Absolute SLR
Bangkok

-2 Ho Chi Minh City

Jakarta
Manila
Subsidence (m)

-3 West Netherlands
Tokyo

-4

-5

Figure 2. Global sea level rise (SLR) and average land subsidence for several coastal cities (please note that subsidence
can differ considerably within a city area, depending on groundwater level and subsurface characteristics)

Subsidence in Sinking Cities

Mean cumulative Mean current Maximum Estimated additional mean
subsidence in period subsidence rate subsidence rate cumulative subsidence
1900 - 2013 (mm) (mm/yr) (mm/yr) until 2025 (mm)

Jakarta* 2000 75-100 179 1800

Ho Chi Minh City* 300 Up to 80 80 200

Bangkok* 1250 20-30 120 190

New Orleans* 1130 6 26 > 200

Tokyo** 4250 Around 0 239 0

West Netherlands* 275 2-10 > 17 70

Sources: * Deltares, 2013, ** Kaneko & Toyota, 2011

Sea level rise (SLR)

Cumulative mean Current rate Maximum rate Possible additional future
SLR in period 1900 - (mm/yr) (mm/yr) SLR (mm)
2013 (mm)

Worldwide mean*** 195 3 - 86

Sources: *** Church and White, 2011, Slangen et al., 2013

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 An integrated approach towards solutions - Sinking cities

Monitoring

To determine land subsidence rates accurate measuring techniques are required. These are also essential to
validate subsidence prediction models. Ongoing subsidence monitoring provides the necessary insight in minor to
very significant changes in the topography of the urban area. This could be used for a so-called “dynamic Digital
Elevation Model (DEM)“. This is not just a static, one-time only recording of the local topography (preferably high
resolution) in a DEM, but an elevation model that can be corrected and updated from time to time, and used in
hydraulic models for flood prediction and urban water management.

The following observation methods are being used:

• Optical leveling
• GPS surveys
• Laser Imaging Detection and Ranging (LIDAR)
• Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) satellite imagery
• Field observations (ground truthing on buildings and infrastructure, including the use of extensometers)

Following early work with systematic optical leveling, nowadays GPS surveys, LIDAR and INSAR remote sensing
techniques are deployed with impressive results. In contrast to surveys, LIDAR and INSAR images give a spatially
resolved subsidence signal. INSAR images date back to the nineties and can now be used to establish subsidence
since. Application of this technique is for the moment limited to the urban environment.
Periodic and systematic surveys remain essential for ground truthing of remote sensing derived subsidence rates
and for validation of subsidence prediction models.

Causes

Subsidence can have natural as well as anthropogenic

causes. The natural causes include tectonics,
glacial isostatic adjustment and natural sediment
compaction. Subsidence from anthropogenic causes
occurs as a result of compression of shallow layers
(0-20 m) by loading (with buildings), or as a result of
drainage and subsequent oxidation and consolidation
of organic soils and peat. This is related to the physical
characteristics of alluvial sediments (alternating
layers of sand, clay and peat), making low-lying
coastal and delta areas very prone to subsidence. In
deeper layers subsidence is caused by extraction of
resources such as oil, gas, coal, salt and groundwater.
(m)

In most of the large delta cities, severe land subsidence Figure 3. Cumulative land subsidence over the period
is mainly caused by extraction of groundwater 1974 – 2010 in Jakarta, Indonesia (Deltares, 2011)
(Jakarta, Ho Chi Minh City, Bangkok, Dhaka, Shanghai
and Tokyo). Rapidly expanding urban areas require groundwater levels to fall by 2-3 meters per year.
huge amounts of water for domestic and industrial Moreover in many developing cities, multiple large
water supply. This often leads to over-exploitation construction activities require site dewatering for
of groundwater resources, especially when surface foundation excavations. This causes lowering of the
waters are seriously polluted (Jakarta, Dhaka). In groundwater level as well, resulting in soil compression
Dhaka continuous large scale extractions cause and land subsidence.

