WEEK 2

GRAMMAR

Introduction

This unit presents ways in which grammatical structures convey different meanings in written
compositions. It contains activities for practice in using simple, compound and complex sentences,
sequencing of ideas in paragraphs through relative clauses and pronouns, use of grammatical
connectors like conjunctions, and descriptive categories such as adjectives, to improve composition.

Unit outcomes

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 explore different ways in which English grammar can be used for better writing,
 give your students practice in expressing themselves appropriately by helping them focus on the
use of appropriate grammatical structure, and
 motivate your students to play grammar games to improve their language skills.

NOUNS

Types of Nouns

Nouns form a large proportion of English vocabulary and they come in a wide variety of types.
Nouns can name a person:

Albert Einstein
the president
my mother
a girl

Nouns can also name a place:

Mount Vesuvius
Disneyland
my bedroom

Nouns can also name things, although sometimes they might be intangible things, such as
concepts, activities, or processes. Some might even be hypothetical or imaginary things.

faucet
freedom
The Elder Wand
basketball
Proper Nouns vs. Common Nouns

One important distinction to be made is whether a noun is a proper noun or a common noun. A
proper noun is a specific name of a person, place, or thing, and is always capitalized.

Does Tina have much homework to do this evening?

Tina is the name of a specific person.
I would like to visit Old Faithful.
Old Faithful is the specific name of a geological phenomenon.

The opposite of a proper noun is a common noun, sometimes known as a generic noun. A
common noun is the generic name of an item in a class or group and is not capitalized unless
appearing at the beginning of a sentence or in a title.

The girl crossed the river.

Girl is a common noun; we do not learn the identity of the girl by reading this sentence, though we
know the action she takes. River is also a common noun in this sentence.

Types of Common Nouns

Common or generic nouns can be broken down into three subtypes: concrete nouns, abstract
nouns, and collective nouns.

A concrete noun is something that is perceived by the senses; something that is physical or real.

I heard the doorbell.

My keyboard is sticky.
Doorbell and keyboard are real things that can be sensed.

Conversely, an abstract noun is something that cannot be perceived by the senses.

We can’t imagine the courage it took to do that.

Courage is an abstract noun. Courage can’t be seen, heard, or sensed in any other way, but we
know it exists.

A collective noun denotes a group or collection of people or things.

That pack of lies is disgraceful.

Pack of lies as used here is a collective noun. Collective nouns take a singular verb as if they are
one entity – in this case, the singular verb is.

A pride of lions roamed the savanna.

Pride of lions is also a collective noun.

Nouns as Subjects

Every sentence must have a subject, and that subject will always be a noun. The subject of a
sentence is the person, place, or thing that is doing or being the verb in that sentence.

Maria is happy.

Maria is the subject of this sentence and the corresponding verb is a form of to be (is).

Nouns as Objects

Nouns can also be objects of a verb in a sentence. An object can be either a direct object (a noun
that receives the action performed by the subject) or an indirect object (a noun that is the
recipient of a direct object).

Give the books to her.

Books is a direct object (what is being given) and her is the indirect object (who the books are
being given to).

Nouns as Subject and Object Complements

Another type of noun use is called a subject complement. In this example, the noun teacher is
used as a subject complement.

Mary is a teacher.

Subject complements normally follow linking verbs like to be, become, or seem. A teacher is what
Mary is.

A related usage of nouns is called an object complement.

I now pronounce you husband and wife.

Husband and wife are nouns used as object complements in this sentence. Verbs that denote
making, naming, or creating are often followed by object complements.

Appositive Nouns and Nouns as Modifiers

An appositive noun is a noun which immediately follows another noun in order to further define
or identify it.

My brother, Michael, is six years old.

Michael is an appositive here, further identifying the subject of the sentence, my brother.

Sometimes, nouns can be used adjectivally as well.

He is a speed demon.

Speed is a normally a noun, but here it is acting as an adjective to modify demon.

Plural Nouns

Plural nouns, unlike collective nouns, require plural verbs. Many English plural nouns can be
formed by adding -s or -es to the singular form, although there are many exceptions.

cat—cats
These two cats are both black.
* Note the plural verb are.

Countable Nouns vs. Uncountable Nouns

Countable nouns are nouns which can be counted, even if the number might be extraordinarily
high (like counting all the people in the world). Countable nouns can be used with a/an, the, some,
any, a few, and many.

Here is a cat.

Cat is singular and—obviously—countable.

Here are a few cats.

Here are some cats.

Uncountable nouns are nouns that come in a state or quantity which is impossible to count;
liquids are uncountable, as are things that act like liquids (sand, air). They are always considered
to be singular, and can be used with some, any, a little, and much.

An I.Q. test measures intelligence.

Intelligence is an uncountable noun.

Students don’t seem to have much homework these days.

This example refers to an unspecified, unquantifiable amount of homework, so homework is an

uncountable noun.

Possessive Nouns

Possessive nouns are nouns which possess something; i.e., they have something. You can identify
a possessive noun by the apostrophe; most nouns show the possessive with an apostrophe and an
s.

The cat’s toy was missing.

The cat possesses the toy, and we denote this by use of ‑’s at the end of cat.

*When a singular noun ends in the letter s or z, the same format often applies. This is a matter of
style, however, and some style guides suggest leaving off the extra s.

I have been invited to the boss’s house for dinner.

Mrs. Sanchez’s coat is still hanging on the back of her chair.

*Plural nouns ending in s take only an apostrophe to form a possessive.

My nieces’ prom dresses were exquisite.

PRONOUNS

Pronouns make up a small subcategory of nouns. The distinguishing characteristic of pronouns is

that they can be substituted for other nouns. For instance, if you’re telling a story about your sister
Sarah, the story will begin to sound repetitive if you keep repeating “Sarah” over and over again.

Sarah has always loved fashion. Sarah announced that Sarah wants to go to fashion school.

*You could try to mix it up by sometimes referring to Sarah as “my sister,” but then it sounds like
you’re referring to two different people.

Sarah has always loved fashion. My sister announced that Sarah wants to go to fashion school.

*Instead, you can use the pronouns she and her to refer to Sarah.

Sarah has always loved fashion. She announced that she wants to go to fashion school.
Personal Pronouns

There are a few different types of pronouns, and some pronouns belong to more than one
category. She and her are known as personal pronouns. The other personal pronouns are I and me,
you, he and him, it, we and us, and they and them. If you learned about pronouns in school, these
are probably the words your teacher focused on. We’ll get to the other types of pronouns in a
moment.

Antecedents

Pronouns are versatile. The pronoun it can refer to just about anything: a bike, a tree, a movie, a
feeling. That’s why you need an antecedent. An antecedent is a noun or noun phrase that you
mention at the beginning of a sentence or story and later replace with a pronoun. In the examples
below, the antecedent is highlighted and the pronoun that replaces it is bolded.

My family drives me nuts, but I love them. The sign was too far away for Henry to read it. Sarah
said she is almost finished with the application.

*In some cases, the antecedent doesn’t need to be mentioned explicitly, as long as the context is
totally clear. It’s usually clear who the pronouns I, me, and you refer to based on who is speaking.

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns make up another class of pronouns. They are used to connect relative clauses
to independent clauses. Often, they introduce additional information about something mentioned
in the sentence. Relative pronouns include that, what, which, who, and whom. Traditionally, who
refers to people, and which and that refer to animals or things.

The woman who called earlier didn’t leave a message. All the dogs that got adopted today will be
loved. My car , which is nearly twenty years old, still runs well.

Whether you need commas with who, which, and that depends on whether the clause is restrictive
or nonrestrictive.

Who vs. Whom—Subject and Object Pronouns

Now that we’ve talked about relative pronouns, let’s tackle the one that causes the most confusion:
who vs. whom. Who is a subject pronoun, like I, he, she, we, and they. Whom is an object pronoun,
like me, him, her, us and them. When the pronoun is the object of a verb or preposition, the object
form is the one you want. Most people don’t have much trouble with the objective case of personal
pronouns because they usually come immediately after the verb or preposition that modifies it.

Please mail it to I.

Please mail it to me.

Ms. Higgins caught they passing notes.

Ms. Higgins caught them passing notes.

Is this cake for we?

Is this cake for us?

*Whom is trickier, though, because it usually comes before the verb or preposition that modifies it.

Whom did you speak to earlier?

A man, whom I have never seen before, was asking about you.

Whom should I say is calling?

*One way to test whether you need who or whom is to try substituting a personal pronoun. Find the
place where the personal pronoun would normally go and see whether the subject or object form
makes more sense.

Who/whom did you speak to earlier? Did you speak to he/him earlier?

A man, whom I have never seen before, was asking about you. Have I seen he/him before?

Whom should I say is calling? Should I say she/her is calling?

*If the object pronoun (him or her) sounds right, use whom. If the subject pronoun (he or she)
sounds right, use who.

Before we move on, there’s one more case where the choice between subject and object pronouns
can be confusing. Can you spot the problem in the sentences below?

Henry is meeting Sarah and I this afternoon. There are no secrets between you and I. It doesn’t
matter to him or I.

*In each of the sentences above, the pronoun I should be me. If you remove the other name or
pronoun from the sentence, it becomes obvious.

Henry is meeting I this afternoon. No one keeps secrets from I. It doesn’t matter to I.

Demonstrative Pronouns

That, this, these and those are demonstrative pronouns. They take the place of a noun or noun
phrase that has already been mentioned.
This is used for singular items that are nearby. These is used for multiple items that are nearby.
The distance can be physical or metaphorical.

Here is a letter with no return address. Who could have sent this? What a fantastic idea! This is the
best thing I’ve heard all day. If you think gardenias smell nice, try smelling these.

That is used for singular items that are far away. Those is used for multiple items that are far
away. Again, the distance can be physical or metaphorical.

A house like that would be a nice place to live. Some new flavors of soda came in last week. Why
don’t you try some of those? Those aren’t swans, they’re geese.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns are used when you need to refer to a person or thing that doesn’t need to be
specifically identified. Some common indefinite pronouns are one, other, none, some, anybody,
everybody, and no one.

Everybody was late to work because of the traffic jam. It matters more to some than others. Nobody
knows the trouble I’ve seen.

*When indefinite pronouns function as subjects of a sentence or clause, they usually take singular
verbs.

Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,
yourselves, themselves.

Use a reflexive pronoun when both the subject and object of a verb refer to the same person or
thing.

Henry cursed himself for his poor eyesight. They booked themselves a room at the resort. I told
myself it was nothing.

Intensive pronouns look the same as reflexive pronouns, but their purpose is different. Intensive
pronouns add emphasis.

I built this house myself. Did you yourself see Loretta spill the coffee?

“I built this house” and “I built this house myself” mean almost the same thing. But “myself”
emphasizes that I personally built the house—I didn’t hire someone else to do it for me. Likewise,
“Did you see Loretta spill the coffee?” and “Did you yourself see Loretta spill the coffee?” have
similar meanings. But “yourself” makes it clear that the person asking wants to know whether you
actually witnessed the incident or whether you only heard it described by someone else.

*Occasionally, people are tempted to use myself where they should use me because it sounds a
little fancier. Don’t fall into that trap! If you use a -self form of a pronoun, make sure it matches one
of the uses above.

Please call Sarah or myself if you are going to be late. Loretta, Henry, and myself are pleased to
welcome you to the neighborhood.

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns come in two flavors: limiting and absolute. My, your, its, his, her, our, their
and whose are used to show that something belongs to an antecedent.

Sarah is working on her application. Just put me back on my bike. The students practiced their
presentation after school.

The absolute possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, ours, and theirs. The absolute
forms can be substituted for the thing that belongs to the antecedent.

Are you finished with your application? Sarah already finished hers. The blue bike is mine. I
practiced my speech and the students practiced theirs.

*Some possessive pronouns are easy to mix up with similar-looking contractions. Remember,
possessive personal pronouns don’t include apostrophes.

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used in questions. The interrogative pronouns are who, what,
which, and whose.