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 Sinking cities - An integrated approach towards solutions

0 -20
Observed head
Simulated head 0
-1
20
-2

Subsidence (mm)
40
Head (m)

-3 60

80
-4
100
Figure 4. Distinct relation
-5 between falling groundwater
120
level (head) and subsidence
Subsidence (mm)
-6 140 in Ho Chi Minh City (Deltares,
Jul97 Jan00 Jul02 Jan05 Jul07 Jan10 2013)
Date

Studies in many cities have revealed a distinct relation New Orleans (USA) is a prominent example of a city
between falling groundwater levels and subsidence. where shallow drainage causes subsidence. After
The resulting spatial pattern of subsidence and its draining the organic rich soils, they start to oxidize
progress over time, is strongly related to the local adding to the overall subsidence rate of 6 mm/year.
composition of the subsurface and the number and This process will go on as long as organic material
location of groundwater wells. is available and it contributes to the sinking of the
already low lying coastal city.

State of the art subsidence modeling

Land subsidence modeling and fore­ As land subsidence is in many pla- in subsurface layers (aquifers and
casting tools are being progressi- ces intricately linked to excessive aquitards) and accounts for tempo-
vely developed that enable Deltares groundwater extraction, Deltares has ral and spatial variability of geostatic
to quantitatively assess medium- to developed modeling tools that calcu- and effective stresses to determine
long term land subsidence rates, late land subsidence - vertical com- layer compaction. The modeling tool
and determine and distinguish paction - in regional ground­ water is a modified version of the ground-
between multiple causes. Mode- flow models. These models enable water flow model (U.S. Geological
ling tools are used as part of our us to make predictions for land sub- Survey). The modeling tool has been
integrated approach and comple- sidence under different scenarios of used in several studies (Jakarta, Ho
mented with monitoring techniques groundwater usage and contribute to Chi Minh City) to assess the adverse
(i.e. GPS leveling, the use of InSAR develop integrated water resources consequences of groundwater ex-
­monitoring techniques). Prefe­rably, management including its environ- traction and to determine medium
the required primary monitoring mental and socio-economic impacts. to long-term land subsidence trends
data and analytical results (of and consequences for urban flood
­various ­modeling tools) are stored The subsidence modeling approach management and vulnerability.
in a central ­database. uses changes in groundwater storage

Figure 5. Deltares’ new subsidence model

0
with creep now also includes the calculation of creep,
Settlement (m)

0.1 without creep the slow and largely irreversible component

0.2 of subsidence. Specifically in aquifers with
0.3 many fine-grained interbeds, creep clearly
adds to the total amount of settlement over
0.4
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 time and may not be neglected.

Year

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 An integrated approach towards solutions - Sinking cities

Impacts

Some major impacts of subsidence are:

• Increased flood risk (frequency, depth and duration
of inundation) and more frequent rainfall induced
floods due to ineffective drainage systems

• Damage to buildings, foundations, infrastructure

(roads, bridges, dikes) and subsurface structures
(drainage, sewerage, gas pipes etc.)

• Disruption of the water management and related

effects (changing gradient of streams, canals and
drains, increased salt water intrusion, increased
need for pumping)

Moreover, as a result of limited available space,

housing, industrial estates and infrastructure are
increasingly situated in subsidence-prone (marginal)
lands, such as floodplains and coastal marshes
(Jakarta, New Orleans) with obvious consequences.
These impacts are aggravated on the long term, by
future climate change impacts, such as sea level rise,
increased storm surges and changes in precipitation.

Subsidence leads to direct and indirect damage. Direct

effects are for instance loss of functionality or integrity
of structures like buildings, roads and underground
utility networks (critical infrastructure). The most
common indirect effects of damage are related to
changes in relative water levels, both groundwater
levels and surface water levels.
The estimation of associated costs is very complex.
In practice operational and maintenance costs are
considered in several short and long term policies and
budgeting. The costs appear on financial sheets as ad
hoc investments or planned maintenance schemes,
but not as damage costs related to subsidence.

In China the average total economic loss due to

subsidence is estimated at around 1.5 billion dollars
per year of which 80-90% are indirect losses. In Euro per year. The majority of these costs will not be
Shanghai, over the period 2001-2010, the total loss recognized directly as damage due to subsidence. Also
cumulates to approximately 2 billion dollar. In Bangkok the construction site preparation and construction
many private and public buildings, roads, pavements, costs in soft-soil areas should be considered as
levees and underground infrastructure (sewerage, subsidence-related costs, as these are mainly incurred
drainage) are severely damaged by subsidence, but to prevent consolidation.
proper estimates of the costs of damage are not Moreover due to economic and urban development
available. the potential damage costs will increase considerably,
In 2006, the total costs of subsidence related damage especially in subsidence prone areas such as flood
in The Netherlands was estimated at over 3.5 billion plains.

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 Sinking cities - An integrated approach towards solutions

aggregates and often waste materials. To some extent,

spatial planning measures were applied to avoid
subsidence-prone areas, but fast growth of informal
settlements has made many of these plans obsolete.
Recently the Jakarta Coastal Defense Strategy
(JCDS) programme integrated the results of various
subsidence studies and tried to obtain a reliable
number for current and future subsidence trends. This
subsidence prognosis is regarded as an extremely vital
component for an integrated flood management and
coastal defense strategy.

In Bangkok extreme land subsidence by groundwater

extraction was successfully reduced by regulations
and restrictions for groundwater extraction. A specific
Responses law (Groundwater Act) was enacted in 1977. Most
severely affected areas were designated as Critical
In pristine deltas, the naturally occurring subsidence Zones with more control over private and public
is compensated by the sediment delivered by the river. groundwater activities. Groundwater Use Charges were
However, nowadays, many river systems deliver much first implemented in 1985 and gradually increased. In
less sediment to their deltas, because sediment is Bangkok currently about 10% of the total water use is
trapped by upstream dams, or is extracted for building from groundwater extraction, however subsidence is
material. With limited sediment supply, natural still ongoing but at a much slower pace than before.
subsidence remains inadequately compensated, let
alone the larger anthropogenic subsidence.Hence Although land subsidence in Ho Chi Minh City has
deltas start to sink. This is noticeable in delta cities been observed since 1997, there is still considerable
like Jakarta, Ho Chi Minh City, Bangkok, New Orleans, discrepancy about its causes and impacts. This is
Shanghai and in The Netherlands. partly due to poor monitoring data on land subsidence
and on groundwater extraction. Restrictions on
Measures to counteract anthropogenic subsidence groundwater extraction have been initiated but it is
are in most cases initiated only when the detrimental too early to observe effects. Besides the registered
impacts become apparent, in the form of flooding exploitation, which draws mainly from the deeper
or serious damage to buildings and infrastructure. aquifers there is a large amount of unregistered
Responses till now have been largely focused on extraction for domestic water supply. Hence, the total
restriction of groundwater extraction and some spatial drawdown rate shows no sign of decreasing. Possibly,
planning adjustments or locally raising the level of the this can also be attributed to the fact that recharge is
land. A comprehensive and integrated (multi-sectoral) hindered by the reduction in infiltration area due to
approach is often lacking. urbanization.

In the Greater Jakarta area, metropolitan authorities In New Orleans and the Mississippi delta there is as
and technical agencies are advocating the reduction yet no coordinated strategy on mitigating subsidence.
of groundwater extraction in vulnerable areas by The extraction of oil and gas is of great economic
completely phasing out the use of groundwater and importance for the region and will be stimulated,
taxing groundwater consumption. This would include rather than limited. The debate on groundwater
the development of alternative water supply for large use in New Orleans has only recently started, as its
industrial users or relocation of large groundwater contribution to subsidence is so far unknown. The
users, outside the ‘critical zones’. The number of recently published water management strategy for
‘unregistered’ users is still a problem. Ongoing New Orleans, however, suggests raising water levels
economic development and city expansion, lead to the in areas with organic rich soils, reducing oxidation
filling of low-lying and flood prone lands with mineral of organic matter and mitigating subsidence. The

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 An integrated approach towards solutions - Sinking cities

Year
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
0

-10

-20

-30 Groundwater level

(m)
-40
0

-1 Cumulative
land subsidence
-2 (m)

-3

-4

-5

Figure 6. Land subsidence and groundwater level in Tokyo area (Kaneko & Toyota, 2011)