Who wants a bag of jelly beans? What is your name? Which movie do you want to watch? Whose
jacket is this?
NOUNS
 NOUNS as SUBJECTS
Every sentence must have a subject, and that
subject will always be a noun. The subject of a
sentence is the person, place, or thing that is
doing or being the verb in that sentence.
Maria is happy.
Maria is the subject of this sentence and the
corresponding verb is a form of to be (is).
 NOUNS as OBJECTS
Nouns can also be objects of a verb in a sentence.
DO- WHO? WHAT? IO- to and for whom?
to and for what?
Aya baked a cake. S-TV-DO
Aya wrote a letter. S-TV-DO
Aya wrote Jim a letter. S-TV-IO-DO
An object can be either a direct object (a noun that
receives the action performed by the subject) or
an indirect object (a noun that is the recipient of
a direct object).
 NOUNS as OBJECTS
• Give the books to her.
(YOU) give the books.
Books is a direct object (what is being given)
 NOUNS as SUBJECT and
OBJECT COMPLEMENTS
• Another type of noun use is called a subject
complement. In this example, the noun
teacher is used as a subject complement.
Mary is a teacher. S-LV-C/ S-IV-PN
Mary is pretty. S-IV-PA
• Subject complements normally follow linking
verbs like to be, become, or seem. A teacher is
what Mary is.
 NOUNS as SUBJECT and
OBJECT COMPLEMENTS
• A related usage of nouns is called an object
complement.
I now pronounce you husband and wife.
OC- V+DO+what? S-TV-DO-OC
• Husband and wife are nouns used as object
complements in this sentence. Verbs that
denote making, naming, or creating are often
followed by object complements.
 Appositive Nouns and Nouns as
Modifiers
• An appositive noun is a noun which
immediately follows another noun in order to
further define or identify it.
My favorite artist, Taylor Swift, released a
new album.
My brother, Michael, is six years old.

• Michael is an appositive here, further

identifying the subject of the sentence, my
brother.
 Appositive Nouns and Nouns as
Modifiers
• Sometimes, nouns can be used adjectivally as
well.
He is a speed demon.
I want French fries.
She wore a party hat.
• Speed is a normally a noun, but here it is
acting as an adjective to modify demon.
TYPES OF PRONOUNS
 What is a PRONOUN?
• Pronoun is a word that substitutes for a noun
or noun phrase. A pronoun is used instead of a
noun or noun phrase in a sentence. A pronoun
may take place of the name of a person, place
or thing.
 Pronouns are major divided into
7 Types
1. Personal Pronouns
2. Indefinite Pronouns
3. Relative Pronouns
4. Intensive Pronouns
5. Demonstrative Pronouns
6. Interrogative Pronouns
7. Reflexive Pronouns
 PERSONAL and
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
associates with particular person.
Example: I, we he, she.
what are Indefinite pronouns?
If there is a situation where you do not want to
indicate exact person or place you can use
indefinite pronouns
Examples of them are : Some of the cake was eaten.
1. Anybody, anyone, nobody
2. Every, all, both
3. Some, enough, many, much
 Relative Pronouns
• They refer to nouns which are mentioned
previously. They may be person, place, thing
or idea. They Can be used to join two
sentences
Examples : Who, whom, which, whomsoever,
whose, that, which
Renzo, whose trophy was stolen last night, is
crying now.
 Demonstrative Pronouns
• They are used to point something specific
within a sentence They focus attention on the
nouns that they are replacing
Examples: This, That, These, Those,

I heard that you went out with him.

That is my picture.
This pen was a gift from my mom.
 Interrogative Pronouns
Used to begin a question. It is used to make
asking question easy

Examples: What, which, who, whom, and whose

 Intensive Pronouns
They Emphasize a noun or pronoun and provide
more importance to a sentence

Examples : Himself, herself, yourself, themselves,

ourselves

The President himself said sorry for the crisis.

Babies soon feed themselves.
We sautéed the mushroom ourselves.
We watched in the TV monitor.
 Reflexive Pronouns :
They are object pronouns that we use when the
subject and object are the same noun. These
are the ones that end in “self” or "selves.“
Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself
When snow that is held in place by friction is
dislodged, it can cause a serious avalanche.
This is a vast amount of snow cascading down
a mountainside. The snow itself can exert over
22, 000 pounds of pressure. Few caught in an
avalanche can save themselves.
 Week 3

Verb Usage

Introduction

In this section, you learn how to use verbs to indicate when an action occurred. First is the
explanation the different tenses and how they are used. The focus here is on regular verbs (the nice
cooperative ones) and irregular verbs (the ones that need bran cereal). There's even a special
section on lie/lay, the verb duo that reduces even linebackers and mothers-in-law to quivering
masses of jelly.

Discussion

USES OF VERBS

Verbs tell you what’s actually happening in the sentence, what the subject is doing or having done
to it. Of course, when you think about all the things that can happen, and all the things that subjects
are capable of doing, you can see the astonishing potential range of “actions”.

There are two specific uses for verbs. The first is to put a motionless noun into motion, or to change
its motion.

Annie went to the market.

Went gets Annie moving out the door and doing the shopping.

Annie went to the market, and then she stopped in at the bookstore.

First Annie does the shopping, and then she goes to do more interesting errands.

Mark lifted the rock.

We washed the car.

The girls played games all day.

These kinds of verbs are called action verbs. If you can do it, it’s an action verb.

The second use for a noun is to link the subject of the sentence to something which describes the
subject. If you can’t do it, it’s probably a linking verb.

I am tired.

It’s difficult to “am”, so this is likely a linking verb. It’s connecting the subject I to the state of being
tired.
 TENSES

Present

Present tense is used, in principle, to refer to circumstances that exist at the present time (or over a
period that includes the present time). However the same forms are quite often also used to refer to
future circumstances, as in "He's coming tomorrow" (hence this tense is sometimes referred to as
present-future or nonpast). It is also possible for the present tense to be used when referring to no
particular real time (as when telling a story), or when recounting past events (the historical present.
The

The present tense has two moods, indicative and subjunctive; when no mood is specified, it is often
the indicative that is meant. In a present indicative construction, the finite verb appears in its base
form, or in its -s form if its subject is third-person singular. (The verb be has the forms am, is, are,
while the modal verbs do not add -s for third-person singular.)

Past

Past tense forms express circumstances existing at some time in the past, although they also have
certain uses in referring to hypothetical. Certain uses of the past tense may be referred to as
subjunctives; however the only distinction in verb conjugation between the past indicative and past
subjunctive is the possible use of were in the subjunctive in place of was.

Future

English is sometimes described as having a future tense, although since future time is not
specifically expressed by verb inflection, some grammarians identify only two tenses (present or
present-future, and past). The English "future" usually refers to a periphrastic form involving the
auxiliary verb will (or sometimes shall when used with a first-person subject. There also exist other
ways of referring to future circumstances, including the going to construction, and the use of
present tense forms

Future-in-the-past

A "future-in-the-past" tense (or form) is sometimes referred to. This takes essentially the same
form as the conditional, that is, it is made using the auxiliary would (or sometimes should in the first
person).

This form has a future-in-the-past meaning in sentences such as She knew that she would win the
game. Here the sentence as a whole refers to some particular past time, but would win refers to a
time in the future relative to that past time.
 ASPECTS

Simple

"Simple" forms of verbs are those appearing in constructions not marked for either progressive or
perfect aspect (I go, I don't go, I went, I will go, etc., but not I'm going or I have gone).

Simple constructions normally denote a single action (perfective aspect), as in Brutus killed Caesar,
a repeated action (habitual aspect), as in I go to school, or a relatively permanent state, as in We live
in Dallas. They may also denote a temporary state (imperfective aspect), in the case of stative verbs
that do not use progressive forms (see below).

Progressive

The progressive or continuous aspect is used to denote a temporary action or state that began at a
previous time and continues into the present time (or other time of reference). It is expressed using
a form of the auxiliary verb to be (conjugated appropriately for tense etc.) together with the present
participle (-ing form) of the main verb: I am reading; Were you shouting?; He will be sitting over
there.

Perfect

The perfect aspect is used to denote the circumstance of an action's being complete at a certain
time. It is expressed using a form of the auxiliary verb have (appropriately conjugated for tense etc.)
together with the past participle of the main verb: She has eaten it; We had left; When will you
have finished?

Perfect forms can also be used to refer to states or habitual actions, even if not complete, if the focus
is on the time period before the point of reference (We had lived there for five years). If such a
circumstance is temporary, the perfect is often combined with progressive aspect (see the following
section).

The implications of the present perfect (that something occurred prior to the present moment) are
similar to those of the simple past, although the two forms are generally not used interchangeably –
the simple past is used when the time frame of reference is in the past, while the present perfect is
used when it extends to the present.

By using nonfinite forms of the auxiliary have, perfect aspect can also be marked on infinitives (as in
should have left and expect to have finished working), and on participles and gerunds (as in having
seen the doctor

Note that while all of the constructions referred to here are commonly referred to as perfect (based
on their grammatical form), some of them, particularly nonpresent and nonfinite instances, might
not be considered truly expressive of the perfect aspect.This applies particularly when the perfect
infinitive is used together with modal verbs: for example, he could not have been a genius might be
considered (based on its meaning) to be a past tense of he cannot/could not be a genius; such forms
are considered true perfect forms by some linguists but not others.

Perfect progressive

The perfect and progressive (continuous) aspects can be combined, usually in referring to the
completed portion of a continuing action or temporary state: I have been working for eight hours.
Here a form of the verb have (denoting the perfect) is used together with been (the past participle of
be, denoting the progressive) and the present participle of the main verb.

In the case of the stative verbs, which do not use progressive aspect (see the above section on the
progressive), the plain perfect form is normally used in place of the perfect progressive: I've been
here for half an hour (not *I've been being here...).

MOODS

Indicative

Indicative mood, in English, refers to finite verb forms that are not marked as subjunctive and are
not imperatives or conditionals. They are the verbs typically found in the main clauses of
declarative sentences and questions formed from them, as well as in most dependent clauses
(except for those that use the subjunctive). The information that a form is indicative is often
omitted when referring to it: the simple present indicative is usually referred to as just the simple
present, etc. (unless some contrast of moods, such as between indicative and subjunctive, is
pertinent to the topic).

Subjunctive

Certain types of clause, mostly dependent clauses, use a verb form identified with the subjunctive
mood. The present subjunctive takes a form identical to the bare infinitive, as in It is necessary that
he be restrained. There is also a past subjunctive, distinct from the indicative only in the possible
use of were in place of was in certain situations: If I were you, ...

Imperative

An independent clause in the imperative mood uses the base form of the verb, usually with no
subject (although the subject you can be added for emphasis). Negation uses do-support (i.e. do not
or don't). For example:

Now eat your dinner.

You go and stand over there!

Don't ever say that word again.

Sentences of this type are used to give an instruction or order. When they are used to make
requests, the word please (or other linguistic device) is often added for politeness:

Please pass the salt.

First person imperatives (cohortatives) can be formed with let us (usually contracted to let's), as in
"Let's go". Third person imperatives (jussives) are sometimes formed similarly, with let, as in "Let
him be released".

Conditional

The status of the conditional mood in English is similar to that of the future tense: it may be
considered to exist provided the category of mood is not required to be marked morphologically.
The English conditional is expressed periphrastically with verb forms governed by the auxiliary
verb would (or sometimes should with a first-person singular subject; see shall and will). The modal
verb could is also sometimes used as a conditional (of can).

In certain uses, the conditional construction with would/should may also be described as "future-in-
the-past".

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

The active voice (where the verb's subject is understood to denote the doer, or agent, of the
denoted action) is the unmarked voice in English. To form the passive voice (where the subject
denotes the undergoer, or patient, of the action), a periphrastic construction is used. In the
canonical form of the passive, a form of the auxiliary verb be (or sometimes get) is used, together
with the past participle of the lexical verb.

Passive voice can be expressed in combination together with tenses, aspects and moods, by means
of appropriate marking of the auxiliary (which for this purpose is not a stative verb, i.e. it has
progressive forms available). For example:

This room is tidied regularly. (simple present passive)

It had already been accepted. (past perfect passive)

Dinner is being cooked right now. (present progressive passive)

The uses of these various passive forms are analogous to those of the corresponding tense–aspect–
mood combinations in the active voice.

The passive forms of certain of the combinations involving the progressive aspect are quite rare;
these include the present perfect progressive (it has been being written), past perfect progressive (it
had been being written), future progressive (it will be being written), future perfect progressive (it
will have been being written), conditional progressive (it would be being written) and conditional
perfect progressive (it would have been being written). Because of the awkwardness of these
constructions, they may be paraphrased, for example using the expression in the process of (it has
been in the process of being written, it will be in the process of being written, and similar)..

NEGATION AND QUESTIONS

Negation of verbs usually takes place with the addition of the particle not (or its shortened form n't)
to an auxiliary or copular verb, with do-support being used if there is otherwise no auxiliary.
However if a sentence already contains a negative word (never, nothing, etc.), then there is not
usually any additional not.

Questions (interrogative constructions) are generally formed using subject–auxiliary inversion,

again using do-support if there is otherwise no auxiliary. In negative questions, it is possible to
invert with just the auxiliary (should we not help?) or with the contracted negation (shouldn't we
help?).

USES OF VERB COMBINATION TYPES

Simple past

The simple past or past simple, sometimes also called the preterite, consists of the bare past tense of
the verb (ending in -ed for regular verbs, and formed in various ways for irregular ones.

The simple past is used for a single event in the past, for past habitual action, or for a past state:

He took the money and ran.

I visited them every day for a year.

I knew how to fight even as a child.

However for action that was ongoing at the time referred to, the past progressive is generally used
instead.