Mississippi delta is starved of sediment because subsidence, provided that average yearly pumping
of constructions of dams and erosion-prevention rates are in balance with the average yearly recharge.
measures upstream in the catchment. In the Coastal
Masterplan for the Mississippi Delta plans are included In Dhaka, increasing problems with flooding and
to reintroduce sediment-loaded floodwaters to the water supply are resulting in more attention to
delta once more. excessive groundwater extraction and subsidence.
In this rapidly expanding city many areas are
In Tokyo, after taking regulatory measures on subsidence-prone but there is currently a lack of data
restriction of groundwater use in the early sixties, the on subsidence and its impacts. At present 87% of
groundwater levels increased again and after around the supplied water is from ground water extraction
10 years the subsidence was stopped (see figure 5). . and it has been acknowledged that the focus has to
be changed to using surface water instead. However,
With increasing insight in the relationship between treating surface water is much more technically
groundwater extraction and land subsidence, complex and expensive than using groundwater, also
techniques were developed in Shanghai to restore because the large rivers nearest to Dhaka city, are
groundwater levels with active or passive recharge. polluted among others by the economically important
Although this reduced the further lowering of textile industry.
groundwater tables and limited subsidence, it did
not solve immediate problems, notably the effect of
subsidence on infrastructure, roads and buildings.
Further developments in Shanghai have shown that,
with active and substantial recharge, sustainable
groundwater use is achievable, without severe

Especially a flood event can lead to more attention for subsidence. This happened for example in November
2007 when the northern part of Jakarta, which is heavily subsided and below sea level, was flooded by the sea
during an extremely high tide. For a long time, land subsidence was not really seen as one of the root causes of
flooding. Nowadays, there is increasing awareness that land subsidence has to be integrated into long-term flood
management and mitigation strategies.

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 Sinking cities - An integrated approach towards solutions

Integrated approach • Develop in-depth knowledge about the process

of subsidence and develop models and tools to
Land subsidence is often literally a “hidden” issue. assess and forecast subsidence and effects of
Because of its complex, cross-sectoral nature it mitigative measures.
not only takes place out-of-sight, but it is usually • Assess vulnerabilities, risks and impacts
not fully recognized (or acknowledged) especially regarding flooding, buildings, infrastructure, road
in the domain of governance and institutional and subsurface infrastructure, on a short and long
mandates and responsibilities. As yet, insufficient term, including costs.
account is taken of natural resource management, • Develop responses and solutions in a context
regional (urban) development and strategic spatial of sustainable natural resources management,
planning, and in particular urban flood management, climate change scenarios and socio-economic
infrastructure design and infrastructure maintenance. developments.
The detrimental effects of subsidence are ignored • Address governance by multi-sectoral policy
until they become a serious and costly issue, causing development, coordination and participation of
significant economic losses and a frequent nuisance all relevant stakeholders and develop innovative
for millions of people. Moreover, acquiring, processing financing structures
and disseminating land subsidence information so • Support decision makers with models and tools
that it reaches diverse stakeholders and decision- for selecting most appropriate adaptive measures
makers, is a complicated and multi-faceted task. (best practices), including their costs and benefits.
• Exchange of knowledge and best practices
If proper attention is paid to developing the required is important to avoid repetitive problems and
technical, administrative and institutional capabilities, duplication of (research) activities.
the negative impacts of land subsidence can be
mitigated and the process largely stopped. Therefore
a comprehensive and integrated approach is needed Main questions to be addressed in an integrated
consisting of the following elements: approach: what are the main causes, how much
is the current subsidence rate and what are
• Raise awareness on land subsidence, to involve future scenarios and interaction with other
relevant stakeholders and to determine ownership major environmental issues, where are the
and responsibilities. vulnerable areas, what are the impacts and
• Organize systematic monitoring and ensure risks, how can adverse impacts be mitigated
that data are reliable and easily accessible. or compensated for, and who is involved and
responsible to act?