The simple past is often close in meaning to the present perfect. The simple past is used when the
event is conceived as occurring at a particular time in the past, or during a period that ended in the
past (i.e. it does not last up until the present time). This time frame may be explicitly stated, or
implicit in the context (for example the past tense is often used when describing a sequence of past
events).

I was born in 1980.

We turned the oven off two minutes ago.

She placed the letter on the table, sighed, and left the house.
Various compound constructions exist for denoting past habitual action. The sentence When I was
young, I played football every Saturday might alternatively be phrased using used to (... I used to play
...) or using would (... I would play...).

The past simple is also used without past reference in some instances: in condition clauses and
some other dependent clauses referring to hypothetical circumstances.

Past progressive

The past progressive or past continuous construction combines progressive aspect with past tense,
and is formed using the past tense of be (was or were) with the present participle of the main verb.
It indicates an action that was ongoing at the past time being considered:

At three o'clock yesterday, I was working in the garden.

For stative verbs that do not use the progressive aspect, the simple past is used instead (At three
o'clock yesterday we were in the garden).

The past progressive is often used to denote an action that was interrupted by an event,[5][6] or for
two actions taking place in parallel:

While I was washing the dishes, I heard a loud noise.

While you were washing the dishes, Sue was walking the dog.

(Interrupted actions in the past can also sometimes be denoted using the past perfect progressive,
as described below.)

The past progressive can also be used to refer to past action that occurred over a range of time and
is viewed as an ongoing situation:

I was working in the garden all day yesterday.

That could also be expressed using the simple past, as I worked..., which implies that the action is
viewed as a unitary event (although the effective meaning is not very different)..

Past perfect

The past perfect, sometimes called the pluperfect, combines past tense with perfect aspect; it is
formed by combining had (the past tense of the auxiliary have) with the past participle of the main

verb. It is used when referring to an event that took place prior to the time frame being considered.
This time frame may be stated explicitly, as a stated time or the time of another past action:
 We had finished the job by 2 o'clock.

He had already left when we arrived.

The time frame may also be understood implicitly from the previous or later context:

I was eating ... I had invited Jim to the meal but he was unable to attend. (i.e. I invited him
before I started eating)

I had lost my way. (i.e. this happened prior to the time of the past events I am describing or
am about to describe)

Compare He had left when we arrived (where his leaving preceded our arrival), with the form with
the simple past, He left when we arrived (where his leaving was concurrent with or shortly after our
arrival).

Note that unlike the present perfect, the past perfect can readily be used with an adverb specifying
a past time frame for the occurrence. For example, while it is incorrect to say *I have done it last
Friday (the use of last Friday, specifying the past time, would require the simple past rather than the
present perfect), there is no such objection to a sentence like "I had done it the previous Friday".

The past perfect can also be used for states or repeated occurrences pertaining over a period up to
a time in the past, particularly in stating "for how long" or since when". However, if the state is
temporary and the verb can be used in the progressive aspect, the past perfect progressive would
normally be used instead. Some examples with the plain past perfect:

I had lived in that house for 10 years.

The children had been in their room since lunchtime.

Past perfect progressive

The past perfect progressive or past perfect continuous (also known as the pluperfect progressive or
pluperfect continuous) combines perfect progressive aspect with past tense. It is formed by
combining had (the past tense of auxiliary have), been (the past participle of be), and the present
participle of the main verb.

Uses of the past perfect progressive are analogous to those of the present perfect progressive,
except that the point of reference is in the past. For example:

I was tired because I had been running.

By yesterday morning they had already been working for twelve hours.

Among the witnesses was John Smith, who had been staying at the hotel since July 10.
This form is sometimes used for actions in the past that were interrupted by some event (compare
the use of the past progressive as given above). For example:

I had been working on my novel when she entered the room to talk to me.

This implies that I stopped working when she came in (or had already stopped a short time before);
the plain past progressive (I was working...) would not necessarily carry this implication.

If the verb in question does not use the progressive aspect, then the plain past perfect is used
instead.

The past perfect progressive may also have additional specific uses similar to those of the plain past
perfect.

Simple present

The simple present or present simple is a form that combines present tense with "simple" (neither
perfect nor progressive) aspect. In the indicative mood it consists of the base form of the verb, or
the -s form when the subject is third-person singular (the verb be uses the forms am, is, are).
However with non-auxiliary verbs it also has a periphrastic form consisting of do (or third-person
singular does) with the bare infinitive of the main verb — this form is used in questions (and other
clauses requiring inversion) and negations, and sometimes for emphasis.

The principal uses of the simple present are given below.

To refer to an action or event that takes place habitually. Such uses are often accompanied by
frequency adverbs and adverbial phrases such as always, often, from time to time and never.
Examples:

I always take a shower.

He writes for a living.

This contrasts with the present progressive, which is used for actions taking place at the
present moment.

 With stative verbs in senses that do not use progressive aspect, to refer to a present or
general state, whether temporary, permanent or habitual. (In senses that do use
progressive aspect, the present simple is used when the state is permanent or habitual.)

You are happy.

I know what to do.

Denmark lies to the north of Germany.

 When quoting someone or something, even if the words were spoken in the (usually very
recent) past:
 The label says "External use only".
Mary says she's ready.

 To refer to a single completed action, as in recounting the events of a story in the present
tense (see historical present), and in such contexts as newspaper headlines, where it
replaces the present perfect:

In Hamlet, Ophelia drowns in a stream.

40-year-old wins gold medal.

 Sometimes to refer to an arranged future event, usually with a reference to time:

We leave for Berlin tomorrow at 1 pm.

 In providing a commentary on events as they occur, or in describing some theoretical

sequence of events:

I chop the chives and add them to the mixture.

According to the manager's new idea, I welcome the guests and you give the presentation.

 In many dependent clauses referring to the future, particularly condition clauses, clauses
expressing place and time, and many relative clauses.

If he finds your sweets, he will eat them.

We will report as soon as we receive any information.

 In certain situations in a temporal adverbial clause, rather than the present progressive:

We can see the light improving as we speak.

In colloquial English it is common to use can see, can hear for the present tense of see, hear, etc., and
have got for the present tense of have (denoting possession).

Present progressive

The present progressive or present continuous form combines present tense with progressive aspect.
It thus refers to an action or event conceived of as having limited duration, taking place at the
present time. It consists of a form of the simple present of be together with the present participle of
the main verb.

We are cooking dinner now.

This often contrasts with the simple present, which expresses repeated or habitual action (We cook
dinner every day). However sometimes the present continuous is used with always, generally to
express annoyance about a habitual action:

You are always making a mess in the study.

The present progressive can be used to refer to a planned future event:

We are tidying the attic tomorrow.

It also appears with future reference in many condition and time clauses and other dependent
clauses (see Dependent clauses below):

If he's sleeping when you arrive, wake him up.

I will finish the job while the children are playing.

It can also refer to something taking place not necessarily at the time of speaking, but at the time
currently under consideration, in the case of a story or narrative being told in the present tense (as
mentioned above under present simple):

The king and queen are conversing when Hamlet enters..

Present perfect

The present perfect (traditionally called simply the perfect) combines present tense with perfect
aspect, denoting the present state of an action's being completed, that is, that the action took place
before the present time. (It is thus often close in meaning to the simple past tense, although the two
are not usually interchangeable.) It is formed with the present tense of the auxiliary have (namely
have or has) and the past participle of the main verb.

The choice of present perfect or past tense depends on the frame of reference (period or point in
time) in which the event is conceived as occurring. If the frame of reference extends to the present
time, the present perfect is used. For example:

I have written a letter this morning. (if it is still the morning)

He has produced ten plays. (if he is still alive and professionally active)

They have never traveled abroad. (if they are still alive and considered capable of
traveling)

If the frame of reference is a time in the past, or a period that ended in the past, the past tense is
used instead. For example: I wrote a letter this morning (it is now afternoon);
He produced ten plays (he is now dead or his career is considered over, or a particular past time
period is being referred to);

They never traveled abroad (similarly).

The simple past is generally used when the occurrence has a specific past time frame – either
explicitly stated (I wrote a book in 1995; the water boiled a minute ago), or implied by the context
(for example, in the narration of a sequence of events). It is therefore normally incorrect to write a
sentence like *I have written a novel yesterday; the present perfect cannot be used with an
expression of past time such as yesterday.

With already or yet, traditional usage calls for the present perfect: Have you eaten yet? Yes, I've
already eaten. However, current informal American speech tends to use the simple past: Did you eat
yet? Yes, I ate already.

Use of the present perfect often draws attention to the present consequences of the past action or
event, as opposed to its actual occurrence. The sentence she has come probably means she is here
now, while the simple past she came does not. The sentence, “Have you been to the fair?” suggests
that the fair is still going on, while the sentence, “Did you go to the fair?” could mean that the fair is
over. (See also been and gone below.) Some more examples:

I have eaten. (implies that I'm no longer hungry)

We have made the dinner. (implies that the dinner is now ready to eat)

The weather has gotten cloudier. (implies that it is now more cloudy than previously)

It may also refer to an ongoing state or habitual action, particularly in saying for how long, or since
when, something is the case. For example

I have lived in Paris for five years.

He has held the record since he won his Olympic gold.

We have eaten breakfast together every morning since our honeymoon.

This implies that I still live in Paris, that he still holds the record and that we still eat together every
morning (although the first sentence may also refer to some unspecified past period of five years).
When the circumstance is temporary, the present perfect progressive is often appropriate in such
sentences (see below); however, if the verb is one that does not use the progressive aspect, the
basic present perfect is used in that case too:

Amy has been on the swing for ten minutes.

The present perfect may refer to a habitual circumstance, or a circumstance being part of a
theoretical or story narrative being given in the present tense (provided the circumstance is of an
event's having taken place previously):

Whenever I get home, John has usually already arrived.

According to the plan, the speeches have already been given when the cake is brought out.

The present perfect may also be used with future reference, instead of the future perfect, in those
dependent clauses where future occurrence is denoted by present tense. For example:

When you have written it, show it to me.

Present perfect progressive

The present perfect progressive (or present perfect continuous) construction combines some of this
perfect progressive aspect with present tense. It is formed with the present tense of have (have or
has), the past participle of be (been), and the present participle of the main verb.

This construction is used for ongoing action in the past that continues right up to the present or has
recently finished:

I have been writing this paper all morning.

Why are his eyes red? He has been crying.

It is frequently used when stating for how long, or since when, something is the case:

She has been working here since 1997.

How long have you been sitting there?

They have been arguing about it for two weeks.

In these sentences the actions are still continuing, but it is the past portion of them that is being
considered, and so the perfect aspect is used. (A sentence without perfect aspect, such as I am
sitting here for three hours, implies an intention to perform the action for that length of time.) With
stative verbs that are not used in the progressive, and for situations that are considered permanent,
the present perfect (nonprogressive) is used instead.

Simple future

The term simple future or future simple, as applied to English, generally refers to the combination of
the modal auxiliary verb will with the bare infinitive of the main verb. Sometimes (particularly in
more formal or old-fashioned English) shall is preferred to will when the subject is first person (I or
we); see shall and will for details. The auxiliary is often contracted to 'll;

This construction can be used to indicate what the speaker views as facts about the future,
including confident predictions:

The sun will rise tomorrow at 6:14.

It will rain later this week.

It may be used to describe future circumstances that are subject to some condition.

He will go there if he can.

However English also has other ways of referring to future circumstances. For planned or
scheduled actions the present progressive or simple present may be used (see those sections for
examples). There is also a going-to future, common in colloquial English, which is often used to

express intentions or predictions (I am going to write a book some day; I think that it is going to
rain). Use of the will/shall construction when expressing intention often indicates a spontaneous
decision:

I know! I'll use this book as a door stop.

Compare I'm going to use..., which implies that the intention to do so has existed for some time.

The modal verbs will and shall also have other uses besides indicating future time reference. For
example:

I will pass this exam. (often expresses determination in addition to futurity)

You will obey me! (insistence)

I will not do it! (negative insistence, refusal)

At this moment I will tolerate no dissent. (strong volition)

He hasn't eaten all day; he will be hungry now. (confident speculation about the present)

One of his faults is that he will make trouble unnecessarily. (habit)

Shall we get to work? (suggestion)

Future progressive

The future progressive or future continuous combines progressive aspect with future time reference;
it is formed with the auxiliary will (or shall in the first person; see shall and will), the bare infinitive
be, and the present participle of the main verb. It is used mainly to indicate that an event will be in
progress at a particular point in the future:

This time tomorrow I will be taking my driving test.

I imagine we will already be eating when you arrive.

Future perfect

The future perfect combines perfect aspect with future time reference. It consists of the auxiliary
will (or sometimes shall in the first person, as above), the bare infinitive have, and the past
participle of the main verb. It indicates an action that is to be completed sometime prior to a future
time of perspective, or an ongoing action continuing up to a future time of perspective (compare
uses of the present perfect above).

I shall have finished my essay by Thursday.

When I finally search him he will have disposed of the evidence.

By next year we will have lived in this house for half a century.

The same construction may occur when will or shall is given one of its other meanings; for example:

He will have had his tea by now. (confident speculation about the present)

You will have completed this task by the time I return, is that understood? (giving
instruction)

Future perfect progressive

The future perfect progressive or future perfect continuous combines perfect progressive aspect with
future time reference. It is formed by combining the auxiliary will (or sometimes shall, as above),
the bare infinitive have, the past participle been, and the present participle of the main verb.

Uses of the future perfect progressive are analogous to those of the present perfect progressive,
except that the point of reference is in the future. For example:

He will be very tired because he will have been working all morning.

By 6 o'clock we will have been drinking for ten hours.

The same construction may occur when the auxiliary (usually will) has one of its other meanings,
particularly expressing a confident assumption about the present:

No chance of finding him sober now; he 'll have been drinking all day.
 VERBS
ACTION and LINKING VERBS
TRANSITIVE and INTRANSITIVE VERBS
VERB PHRASE
ACTIVE and PASSIVE VOICE
REGULAR and IRREGULAR VERBS
 VERBS
• Verbs are used to help make statements, ask
questions, or deliver commands. Every
complete sentence must have at least one
verb, which may have as many as four words.
• A verb is a word or group of words that ex
presses time while showing an action, a
condition, or the fact that something exists.
•
 VERBS
If you say:
The tires screeched.
• the verb screeched shows an action.
In the sentence:
Our apricots tasted sweet.
• the verb tasted expresses a condition.
 VERBS
• Existence is expressed by the verb should be
in the sentence
The monkey should be in the next cage.
Verbs have a major effect on syntax—that is, on
the way words are put together and are
related to one another in sentences. Because
of the effect that verbs have on syntax, they
are generally divided into two main
categories: action verbs and linking verbs.
 ACTION VERBS
• Action verbs, as their name implies, express
action. They are used to tell what someone or
something does, did, or will do.
• Most verbs in English express action.
• An action verb is a verb that tells what action
someone or something is performing.
 ACTION VERBS
• In the first example that follows, the verb tells
what action the students are performing.
Similarly, in the second example, the verb tells
what the radio did.
ACTION VERBS:
The art students are learning about perspective.
The-radio blared.
The person or thing that performs the action is
called the subject of the verb. In the examples
above, students and radio are the subjects of are
learning and blared.
 LINKING VERBS
• Linking verbs, on the other hand, are used to
express a condition. Certain linking verbs can
also be used to show that something exists.
• Words expressing mental activities, such as
learn, think, or decide, are also considered
action verbs.
• Linking verbs never express action. Instead
they link, or join words in a sentence:
 LINKING VERBS
• A linking verb is a verb that connects its
subject with a word generally found near the
end of the sentence.
• In the next examples, notice how the linking
verbs act the connect words at the beginning
and end of the sentences.
Mr. McVeigh is our neighbor.
The cake batter should be smooth.
 LINKING VERBS
• The verb forms of this verb are shown in the
following chart. Aya is dancing. Aya is pretty.
The FORMS OF BE
am am being can be have been
is are being could be has been
are is being may be could have been
was was being might be may have been
were were being must be might have been
shall be must have been
should be should have been
will be will have been
would be would have been
 LINKING VERBS

• Most often, the forms of be will function as

linking verbs and express the condition of the
subject. Occasionally, however they may
merely express existence, usually by showing,
with other words, where the subject is
located.
 LINKING VERBS
Other LINKING VERBS
The catsup is in the refrigerator.
appear look sound
The keys must be here.
become remain stay

feel grow taste

seem smell turn

 LINKING VERBS
Notice in the following examples how the verbs link words at
the beginning of the sentences to other words al the end.
EXAMPLES:
The sheets smelled fresh and clean. (were)
The driver stayed alert. (was)

• Some of these verbs may also act as action not linking

verbs. To determine whether the word is functioning as an
action verb or as a linking verb, insert am, are, or is in
place of the verb.

• If the substitute makes sense while connecting two words,

then the original verb is a linking verb.
 LINKING VERBS
• LINKING VERB:
The grass felt damp. (The grass was damp.)
The Hikers felt a sudden chill (ACTION VERB)

• LINKING VERB:
The milk turned sour. (The milk is sour.)
The runners turned the corner. (ACTION VERB)
 TRANSITIVE VERB
• All verbs are either transitive or intransitive
depending whether or not they transfer action
to another word in sentence.
• An action verb is transitive if it directs action
toward someone or something named in
same sentence.
• An action verb is intransitive if it does not
direct action toward someone or something
named in the same sentence.
 INTRANSITIVE VERBS

• Intransitive verbs never have objects. You can

determine whether a verb has an object by
asking Whom? or What? after the verb. If
there is an answer, that word is the object and
the verb is a transitive verb.
 TRANSITIVE VERB

The outfielder caught the ball.

(Caught what? Answer: ball)

We ate the cake.

(Ate what? Answer: cake)
 INTRANSITIVE VERB

Elizabeth slept in the hammock.

(Slept what? Answer: none)

The little child shouted loudly.

(Shouted what? Answer: none)
 VERB PHRASES
• A verb that has more than one word is a verb
phrase.
• Helping verbs are verbs that can be added to
another verb to make a single verb phrase.
• Helping verbs are often called auxiliary verbs
or auxiliaries because they add meaning to
other verbs.
 VERB PHRASE
• SINGLE VERB:
I wrote a song today.

• VERB PHRASES:
I will write a song today.
I should have written a song today.
This song might have been written by me.
 VERB PHRASE
The verbs listed in the following chart can also b
used as helping verbs to form verb phrases.

HELPING VERBS OTHER THAN BE

Do Have Shall Can

Does Has Should Could

Did Had Will May

Would Might

Must
 VERB PHRASE
INTERRUPTED VERB PHRASES:

I will definitely not write a song today.

Should I have written a song today?

 ACTIVE VOICE
a verb is active if its subject performs the
action.
• The active voice is generally stronger than the
passive voice.
• Use the active voice whenever possible.
• The active voice is usually more direct and
economical.
 ACTIVE VOICE

Mike introduced the new manager.

Roxanne writes with conviction

 PASSIVE VOICE
A verb is passive if its action is performed upon
the subject.

The new manager was introduced by Mike.

The essay was written with conviction.

 PASSIVE VOICE
The passive voice has two important uses in
English.
1. Use the passive voice to emphasize the
receiver of an action rather than the
performer of an action.
2. Use the passive voice to point out the
receiver of an action whenever the
performer is not important or not easily
identified.
 PASSIVE VOICE

• A passive verb is always a verb phrase made

from a form of be plus the past participle of a
transitive verb. The tense of the helping verb
be determines the tense of the passive verb.
 PASSIVE VOICE
THE VERB CHOOSE IN THE PASSIVE VOICE
Present She is chosen.

Past She was chosen.

Future She will be chosen.

Present Perfect She has been chosen.

Past Perfect She had been chosen.

Future Perfect She will have been chosen.

Present Progressive She is being chosen.

Past Progressive She was being chosen.

Gene bought a new pair of shoes.
A new pair of shoes was bought by Gene.

She is writing an essay.

An essay is being written by her.
 VERB USAGE
Six Tenses of the Verb
Progressive Form of the Six Tenses
Emphatic Forms
Four Principal Parts of Verb
 Basic Forms of the Six Tenses
Present I talk to my counselor regularly.

Past I talked to Robin yesterday.

Future I will talk to my teacher in the morning.

Present Perfect I have talked to the new student already.

Tense
Past Perfect Tense I had talked to Mom before Dad came
home.
Future Perfect I will have talked to Carl by then.
Tense
 Progressive Form of the Six Tenses
Present Progressive I am talking on the phone now.

Past Progressive I was talking to Rita last night.

Future Progressive I will be talking to the new manager some time

next week

Present Perfect I have been talking to my counselor about

Progressive colleges.
Past Perfect Progressive I had been talking to Wanda when the news was
announced.

Future Perfect I will have been talking for an hour when the bell
Progressive rings.
 Emphatic Forms

Present Emphatic I do talk to Grandmother

quite frequently

Past Emphatic I did talk to David about his

tardiness.
 4 Principal Parts of a Verb
PRESENT PRESENT PAST PAST
PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE
Listen Listening Listened Listened

Speak Speaking Spoke Spoken

Principal Parts of Regular Verbs
PRESENT PRESENT PAST PAST
PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE

Laugh Laughing Laughed (have) laughed

Hop Hopping Hopped (have) hopped
Wave Waving Waved (have) waved
 Correct USE of Tenses
• PRESENT, PAST, and FUTURE Time
FORMS EXPRESSING PRESENT TIME

Present I look.

Present Progressive I am looking.

Present Emphatic I do look.

 USES OF PRESENT

Present Action I hear a radio in the next room.

Present Condition Barbara is very upset.
Regularly Occurring Birds fly south in the fall.
Action
Regularly Occurring I am usually punctual.
Condition
Constant Action The earth rotates on its axis.
Constant Condition People are not infallible.
 Historical Present
When the present tense is used to relate to
historical events, it is called historical present.
Writers sometimes use the historical present
to bring to life past actions or conditions.

Past action expressed in A haggard Lincoln delivers the

historical present Gettysburg Address.
Past condition expressed in For the advancing German
historical present troops, the Russian winter is
disastrous.
 Critical Present
• It is frequently used in discussions of deceased
authors and their works.

Action expressed in Ernest Hemingway shows

critical present his genius even in his
early novels.
Condition expressed in Emily Dickinson is a
critical present famous nineteenth-
century poet.
 Use of Present Progressive

Long Continuing She is writing a novel.

Action
Short Continuing Dad is setting the table.
Action
Continuing The weather is being very
Condition unpredictable.
 Use of Present Emphatic

Emphasizing a The course does require a term

statement paper.
Denying a contrary No, I do not have your umbrella.
assertion
Asking a question Do you know the answer?
Making a sentence She does not own that horse.
negative
 Use of Tense in Past Time

Past I looked.
Present Perfect I have looked.
Past Perfect I had looked.
Past Progressive I was looking.
Present Perfect I have been looking.
Progressive
Past Perfect Progressive I had been looking.
Past Emphatic I did look.
 Uses of the PAST

Completed The art exhibit opened.

action
Completed There was a drought in
condition California
 Uses of the Present Perfect

Completed Action I have seen an improvement

(indefinite time) in Grandfather’s health.
Completed condition I have been happy.
(indefinite time)
Action continuing to The baby has slept all
present afternoon.
Condition continuing to You have been lucky this
present week.
 Uses of the Past Perfect

Action completed before He had worked as a

another past action veterinarian before he
began his book.
Condition completed She had been an
before another past accomplished acrobat
condition before she became a
dentist.
 Uses of the Progressive Forms that
Express Past Time
Past Progressive

•Long continuing action in the past We were travelling in Europe last summer.

•Short continuing action in the past I was helping my father this morning.

•Continuous condition in the past She was being unusually agreeable last night

Present Perfect Progressive

Action continuing to the present They have been seeding their lawn.

Past Perfect Progressive

Continuing action interrupted by I had been writing a poem until he came.

another
 Use of the Past Emphatic

Emphasizing a statement Rose did apologize for her

rudeness.
Denying a contrary But I did send you a
assertion postcard!
Asking a question Did you finish your
homework?
Making a sentence I did not hear the
negative announcement.
 Use of Tense in Future Time

Future I will look.

Future Perfect I will have looked.

Future Progressive I will be looking.

Future Perfect I will have been looking.

Progressive
 Use of the Future and Future Perfect

Future
Future action Ed will take the test tomorrow.
Future condition I will be home at seven.
Future Perfect
Future action completed before I will have painted the house
another by the end of the summer.
Future condition completed The survivors will have been
before another without food for days by the
time help arrives.
 Uses of the Progressive Forms that
express Future Time

Future Progressive
Continuing future action John will be growing corn in
his garden this summer.
Future Perfect
Progressive
Continuing future action Jennifer will have been
completed before driving for eight hours by the
another time she reaches Los Angeles.
 WEEK 4

VERBALS

A verbal is a verb form that does not function as a verb. Verbals function as nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs. There are three types of verbals:

1. Participles (past participles and present participles).

2. Gerunds
3. Infinitives

Verbals (Participles)

A participle is a verb form that functions as an adjective.

There are two types of participles: the present participle (ending "ing") and the past participle
(usually ending "-ed,"" -d,"" -t,"" -en," or "-n").