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 An integrated approach towards solutions - Sinking cities

Integrated Approach and Assessment Framework for Subsidence

Deltares has developed and applied an Integrated Assessment Framework addressing subsidence, based on
the DPSIR approach combined with a Layer model for spatial development (DPSIR is an abbreviation for Driving
forces, Pressures, State, Impacts and Responses). The DPSIR aspects are addressing the cause-effect-response
chain, and through the Layer model this is elaborated for the Occupation layer (land and water use), Network
layer (infrastructure) and Base layer (natural resources subsurface). Moreover governance aspects are assessed
throughout in this framework. This approach is sufficiently generic to assess any subsidence case and to support
the development of appropriate response strategies and measures on the short and long term. It involves the
following four steps

Analysis of root causes of land subsidence within a context of other natural

Step 1
and socio-economic drivers (or hazards), such as sea level rise, population
Analysis of driving forces
growth, their interaction, and possible future scenarios of change.

Vulnerability and impact assessment addressing impacts on the three

Step 2 spatial layers, i.e. impact of subsidence on flood vulnerability, foundation
Vulnerability & impacts and networks integrity. This also involves the identification of main
stakeholders.

This relates to awareness raising, prioritizing of measures and stakeholder

Step 3
involvement taking into account the sense of urgency and specific
Risks
stakeholder responsibilities.

Integrated responses and solutions are elaborated, taking account of

governance challenges and decision making; this involves adaptive
Step 4
management, analysis of tipping points, cost/benefit analysis, identifying
Responses and solutions
opportunities for no-regret measures and win-win situations arising from
related to governance an integrated approach and underlying sequential analysis (Step 1-2-3) of
the problem, impacts and risks

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

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 Sinking cities - An integrated approach towards solutions

Key issues to adress subsidence

In the framework of an integrated approach 10 key issues and possible solutions are presented below:

1
Restriction of groundwater extraction
This measure is very important in most cases to counteract human induced subsidence.
In vulnerable areas extraction of groundwater should be reduced or completely phased out.
The following regulatory measures can be considered:
• Appropriate legislation and consistent implementation and enforcement of regulations
• Designation of groundwater regions and critical zones
• Restricted licensing and compliance checking for groundwater well drilling
• Universal groundwater use metering and charges for groundwater use

2
Natural and artificial recharge of aquifers
When addressed consistently and effectively, the reduction of groundwater mining can
eliminate one of the primary causes of land subsidence. However, the prolonged effects of
settlement, possibly taking up to 10 years, are not immediately solved. Natural and/or
controlled groundwater recharge may be applied to speed up recovery, as well as controlled
aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) as currently being developed and implemented in
Shanghai and Bangkok.

3
Development of alternative water supply (instead of groundwater)
In order to fulfill the increasing (urban) water demand, an alternative water supply for
industry and domestic users is required. This process should include water demand
assessments (water footprint) and cost/benefit assessments. Addressing and reducing
surface water pollution is vital, to develop a sustainable alternative water supply.

4
Integrated (urban) flood water management
Improved groundwater management and subsidence studies should be part of an integrated
urban water (resources) management strategy including the whole water-subsurface
system. Water resources management should be linked to flood mitigation. Ultimately, land
subsidence is intricately linked to integrated land and water management, including surface
as well as subsurface resources and constraints.

5
Improving governance and decision-making
In many cases governance is inadequate to address subsidence in an integrated multi-
sectoral approach and to develop sustainable short and long term solutions. This involves
(public) awareness, encouraging (public) participation, cooperation and coordination
between stakeholders at different scales and levels, and also enabling good decision-making
supported by decision support models and tools.

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 An integrated approach towards solutions - Sinking cities

6
Decision support models and tools
Development of models and tools are important to support good decision-making. This
involves among others analysis of the relationship between groundwater level and
subsidence, development of modeling and forecasting capabilities by development and
implementation of an integrated groundwater–subsidence monitoring and analytical model.
Moreover, it is essential that local agencies have the expertise and tools to conduct studies,
and are engaged in ongoing capacity building, training and knowledge exchange.

7
Appropriate monitoring and database system
Ongoing studies show that the dependence on reliable ground truth data of observed
subsidence is an alarming ‘Achilles heel’ in the battle against subsidence and related flood
risk. Therefore, it is necessary to develop and maintain geodetic monitoring networks
throughout the metropolitan areas, with stable, precisely calibrated benchmarks levels and
periodic leveling surveys, in order to build a good database with long time measurements of
subsidence.