Here are some participles being used as adjectives:

The Verb The Present Participle The Past Participle

To bake the baking bread the baked bread

To print the printing document the printed document

To lower the lowering prices the lowered prices

Here are some real-life examples:

A stirring dwarf we do allowance give before a sleeping giant. (Playwright William Shakespeare)

(Two present participles)

Food is an important part of a balanced diet. (Author Fran Lebowitz)

(A past participle)

Often, a participle will head up a participle phrase that functions as an adjective. In the examples
below, all participles are in bold and the participle phrases are shaded.

Drooling saliva over the day's mail, the barking boxer quickly singled out the parcel from the bills
and junk mail.

(This example has two present participles. The first heads up a participle phrase that describes "the
barking boxer." The second modifies "boxer" in the normal way.)
Baked in the oven for over six hours, the roast looked ruined.

(This example has two past participles. The first heads up a participle phrase that describes "the
roast." The second describes the roast as a subject complement.)

Verbals (Gerunds)

Even though gerunds look like present participles (i.e., they also end "-ing"), a gerund is a noun,
not an adjective. Here are some examples of gerunds (bold):

You don't stop laughing because you grow old. You grow old because you stop laughing.
(Comedian Michael Pritchard)

Discovery consists of seeing what everybody has seen and thinking what nobody has thought.
(Biochemist Albert Szent-Gyorgyi)

I have never taken any exercise except sleeping and resting. (Author Mark Twain)

*A gerund will often appear in a gerund phrase. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund, its object,
and all modifiers. For example (gerunds in bold with the gerund phrases italicized):

Singing the words out loud helped him with his stammer.

I started by photographing birds in my garden.

Verbals (Infinitives)

An infinitive is a verb form (often preceded by "to," e.g., "to dance," "to sing") that can function as
a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. For example:

An infinitive as a noun:

To win was everything.

(The infinitive is the subject of "was.")

Compare it to this:

Winning was everything.

*(This proves that the infinitive "to win" is being used a noun.)

An infinitive as an adjective:
It is an appropriate saving to propose.

*(The infinitive modifies "saving." This means it is functioning as an adjective.)

Compare it to this:

It is an appropriate saving that he proposed.

(The clause "that he proposed" is an adjective clause. This proves that the infinitive "to propose" is
being used an adjective.)

An infinitive as an adverb:

The man paid to watch.

(The infinitive modifies the verb "paid." This means it is functioning as an adverb.)

Compare it to this:

The man paid so he could watch.

(The clause "so he could watch" is an adverbial clause. This proves that the infinitive "to watch" is
being used an adverb.)

An infinitive will often appear in a infinitive phrase. An infinitive phrase consists of the infinitive and
any objects and modifiers. For example (infinitives in bold with the infinitive phrases italicized):

She needed to find a lot of money quickly.

(The infinitive phrase is being used as a noun.)

I showed her the best way to make a Yorkshire pudding.

(The infinitive phrase is being used as an adjective.)

He set the camera to film whatever was eating his chickens.

(The infinitive phrase is being used as an adverb.)

More about Verbals

We said at the start that verbals do not function as verbs. This is not strictly true because
participles are used to form verb tenses. More specifically, present participles are used to form the
progressive (or continuous) tenses, and past participles are used to form the perfect (or completed)
tenses. However, participles cannot function as verbs by themselves. They require the help of the
finite verbs "to be" or "to have." For example: #
He is eating his dinner.

(The present participle "eating" is part of the verb phrase "is eating." The verb phrase is functioning
as a verb, but the verbal (i.e., "eating") cannot do this alone. It needs the help of "is" (i.e., the verb "to
be"). This is an example of the present progressive tense.)

He has eaten his dinner.

(The past participle "eaten" is part of the verb phrase "has eaten." The verb phrase is functioning as
a verb, but the verbal (i.e., "eaten") cannot do this alone. It needs the help of "has" (i.e., the verb "to
have"). This is an example of the present perfect tense.)

Why Should I Care about Verbals?

Native English speakers can use verbals without hitting any snags. Nevertheless, here are three
good reasons to give verbals a little more thought.

(Reason 1) Participle phrases let you say two things efficiently.

Participle phrases are useful for saying two or more things about the subject, not only efficiently
but also in a way that adds that variety to your sentence structures. In these examples, the
participle phrases are shaded, and the participles are in bold.

Always willing to entertain others' ideas, Simon has a proven ability to build trust through regular
and honest communication.

Showing utmost diligence in everything she does, Jill is adept managing disagreements.

This sentence structure (i.e., with a fronted participle phrase) is particularly useful when writing
personal appraisals.

(Reason 2) Gerunds can reduce your word count and improve reading flow.

Sentences with lots of nouns (i.e., normal nouns, not gerunds) need to include the prepositions (e.g.,
"of," "with") and the articles ("a," "an," "the") required to make those nouns work. As a result, such
sentences usually sound jolty and are unnecessarily long. For example (normal nouns in bold):

The development of the U-bend assisted with the removal of smells.

(This 11-word sentence has way too many nouns, prepositions, and articles. It's long and stuffy, and
it doesn't flow naturally.)

As a rule, a well-placed verb is the best way to fix a jolty, noun-filled sentence, but gerunds (being a
bit verb-like themselves) are also good for reducing your word count and creating better-flowing
sentences. For example (gerunds highlighted):
Developing the U-bend assisted with removing smells.

(This 7-word version features two gerunds. It flows far better than the 11-word version above.)

Overusing nouns is common in business writing because staff members believe that noun chains
make their writing sound more corporate.

(Reason 3) An infinitive can usually replace "in order to."

To reduce your word count, you can often replace "in order to" with "to" without any loss of
meaning.

Attempt the impossible in order to improve your work. (Actress Bette Davis)

(Here, the infinitive "to improve" has replaced "in order to improve," saving two words.)

Be careful when replacing "in order to" with just "to." Using "in order to" makes it clear that the text
that follows is the reason for performing the action. Also, sometimes, using the full "in order to" is
useful for removing ambiguity. So, remove "in order" to save two words, but then check your
sentence still reads okay.

VERBAL PHRASES

Verbal phrases are verbals and any of the verb form's modifiers, objects, or complements. The three
types of verbal phrases are participial, gerund, and infinitive phrases.

Participial Phrases

Participial Phrases are present participles or past participles and any modifiers, objects, or
complements. Participial phrases contain verbs which act as adjectives in a sentence.

Examples:

Singing very softly, the boy lulled his baby brother to sleep. (the participial phrase works as an
adjective, modifying "boy")

The girls, frightened by the police car's headlights, quickly came down from the school's roof. (the
participial phrase works as an adjective, modifying "girls")

Gerund Phrases

Gerund Phrases contain verbs ending in -ing and any modifiers, objects, or complements. Gerund
phrases act as nouns in a sentence. They can act as the subject or object of a verb, as a predicate
nominative, and as the object of a preposition.
Examples:

Waiting for his grades drove him crazy. (the gerund phrase works as the subject of the verb
"drove")

The woman denied knowing her own husband. (the gerund phrase works as the object of the verb
"denied")

He thought he could escape from his problems by running away. (the gerund phrase works as the
object of the preposition "by")

Making many acquaintances is cultivating future friendships. (the gerund phrases work as the
subject and as the predicate nominative)

Infinitive Phrases

Infinitive Phrases contain verbals consisting of "to" followed by a verb and any modifiers, objects,
or complements. Infinitive phrases usually act as nouns, but they can also act as adjectives and
adverbs.

Examples:

To live in Boston eventually is his main goal in life. (the infinitive phrase works as the subject of
the sentence)

Quentin Tarentino loves to babble during interviews. (the infinitive phrase works as the object of
the verb "loves")

Do you have any clothes to donate to the homeless shelter? (the infinitive phrase works as an
adjective, modifying "clothes")

She went home to visit her family. (the infinitive phrase works as an adverb, modifying "went")
Phrases

A phrase is a group of related words which does not contain a subject and a predicate. Its position in
a sentence determines its meaning. A phrase functions as a single part of speech. It may function as
a noun, an adjective or an adverb: The principal types of phrases are:

1. Verb Phrase. This phrase consists of an auxiliary verb and the principal verb.
Examples:

I am reading an interesting book.

Have you read this book!
The mayor might run again next elections

2. Prepositional Phrase. This phrase consists of a preposition and its object .

Examples:

The boys watched TV in the entertainment room.

He met his friend at the lobby.
All offices are closed for the holiday.

3. Verbal Phrase. This phrase consists of a verb form with its complement or modifier and
performs the functions of other parts of speech. Verbal phrases can be classified into three
types:

a. Participial Phrase. It consists of a participle with its complement or modifier. It functions

as an adjective or adverb (verb -ing, ed, -d, en. . . + object)

Examples:

Adjective: The book having torn pages is very interesting.

Adjective: Hunting wild animals, the man was arrested by the forest police.
Adverb: We shall wait until dusk.

b. Gerund Phrase. It consists of a gerund with its complement or modifier. This phrase
functions as a noun. (verb + -ing + object)

Examples:
Direct Object: My children enjoy watching movies.
Subject: Eating fruits is part of my diet.
Object of the Preposition: Mother prays the rosary before going to bed.
Complement: She is driving a car.
Appositive: His hobby, collecting coins, is keep him busy.
 c. Infinitive Phrase. It consists of an infinitive with its complement or modifier. Similar to a
gerund phrase, it functions as a noun, an adjective or an adverb. (to + verb + object)
Examples:

Subject: To see the world is her dream

Predicate Nominative: His ambition is to be an engineer.
Direct Object: Jess hopes to finish his doctorate course.
Adjective: The best way to reach your goals is to work hard for it.
Adverb: He didn't report to work to attend a seminar.

Clauses

A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate. You have learned in the
previous lesson that a sentence is a word or a group of words that contains a subject and a
predicate. Does this mean that a clause and a sentence are the same? In a way, it is similar. If the
clause can stand alone, it is a sentence. Therefore, an independent clause is a sentence. If it cannot
stand alone, it is called a dependent clause or subordinate clause. Dependent clauses can be used
as adjectives, adverbs and as nouns.

Adjective Clauses

Adjective clauses modify, limit or port our noun or pronouns. These clauses are introduced by
relative pronouns - who, which, that, who, whom, where, when, why. These introductory words may
be used as subjects, as complements, as objects of prepositions or as modifiers.

Examples:

1. A person who perseveres succeeds in life.

In this example, who is used as the subject of the verb perseveres. This clause is used as
an adjective because it modifies the subject person, which is a noun.

2. This is the bag which was given to me by my mother.

Which is used as the subject of the clause and functions as an adjective, because it
modifies the noun, bag.
Adverb Clauses

Adverb or adverbial clauses are clauses that act as adverbs. They modify verbs, adjectives or
adverbs. These clauses may come in different positions or places in a sentence - before, after or in
the middle of the main clauses. Like adverbs, they tell the time manner place, purpose, cause,
condition, concession and result.

Examples:

Time: She arrived before I did.

Manner: The candidate walks as if she were a model.

Cause: His father decided to accept the job abroad because the offer was tempting.

Purpose: He accepted the job offer in order that he could earn more.

Condition: I will go if you are going, too.

Place: The friends parted where the paths separated.

Result: It rained all night that the streets were flooded.

Concession: Although he was late in class, he got perfect in the quiz

Noun Clauses

Noun clauses are used in sentences where nouns are used. They are used as subject direct object,
subjective complement, or object of a preposition. Although other connectives can be used, noun
clauses are usually introduced by that, what, why, how, or whatever.

Examples:

Used as Subject: What he presented convinced the audience.

Used as Direct Object: His boss believes whatever is told to him.

Used as Noun Complement: Janine made him what he is today.

Used as Predicate Nominative: The employee's problem is which job offer to accept.
 PHRASES
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
APPOSITIVE PHRASES
VERBAL PHRASES
 PHRASE

• A group of words, without a subject and verb,

that functions in a sentence as one part of
speech.
 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
• A prepositional phrase is a preposition
accompanied by a noun or pronoun called the
object of the preposition. The object may be
compound and may have modifiers.
• Examples:
prep. objects
near the table and chairs

prep. obj.
after a cool, refreshing swim
 Adjective Phrase
• A prepositional phrase that describes a noun
or pronoun by telling what kind or which one

The chair in the corner is wobbly.

We flew a plane with twin engines.
I sent my cousin in Detroit some photos of us.
The dictator declared himself president for life.
A narwhal is a sea mammal with a long tusk on
its forehead.
 Adverb Phrase
• A prepositional phrase that modifies a verb,
adjective, or adverb by pointing out where, when
, in what manner, and to what extent

We sat on the park bench.

I will leave in one hour.
He talked with me.
Except for the border, the quilt was finished.
She is helpful to everyone.
I left early in the morning.
 Appositive Phrase
• An appositive is a noun or pronoun with
modifiers, placed next to a noun or pronoun
to add information and details.

That hat, the navy blue one with white

edging, would match my ski jacket.

Mr. Ellingson, an expert on career planning,

spoke to the entire assembly.
 VERBAL
• VERBALS are used a NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, or
ADVERBS
• is a word derived from the verb but used as a
noun, adjective, or adverb
• They may be modified by adverbs and adverb
phrases; they can have complements
• When a verbal has a modifier or complement,
it is called a verbal phrase.
 VERBALS and VERBAL PHRASES

1. PARTICIPLE and PARTICIPIAL PHRASE

2. GERUND and GERUND PHRASE
3. INFINITIVE and INFINITIVE PHRASE
 PARTCIPLE
• Is a form of a verb that can act as an
ADJECTIVE

Example:

The running water caused a flood.

The dreaded fruit fly infiltrated the valley.

 Forms of Participle
KINDS OF PARTICIPLE FORMS EXAMPLES

Present Participle Ends in –ing It was a taxing day

The smiling child waved

Past Participle Usually ends in –ed, I drank chilled cider.

sometimes –en or another Throw away that broken cup.
irregular ending

Perfect Participle Includes having or having Having rested, I awoke.

been before a past Having been praised, I felt
participle proud
Functioning as a Verb Functioning as a Participle
She coveted the ring. The coveted ring was
soon hers.

That accountant is The swindling

swindling his clients. accountant was
apprehended.
 Participial Phrase
• Is a participle that is modified by an adverb or adverb
phrase or that has a complement. The entire phrase
acts as an adjective in a sentence.

With Adverbs:
The runner sitting down now is my cousin.

With an Adverb Phrase:

The bird sitting on that perch talks.

With a DO:
Tuning the radio, I soon had a clear station.
 GERUNDS
• Is a form of a verb that acts as a NOUN
SOME USES OF GERUNDS IN SENTENCES

As a SUBJECT Painting is a pleasant hobby.

As a DIRECT OBJECT I mastered flying.

As an INDIRECT OBJECT Agnes gave knitting a try but soon put her
needles away.
As an OBJECT of the Eat lunch before leaving.
PREPOSITION
As a PREDICATE NOMINATIVE My new hobby is golfing.

As an APPOSITIVE My favorite sport, fishing, gives me hours of

pleasure.
 Gerund Phrase
• Is a gerund with modifiers or a complement,
all acting together as a noun

With ADJECTIVES His high-pitched, compulsive laughing

made me nervous.
With an ADJECTIVE PHRASE Boasting about your successes is not an
endearing quality.
With an ADVERB Braking quickly helped her avoid the
collision.
With an ADVERB PHRASE He made an art of standing in one place.

With a DIRECT OBJECT Mandy tried erasing the computer’s

memory.
With INDIRECT and DIRECT OBJECT I suggested lending her my dress.
 INFINITIVES
• Is a form of a verb that generally appears with
the word to and acts as a NOUN, ADJECTIVE,
or ADVERB

NOUN: To go to Spain is my dream.

ADJECTIVE: I ordered dinner to go.
ADVERB: She was happy to go.
 FUNCTIONS OF INFINITIVES IN
SENTENCE
INFINITIVES used as NOUNS

As a SUBJECT To fly scares many people.

As a DIRECT OBJECT With two weeks off, Nina planned

to relax.
As a PREDICATE This semester, all Joel wanted was
NOMINATIVE to pass.
As an OBJECT of the The race was about to start.
PREPOSITION
As an APPOSITIVE The suggestion, to forfeit, was
rejected
 FUNCTIONS OF INFINITIVES IN
SENTENCE

As an ADJECTIVES The whole team

displayed an ardent
desire to participate.
As an ADVERB The Golden Gate
Bridge was a sight
that was beautiful to
see.
 Infinitive Phrase

With an ADVERB Mr. Wilkins chose to accept

cheerfully.

With an ADVERB PHRASE I like to run in the morning.

With a DIRECT OBJECT We had to call his employer.

With INDIRECT and DIRECT Dr. Rose hurried to buy her

OBJECT daughter a present.
 WEEK 5

SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Sentences with two essential parts: a subject and a predicate as in A boy

Simple ate the mangoes where a boy is the subject and ate the mangoes is the
sentences: predicate.

These are sentences usually formed by combining two simple sentences

Compound with conjunctions such as and or but, as in The man can beat the drum and
sentences: his wife can sing.

These are commonly formed by sentences with a main clause and a

Terminology Complex subordinate clause as in I saw her (main clause) when she was running away
sentences: (subordinate clause).

Compound- These are commonly formed by a combination of simple, compound and

complex complex sentences with a series of subordinate clauses as in The woman
was clapping her hands (simple sentence) and her children were dancing
sentences:
beautifully (compound sentence) because they were very happy (complex
sentence).

Verbs with no subject, tense or number. They are participial verbs (i.e.,
verbs that end in –ing or –ed but are not denoting past/present/future
Non-finite verbs: tense) and do not use auxiliary verbs (“be” verbs or modals) to complete
their meaning. For example: Turning the handle, she opened the door.

These are words used for joining other words or group of words in
Conjunctions: sentences (e.g., and, but, or, neither… nor, either… or, and so on).

These are words that link sentences together (e.g., therefore, consequently,
Sentence linkers: furthermore, firstly, secondly and so on).

These are words and expressions that are used to describe a noun in a
Descriptive sentence. They can appear before the noun (attributive adjectives) — as in
adjectives: a handsome boy, a beautiful girl — or after it (predicative adjectives) —
as in The boy is handsome.

Connected Any piece of written text that is at least a paragraph long, and expresses an
writing: idea or a group of related ideas.

Independent clause: An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It contains a subject
and a verb and is a complete idea.
 o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.

Dependent clause: A dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be attached to an

independent clause to become complete. This is also known as a subordinate clause.

o Although I like spaghetti,…

o Because he reads many books,…

Subject: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that does an action. Determine the subject in a
sentence by asking the question “Who or what?”

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.

Verb: Expresses what the person, animal, place, thing, or concept does. Determine the verb in a
sentence by asking the question “What was the action or what happened?”

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.
o The movie is good. (The be verb is also sometimes referred to as a copula or a linking verb.
It links the subject, in this case "the movie," to the complement or the predicate of the
sentence, in this case, "good.")

Object: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that receives the action. Determine the object in a
sentence by asking the question “The subject did what?” or “To whom?/For whom?”

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.

Prepositional Phrase: A phrase that begins with a preposition (i.e., in, at for, behind, until, after, of,
during) and modifies a word in the sentence. A prepositional phrase answers one of many
questions. Here are a few examples: “Where? When? In what way?”

o I like spaghetti for dinner.

o He reads many books in the library.

English Sentence Structure

The following statements are true about sentences in English:

 A new sentence begins with a capital letter.

o He obtained his degree.
  A sentence ends with punctuation (a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point).
o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence contains a subject that is only given once.

o Smith he obtained his degree.

 A sentence contains a verb or a verb phrase.

o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence follows Subject + Verb + Object word order.

o He (subject) obtained (verb) his degree (object).

 A sentence must have a complete idea that stands alone. This is also called an independent
clause.
o He obtained his degree.

Simple Sentences
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and modifiers.
However, it contains only one independent clause.
Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = verb, blue, italics = object, pink, regular
font =prepositional phrase
Here are a few examples:

 She wrote.
 She completed her literature review.
 He organized his sources by theme.
 They studied APA rules for many hours.

Compound Sentences
A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These two independent clauses
can be combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma or semicolon = pink, regular font; coordinating
conjunction = green, underlined
Here are a few examples:

 She completed her literature review, and she created her reference list.
 He organized his sources by theme; then, he updated his reference list.
 They studied APA rules for many hours, but they realized there was still much to
learn.

Using some compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.
Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the
causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.
If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause. If, on the other hand,
the sentence begins with an independent clause, there is not a comma separating the two clauses.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma = pink, regular font; dependent clause = blue,
italics
Here are a few examples:

 Although she completed her literature review, she still needed to work on her methods
section.
o Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.

 Because he organized his sources by theme, it was easier for his readers to follow.
o Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.

 They studied APA rules for many hours as they were so interesting.
o Note that there is no comma in this sentence because it begins with an independent
clause.

 Using some complex sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.

Compound-Complex Sentences
Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-complex sentence contains at least two
independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma or semicolon = pink, regular font; coordinating
conjunction = green, underlined; dependent clause = blue, italics

 She completed her literature review, but she still needs to work on her methods
section even though she finished her methods course last semester.
 Although he organized his sources by theme, he decided to arrange them
chronologically, and he carefully followed the MEAL plan for organization.
 With pizza and soda at hand, they studied APA rules for many hours, and they decided
that writing in APA made sense because it was clear, concise, and objective.

 Using some complex-compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.
 Pay close attention to comma usage in complex-compound sentences so that the reader is
easily able to follow the intended meaning.
Types of Sentences

Sentences can be classified according to purpose or function, according to grammatical structure and
according to rhetorical structure. In this lesson, you will learn how your choice of function and structure
can affect the meaning want to convey.

According to Function or Purpose

1. Declarative Sentence. It is a sentence that declares or asserts a statement or a fact and ends
with a period.

Examples
A young woman wearing a red hat entered the door.
Honesty is the best policy.
The children got on their bikes and pedaled slowly.

2. Interrogative Sentence. This is a sentence that asks a question and ends with a question mark
(?)

Examples:
Why did you choose to enroll in this university?
How do you see yourself five years from now?
Can you help me with my luggage?
Are you running for honors?
When are you flying to New Zealand?

3. Imperative Sentence. It is a sentence that gives a command or makes a request. Usually, the
subject in the second person is unexpressed.

Examples:
You should join.
Help me finish this project.
Please pass the salt.
Get me a glass of water, please.
Run to the woods.

Take note that the second, third, fourth and fifth sentences do not have a subject written before the
predicate or verb. This does not mean that they are not sentences. For sure, you have learned in the
previous years that the pronoun you used as a subject in a sentence giving a command may be omitted.
Also, it is understood that the subject in an imperative sentence that is unexpressed is in the second
person.
 4. Exclamatory Sentence. It is a sentence that expresses a strong or sudden feeling or emotion and
ends with an exclamation point (!).
Examples:
What a beautiful morning!
Hurray, we won the game!
You stepped on my toe!
Oh my! No way!

According to Grammatical Structure or Syntax

1. Simple Sentence. This type has only one independent clause expressing a single complete
thought. Its subject and predicate may be single or compound or both.

Examples:

S.S. S.P.

The pedestrian crossed the street.

C.S. S.P.

Boys and girls joined the marathon.

S.S. C.P.

The pedestrian crossed the street and joined the marathon.

C.S. C.P.

The boys and girls crossed the street and joined the marathon.

Take note that in the first sentence. The pedestrian crossed the street, there is only one subject and one
predicate. In the second sentence, Boys and girls joined the marathon, a compound subject (meaning
not only one but two or more subjects) is used, but the predicate is simple. In the sentence, The
pedestrian crossed the street and joined the marathon, a simple subject and a compound predicate (two
or more predicates) are used. The last sentence, The boys and girls crossed the street and joined the
marathon made use of both compound subject and predicate.

2. Compound Sentence. This sentence contains two or more independent clauses (independent
which means that a clause has a subject and a predicate and can stand by itself joined by
coordinating conjunctions, e.g.and, or, but (with or without the comma), conjunctive adverbs,
e.g. therefore, thus, however, and separated by punctuations, eg. comma, semi-colon. Each
clause is related to each other but is independent of the other and can stand alone.
 Examples
Independent Clause Independent Clause
I have to attend her party, or my friend might not talk to me anymore.

Independent Clause Independent Clause

Dan will take a PAL flight; Janine will take a Cebu Pacific flight.

Independent Clause Independent Clause

The social worker offered help, but the woman refused to accept the offer.

Independent Clause Independent Clause

Marites studied her lessons well; therefore, she passed the examination.

Independent Clause Independent Clause

The food was good and the service was excellent.

Notice that all the clauses in the given sentences are related in idea but can stand alone. Some
clauses can be an addition or contrast of ideas, but they are related and are sentences by
themselves. In the first sentence, I have to attend her party or my friend might not talk to me
anymore, the first clause is related to the second clause but is not dependent on the other. This
means that each clause, I have to attend her party and My friend might not talk to me anymore
can stand alone as a sentence. Each expresses a complete idea on its own.

3. Complex Sentence. This sentence contains one independent clause and one or more
dependent or subordinate clauses. Being a clause, a dependent or subordinate clause has a
subject and a predicate. But unlike independent clauses, they cannot stand alone. Subordinating
conjunctions like although, though, if, whether, after, before, as soon as, etc., are used to signal
or begin a subordinate clause and may be used as a noun, an adjective or an adverb.

Examples

DC IC

If you drink, do not drive.

IC DC

The streets were flooded because it rained hard yesterday.

DC IC

When you see them, tell them the good news.

 IC DC DC

That tall, athletic man is the brother of my cousin who is standing by the door and who is wearing a
sports jacket.

DC IC

As soon as heard the news, I jumped for joy.