8
Integrating geotechnical aspects in planning and design of buildings
and infrastructure
In the planning and design of (heavy) buildings and road infrastructure, geotechnical
research and modelling of the subsoil should be taken into account in order to avoid
subsidence problems including differential settlements, in the short or long term. This will
save considerable damage and high maintenance costs of infrastructure and buildings
(foundations). During underground construction activities (deep parking lots, metro-
stations, tunneling), the effects of de-watering should be minimized and, if necessary
monitored and/or mitigated.

9
Asset management, financing and public-private-partnerships (PPP)
To minimize damage caused by subsidence, the main financial risks associated with
investments and maintenance of assets (buildings, infrastructure) should be assessed. This
will lead to improved design options, programming and prioritization of investments, making
use of Real Options Theory and Asset Management. This involves determining performance
indicators, functional specifications, risk mitigation measures and bonus/malus in
(innovative) contracts. Moreover PPP and Private Financing should be explored building on
sustainable business models.

10
Exchange of knowledge and best practices
Through organization of international conferences, workshops, expert meetings and courses
knowledge and best practices can be exchanged to extend the common knowledge base
efficiently and effectively. This can be further supported by development of collaborative
research projects preferably in the framework of international (research) networks and
initiatives such as the UNESCO, CCOP and the Delta Alliance.

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 Sinking cities - An integrated approach towards solutions

References and further reading

Sea level rise

• Sea-Level Rise from the Late 19th to the Early 21st Century, John A. Church and Neil J. White, 2011
• Projecting twenty-first century regional sea-level Changes, A.B.A.Slangen et al, draft January 9, 2013,
(Submitted) or Towards regional projections of twenty-first century sea-level change based on IPCC SRES
scenarios, A.B.A.Slangen et al., Clim Dyn, 38 (5-6), 2012

Bangkok
• InSAR time series analysis of land subsidence in Bangkok, Thailand, Anuphao Aobpaet et al, International
Journal of Remote Sensing, 2012

Dhaka
• GPS Velocities and Structures across the Burma Accretionary Prisim and Shillong Anticline in Bangladesh
M.S. Steckler et al, 2012

Ho Chi Minh City

• Ho Chi Minh City Flood and Inundation Management - Final Report, Volume 2: IFRM Strategy, Annex 3: Land
Subsidence, Royal Haskoning-DHV and Deltares, 2013

Jakarta
• Jakarta Coastal Defence Strategy (JCDS) study, several reports a.o. Activity Report: Land subsidence and
adaptation / mitigation strategies, JCDS Bridging Phase, Rien Dam, Deltares, 2012

Manila
• Investigating ground deformation and subsidence in northern Metro Manila, Philippines using Persistent
Scatterer Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PSInSAR), R.C. Eco et al, American Geophysical Union, Fall
Meeting, 2011

Netherlands
• Shallow subsidence in th Dutch wetlands estimated by satellite radar interferometry, Miguel Caro Cuenca et al,
Delft University of Technology, 2010

New Orleans
• The role of deep processes in late 20th century subsidence of New Orleans and coastal areas of southern
Louisiana and Mississippi. Journal of Geophysical Research 116, R.K. Dokka, 2011

Shanghai
• Regional land subsidence simulation in Su-Xi-Chang area and Shanghai City, China, Xiaoqing Shi et al, 2008

Tokyo
• Long-Term Urbanization and Land Subsidence in Asian Megacities: An Indicators System Approach, Shinji
Kaneko and Tomoyo Toyota, In Groundwater and Subsurface Environments: Human Impacts in Asian Coastal
Cities, 2011

Deltares - Taskforce Subsidence Deltares is a leading, independent, Netherlands based research

Delft, The Netherlands institute and specialist consultancy for matters relating to water, soil
and the subsurface. We apply our advanced expertise worldwide, to
Email: [email protected] help people live safely and sustainably in delta areas, coastal zones
www.deltares.nl and river basins. Our Taskforce Subsidence can give support on all
issues related to subsidence.
October, 2013