Take note of the italicized words in the examples given. All these words are subordinating conjunctions
that signal that a subordinating or dependent clause follows. These subordinating clauses have a subject
and predicate of their own, but cannot stand alone without the independent clauses. For example, in
the sentence, If you drink, do not drive, only the clause do not drive can stand even without the
dependent clause because it expresses a complete thought. If you drink depends on the independent
clause to express its idea

4. Compound-Complex Sentence. This sentence contains two or more independent clauses and
one or more dependent clauses.

Examples:

IC IC DC

Janine wants to go, but she has to catch a flight early this evening because she has to attend a
convention.

DC IC IC

If the flights to the Philippines will be cancelled because the weather is bad, Jess will have to rebook

IC

his ticket or he will have to meet his girlfriend in Hong Kong instead.

DC IC DC IC

If you drink, don't drive; if you drive, do not drink.

DC IC IC

Although Mr. Vargas enjoys watching TV late, he has to sleep early or he will miss his flight at 4am.

IC IC DC

The sense organs gather bits and pieces of information and the brain files them until they are
needed.
 Notice the conjunctions in boldface, and and or. These are coordinating conjunctions used to
connect independent clauses. The conjunctions in italics - because, if, although, and until are
subordinating conjunctions used to connect or signal that a dependent clause follows or that the
clause is dependent or subordinate to the independent clause. The sentences given contain two or
more independent clauses and one or more dependent or subordinating clauses.

According to Rhetorical Structure

1. Loose Sentence. This is a sentence which gives the main idea before the end of the sentence is
reached. The main idea is stated at the outset.

Main Idea Minor Idea

The missing jewelry was found after the investigators searched the place.

Main Idea Minor Idea

The hotel has expanded its business by adding a spa and a fitness gym.

Main Idea Minor Idea

The typhoon aged with wrath, blowing roofs of houses and uprooting trees.

2. Periodic Sentence. This is a sentence in which the principal clause is not completed before the
end of the sentence. The suspense is withheld and the main idea is revealed at the end.

Examples

Minor Idea Main Idea

After the investigators searched the place, the missing jewelry was found.

Minor Idea Main Idea

By adding a spa and a fitness gym, the hotel expanded its business.

Minor Idea Main Idea

Blowing roofs of houses and uprooting trees, the typhoon raged with wrath.

3. Balanced Sentence. This is a sentence in which the ideas are emphasized by parallel structure,
and in which similar or contrast between two ideas are emphasized.
Examples:

As a student, he is responsible, but as a sibling, he is not.

The hand that rocks the cradle is the hand that rocks the world.

Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country. (John F.
Kennedy)
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
 SENTENCE according to STRUCTURE
1. SIMPLE
-consists of a single independent clause

2. COMPOUND
-consists of two or more independent clauses
joined by a comma and a coordinating
conjunction or by a semicolon
 SENTENCE according to STRUCTURE
3. COMPLEX
-consists of one independent clause and one
or more subordinate clauses

4. COMPOUND-COMPLEX
-consists of two or more independent clauses
and one or more subordinate clauses
 SIMPLE

We worked long hours at the polling booth.

Ed and I checked and rechecked the answers.

 COMPOUND

My brother bought some stamps yesterday, and

he mounted them in his stamp collection.

Ben and I gobbled the oranges; they tasted very

good after the hike.
 COMPLEX

{When the Fourth of July arrives,} I will celebrate

it along with everybody else.

Our band, {which won the trophy}, will perform

{after the game is over.}

I will do {whatever you say.}

 COMPOUND-COMPLEX

I ran down the path to the spot {where it

divides,} and then I turned back.

{When I put the skates on,} I was quite nervous,

but I felt {that I should at least try.}
 RUN-ON SENTENCE

A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses (also known as complete
sentences) are connected improperly.
Example: I love to write papers I would write one every day if I had the time.

There are two complete sentences in the above example:

Sentence 1: I love to write papers.

Sentence 2: I would write one every day if I had the time.

One common type of run-on sentence is a comma splice. A comma splice occurs when
two independent clauses are joined with just a comma.
Example of a comma splice: Participants could leave the study at any time, they needed
to indicate their preference.

Sentence 1: Participants could leave the study at any time.

Sentence 2: They needed to indicate their preference.

Some comma splices occur when a writer attempts to use a transitional expression in the
middle of a sentence.
Example of a comma splice: The results of the study were inconclusive, therefore more
research needs to be done on the topic.

Sentence 1: The results of the study were inconclusive

Transitional expression (conjunctive adverb): therefore

Sentence 2: More research needs to be done on the topic

To fix this type of comma splice, use a semicolon before the transitional expression and add
a comma after it. See more examples of this on the semicolon page.
Revision: The results of the study were inconclusive; therefore, more research needs to
be done on the topic.

You can correct a run-on sentence by connecting or separating its parts correctly. There are
several easy ways to connect independent clauses.
Correcting Run-On Sentences
A run-on sentence can be fixed by connecting its parts correctly. There are several ways to
connect independent clauses.

1. Use a period. The easiest way to fix a run-on is to split the sentence into smaller
sentences using a period. This revision works especially well with longer sentences.
Check, however, to make sure that this solution does not result in short, choppy
sentences.

Revision example: I love to write papers. I would write one every day if I had the
time.

2. Use a semicolon. Inserting a semicolon between independent clauses creates a

grammatically correct sentence. Using a semicolon is a stylistic choice that
establishes a close relationship between the two sentences.

Revision example: I love to write papers; I would write one every day if I had the
time.

3. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction. A comma, paired with a

coordinating conjunction (e.g., "and," "but," or "or"), corrects a run-on sentence. This
method emphasizes the relationship between the two clauses.

Revision example: I love to write papers, and I would write one every day if I had
the time.

4. Use a subordinating conjunction. Turn one of the independent clauses into

a dependent clause. A subordinating conjunction (e.g., "because," "unless," and
"although") connects two clauses to create a complex sentence. This option works to
cement the relationship between the two parts of the sentence and may improve the
flow of the clauses.

Example: Because I love to write papers, I would write one every day if I had the
time.

However you decide to revise for run-on sentences, remember that maintaining sentence
variety helps to keep the writing clear and interesting for your readers.

Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a string of words that does not form a complete sentence; there is a
necessary component of a complete sentence missing. This missing component may be a
subject (usually a noun) or a predicate (verb or verb phrase) and/or when the sentence
does not express a complete idea.
Here is an example of a fragment with a missing subject.
Example of a fragment: Shows no improvement in any of the vital signs.
The sentence above is a fragment since there is no subject (Who shows no improvement?).
Fragments can be corrected by identifying the missing element and including it.
Revision: The patient shows no improvement in any of the vital signs.

Here is an example of a fragment with a missing predicate, or action:

Example of a fragment: The doctors, who were using peer-reviewed research articles that
contributed to the body of knowledge in their fields, which was obstetrics.

Notice here that although the sentence is quite long, it still contains no action (What are the
doctors doing?). Once identified, the sentence can be corrected easily.
Revision: The doctors, who were using peer-reviewed research articles that contributed to
the body of knowledge in their field, improved their knowledge of obstetrics.
A modifier is a phrase or word meant to describe or explain part of a sentence. When
modifiers are used correctly, the meaning of the sentence is clear. When modifiers are used
incorrectly the meaning of the sentence can change drastically. Using modifiers correctly
will improve the clarity of your work. Watch out for the two modifier mistakes:

1. Misplaced Modifiers
2. Dangling Modifiers

MISPLACED MODIFIERS

According to Laurie Kirszner and Stephen Mandell in the sixth edition of Writing First, “A
modifier is a word or word group that identifies or describes another word or word group in a
sentence.” Modifiers can include the present participle of a verb (-ing) or the past participle
of a verb (-ed).

“A misplaced modifier is a word or word group placed so far away from what it refers to (or
modifies) that the reader may be confused. Modifiers should be placed as closely as
possible to the words they modify in order to keep the meaning clear” (Harris 120). The
following are examples of incorrect modifiers and how to correct a misplaced modifier:

Misplaced modifier examples

Incorrect: The Girl Scouts went wild when they were told that they had raised one million
dollars by selling cookies at the troop meeting.

The way this sentence is written means that during the troop meeting the Girl Scouts raised
one million dollars. However, “at the troop meeting” should actually refer to where “they
were told.”

Correct: The Girl Scouts went wild when they were told at the troop meeting that they had
raised one million dollars by selling cookies.

Misplaced modifiers can also be just one word. These are some of the frequently
misplaced one-word modifiers: almost, even, hardly, just merely, nearly, only (Harris
121). Changing the location of these individual words changes the meaning of the
sentence.

Example: The student passed almost all of her classes.

This sentence means that she passed most of her classes, but not all of them.

The student almost passed all of her classes.

This sentence means that she came close to passing all of her classes but didn’t actually
pass any of them.

As you work on avoiding dangling and misplaced modifiers, you might want to have a peer
tutor read over your essays. If they mention that a sentence is unclear or awkward, check
for a dangling or misplaced modifier.

Incorrect: Crying on the examination table, the doctor gave the small child his vaccine.
This is incorrect because it implies that the doctor was crying on the examination table,
when it was the child who was crying.

Correct: The doctor gave the small child crying on the examination table his vaccine.
The modifier now correctly describes the child as crying, not the doctor.

Incorrect: Lydia fed the pigs wearing her raincoat.

Correct: Wearing her raincoat, Lydia fed the pigs.

Incorrect: Dressed in a flowing gown, everyone watched the celebrity enter the room.
Correct: Everyone watched the celebrity, dressed in a flowing gown, enter the room.

DANGLING MODIFIERS

Another common mistake when using modifiers is having a dangling modifier. This occurs
when the word that is being modified is not actually included in the sentence.

“A dangling modifier is a word or word group that refers to (or modifies) a word or phrase
that has not been clearly stated in the sentence” (Harris 118). When a sentence begins
with a phrase that is not directly connected to the subject that it refers to, that phrase is
“dangling.” The following are examples of incorrect modifiers and how to correct a dangling
modifier:
Dangling modifier examples

Incorrect: Using the Pythagorean Theorem, the math problem was easily solved.
Did the math problem use the theorem? Who did?

Correct: Using the Pythagorean Theorem, Wendy easily solved the math problem.
This version is correct because Wendy was the one who used the theorem.

Incorrect: Working through the night, the report was finished in time for class.
Correct: Working through the night, Jeremy finished the report in time for class.

Incorrect: Having finished the essay, a new Facebook status was uploaded.
Correct: Having finished the essay, Sandra uploaded a new Facebook status.

Incorrect: Driving past The Bread Box Café, the sun peeked through the clouds.

This sentence implies that the sun was the “doer of the action”, that the sun was driving
past The Break Box Café.

Correct: Driving past The Bread Box Café, Suzanne saw the sun peek through the clouds.

Incorrect: Having just met the new roommates, it was certain that this year would come
down to survival of the fittest.

In this sentence the subject “it” takes on the action of “having just met the new roommates.”

Correct: Having just met the new roommates, Joey was certain that this year would come
down to survival of the fittest.
 COMMA SPLICE

What is a Comma Splice?

A comma splice occurs when you use a comma to join two complete sentences without
placing an appropriate joining word between them. The comma just isn’t strong enough to
do the job of making one grammatical sentence out of two. Learn to recognize what comma
splices look like, and be sure to avoid them in your essays.

Here is a simple example of a comma splice:

I completed my essay, I have not submitted it.

A closely related grammatical error is the run-on sentence. It occurs when you join two
complete sentences without any punctuation mark at all:

I completed my essay I have not submitted it.

Fixing a run-on sentence is no different from fixing a comma splice.

Some Basic Definitions

The grammatical term for a group of words that can stand on its own as a complete
sentence is independent clause. To be an independent clause, the group of words must
contain both a subject and a verb. In the independent clause I completed my essay, I is the
subject, and completed is the verb.

The grammatical term for a joining word is conjunction. Conjunctions refer to those words in
the English language such as and or but or since or because that allow us to build more
complex sentences out of simpler ones. The conjunctions and and but are
called coordinating conjunctions; the conjunctions since and because are
called subordinating conjunctions.

It is not essential to remember these grammatical terms, though they can be useful for
conveying important points about grammar. What really matters is to know comma splices
when you see them and to be familiar with the various ways of fixing them.

How to Fix a Comma Splice

Here are four straightforward ways to solve the comma splice problem. Understand the
subtle differences between them, and make sure you don’t get into the habit of always
solving your comma splice problems in the same way. Look at each comma splice in your
writing as an opportunity to gain mastery over the tools for building complex sentences out
of simpler ones.
Solution 1: Use a period.

The simplest way to fix a comma splice is to separate the two improperly joined sentences.
Simply replace the comma with a period. The two sentences may sound a bit abrupt placed
one after the other, but at least they will be grammatical:

I completed my essay. I have not submitted it.

A period may be your best choice for fixing a comma splice when any of the following
conditions holds: (1) the logical connection between the two independent clauses is self-
evident; (2) one or both of the clauses is long; or (3) the ideas represented in the two
clauses are distinct.

I completed my English essay. Now I must go to the library and begin research at once on
my fifteen-page History term paper.

Solution 2: Use a semi-colon.

If you want a simple solution to the comma splice, but you prefer to encapsulate your two
ideas in one sentence rather than two, then use a semi-colon rather than a period:

I completed my essay; I have not submitted it.

A semi-colon is probably the most appropriate remedy for your comma splice when the
following two conditions hold: (1) the logical connection between the two independent
clauses is already clear, and (2) the ideas represented in the two clauses are very closely
related. In particular, when the relation between the two clauses is one of sequence-either a
sequence in time or a logical sequence-then a semi-colon is just what you need:

I completed my English essay; next I will tackle my History essay.

Solution 3: Use a coordinating conjunction.

Like the semi-colon, a conjunction allows you to combine your two ideas in a single
sentence. But it has the added advantage of allowing you to indicate the logical relationship
between the two ideas. In our comma splice example, the relationship is one of contrast: I
completed the essay, but I haven’t submitted it even though that would have been
the expected thing to do.

The coordinating conjunction but compactly conveys this sense of the unexpected or
contradictory:

I completed my essay, but I have not submitted it.

In all, there are seven coordinating conjunctions:

and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet

They cover the most basic kinds of logical relationships that can exist between two separate
ideas.

Solution 4: Use a subordinating conjunction.

Subordinating conjunctions are similar to coordinating conjunctions in that they allow you to
indicate the logical relationship between two independent clauses. However, unlike
coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions lay unequal stress on the two parts of
the new sentence. We can use the subordinating conjunction although to solve our comma
splice problem, and we can do so in two distinct ways

I completed my essay, although I have not submitted it.

Although I completed my essay, I have not submitted it.

As the word subordinating suggests, we place less stress on the clause introduced by the
subordinating conjunction. In the first example, the fact that I have not submitted the essay
appears as an afterthought; in the second example, it is the point.

There are a great many subordinating conjunctions in the English language. Here are a few
of the more common ones:

while, although, because, if, since, unless, whether, when, why, as, before, after, if,
whether, that, once

How Not to Fix a Comma Splice

Never try to join two sentences with a comma followed by a conjunctive adverb. The most
common form this error takes involves joining two sentences with the word however:

I completed my essay, however I have not submitted it.

This sentence is still a comma splice. Learn to distinguish conjunctive adverbs from
subordinating conjunctions; they do not function in the same way. Conjunctive adverbs
should be used to begin independent clauses, not to join them.

Here is just a small sample of the many conjunctive adverbs that are available to you.
Notice that conjunctive adverbs can consist of phrases as well as single words:

however, nevertheless, furthermore, moreover, hence, therefore, similarly, certainly, by

contrast, in other words, in addition

Note that you can use a conjunctive adverb to help fix a comma splice, but you must
remember to put a period or a semi-colon in front of the second independent clause:

I completed my essay. However, I have not submitted it.

I completed my essay; however, I have not submitted it.

A conjunctive adverb like however usually makes for a more formal and more emphatic
transition between clauses than the more casual conjunctions but and although. If you rely
too heavily on conjunctive adverbs, your writing will begin to sound stiff. Save
your howevers for when you really need them: (1) for emphasizing the key turns in your
argument, or (2) for signaling a contrast between long, complex sentences. Many stylists
prefer not to use however right at the beginning of a sentence.

I completed my essay in just one draft, a process that took me only three hours. This last
essay, however, was a mere two pages long, and I have learned the hard way that
neglecting to revise my papers inevitably results in a weaker paper and a lower grade.
SENTENCE ERRORS AND
CORRECTIONS
 RUN-ONS
• Is two or more complete sentences that are
unintentionally capitalized and punctuated as
if they were one
• Use punctuation, conjunctions, or other
means to join or separate the parts of a run-
on sentence
COMMA SPLICE/ FUSED SENTENCE
• COMMA SPLICE- two or more sentences
separated only by commas instead of by
commas and conjunctions

• FUSED SENTENCE- consists of two or more

sentences that are not separated or joined by
any punctuation at all
COMMA SPLICE/ FUSED SENTENCE
FUSED SENTENCE
The waves lashed the shore the beach houses
were washed away.

COMMA SPLICE
In the morning the house was cold, however,
the sun soon warmed it up.
 4 WAYS TO CORRECT RUN-ONS
1. With End Marks and Capitals
RUN-ON
Elizabeth turned at the sudden noise a bird
had crashed into the picture window.
SENTENCE
Elizabeth turned at the sudden noise. A bird
had crashed into the picture window.
 4 WAYS TO CORRECT RUN-ONS
2. With Commas and Conjunctions
RUN-ON
I baked the cake this morning, I have not
frosted it yet.
SENTENCE
I baked the cake this morning, but I have not
frosted it yet.
 4 WAYS TO CORRECT RUN-ONS
3. With Semicolons
RUN-ON
The stallion kept trying to jump the fence,
however, he failed each time.
SENTENCE
The stallion kept trying to jump the fence;
however, he failed each time.
 4 WAYS TO CORRECT RUN-ONS
4. By Rewriting
RUN-ON
My aunt stayed with us for a week, my cousins
came too.
SENTENCE
My aunt and cousins stayed with us for a
week. {simple sentence with compound
subject}
When my aunt stayed with us for a week, my
cousins came, too. {complex sentence
beginning with subordinating clause}
 FAULTY PARALLELISM

• Occurs when a writer fails to use

equal grammatical structures to
express related ideas
 Correcting Faulty Parallelism in Series
Non-parallel Structures
Strength, agility, and carefully concentrating
make a successful wrestler.

Corrected Sentence
Strength, agility, and concentration make a
successful wrestler.
 Correcting Faulty Parallelism in Series
Non-parallel Structures
The mouse ran across the floor, under the
table, and its hole was the last stop.

Corrected Sentence
The mouse ran across the floor, under the
table, and into its hole.
 Correcting Faulty Parallelism in Series
Non-parallel Structures
My voice teacher says that I have a very strong
voice, but I sing off key.

Corrected Sentence
My voice teacher says that I have a very strong
voice, but that I sing off key.
MISPLACED AND DANGLING
MODIFIERS
 MISPLACED MODIFIERS
INCORRECT: We heard that a bus had crashed on the
radio.

CORRECT: On the radio, we heard that a bus had crashed.

CORRECT: We heard on the radio that a bus had crashed.

INCORRECT: Growling with hunger, I listened to my

empty stomach.
CORRECT: I listened to my empty stomach growling with
hunger.
 MISPLACED MODIFIERS
INCORRECT: I arranged the flowers for my
mother using a new vase.

CORRECT: Using a new vase, I arranged the

flowers for my mother.
CORRECT: I arranged using a new vase the
flowers for my mother.
 MISPLACED MODIFERS
INCORRECT: I saw a blue heron trimming its
feathers while driving past the reservoir.

CORRECT: While driving past the reservoir, I

saw a blue heron. . .

CORRECT: I saw while driving past the reservoir

a blue heron. . .
 MISPLACED MODIFIERS
INCORRECT: The pianist played a new
composition sitting on the piano bench.

CORRECT: Sitting on the piano bench, the

pianist played a new composition.

CORRECT: The pianist sitting on the piano bench

played a new composition.
 DANGLING MODIFIERS
INCORRECT: While shopping in the store, shoes
must be worn.

CORRECT: While shopping in the store, customers

must wear shoes.

INCORRECT: When he was twelve year old, Jeff’s

father gave him a gold watch.
CORRECT: When Jeff was twelve years old, his
father gave him a gold watch.
 DANGLING MODIFIERS
INCORRECT: Playing football all afternoon, my
homework remained unfinished.

CORRECT: Playing football all afternoon, I left

my homework unfinished.
 DANGLING MODIFIERS
INCORRECT: While taking an inventory, the store was
closed.

CORRECT: While taking the inventory, the manager

closed the store.

INCORRECT: After examining the evidence, the

defendant was released.

CORRECT: After examining the evidence, released the

defendant. the police officer
 Basic sentence patterns

Subject + verb. The simplest of sentence patterns is composed of

a subject and verb without a direct object or subject complement. It uses an intransitive
verb, that is, a verb requiring no direct object:

Subject – Intransitive Verb

S-IV

Control rods remain inside the fuel assembly of the reactor.

The development of wind power practically ceased until the early 1970s.

All amplitude-modulation (AM) receivers work in the same way.

The cross-member exposed to abnormal stress eventually broke.

Only two types of charge exist in nature.

Subject + linking verb + subject complement. Another simple pattern uses the linking
verb, any form of the to-be verb without an action verb:

Subject – Intransitive Verb - Predicate Adjective

S-IV-PA

Subject – Intransitive Verb - Predicate Nominative

S-IV-PN

The chain reaction is the basis of nuclear power.

The debate over nuclear power has often been bitter.

Folding and faulting of the earth's surface are important geologic

processes.

Windspeed seems to be highest during the middle of the day.

The silicon solar cell can be difficult and expensive to manufacture.

Subject + verb + direct object. Another common sentence pattern uses the direct object:

Subject - Transitive Verb - Direct Object

S-TV-DO

Silicon conducts electricity in an unusual way.

The anti-reflective coating on the the silicon cell reduces reflection from
32 to 22 percent.

Prestressing of the concrete increases the load-carrying capacity of the

members.
Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object. The sentence pattern with the indirect
object and direct object is similar to the preceding pattern:

Subject - Transitive Verb – Indirect Object - Direct Object

S-TV-IO-DO

We are sending you the balance of the payment in this letter.

I am writing her about a number of problems that I have had with my

Execucomp wordprocessor.

The supervisor mailed the applicant a description of the job.

I am writing you about a number of problems...

Austin, Texas, has recently built its citizens a system of bikelanes.

Subject + verb + direct object + object complement. The sentence pattern using
the [direct object] and object complement is not common but worth knowing:

Subject - Transitive Verb - Direct Object – Object Complement

S-TV-DO-OC

The walls are usually painted black.

The plant shutdown left the entire area an economic disaster.

The committee declared the new design a breakthrough in energy

efficiency.

The low cost of the new computer made competition much too difficult for
some of the other companies.
SENTENCE PATTERNS
 6 BASIC SENTENCE PATTERN
1. S-TV-DO
2. S-TV-IO-DO
3. S-TV-DO-OC
4. S-IV-PA
5. S-IV-PN
6. S-IV
 COMPLEMENTS
1. DIRECT OBJECT (DO)
-always a noun or pronoun
-answers questions WHO or WHAT

2. INDIRECT OBJECT (IO)

-always a noun or pronoun
-answers questions TO/FOR WHOM & TO/ FOR WHAT

3. OBJECT COMPLEMENT (OC)

-can be a noun or an adjective
-appear with a DO
-verb+ DO + WHAT
 COMPLEMENTS
4. PREDICATE NOMINATIVE (PN)
- noun or pronoun that appears with a
linking verb (intransitive verb) and renames,
identifies, or explains the subject.

5. PREDICATE ADJECTIVE (PA)

-an adjective that appears with a linking verb
(intransitive verb) and describes the subject
of the sentence
3 PATTERNS with TRANSITIVE VERB
1. Subject - Transitive Verb – Direct Object
S - TV – DO
Kelly read the book quickly.

I hit him on the jaw.

3 PATTERNS with TRANSITIVE VERB
2. Subject - Transitive Verb – Indirect Object – Direct Object
S - TV – IO – DO

Mr. Melko brought me the survey results.

I gave the room a new coat of paint.

3 PATTERNS with TRANSITIVE VERB
3. Subject - Transitive Verb – Direct Object – Object Complement
S - TV – DO - OC

The newspaper called the swimmer champion.

The book’s ending made him sad.

 2 PATTERNS with LINKING VERBS
4. Subject - Intransitive Verb – Predicate Nominative
S - IV – PN

That person is a thief.

One of the finalists is he.

 2 PATTERNS with LINKING VERBS
4. Subject - Intransitive Verb – Predicate Adjective
S - IV – PA

The barbeque coals are hot.

Today the waves seemed wild and angry.

The sanded plank of wood still feels rough.

 WEEK 6

RULES OF THE SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

Discussions

NOTE

We will use the standard of underlining subjects once and verbs twice.

Being able to find the right subject and verb will help you correct errors of subject-verb agreement.

Basic Rule. A singular subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes, shines), whereas a plural
subject takes a plural verb.

Example: The list of items is/are on the desk.

If you know that list is the subject, then you will choose is for the verb.

Rule 1

A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is a key rule for understanding
subjects. The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-verb mistakes.

Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-common mistake in the
following sentence:a

Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lend color and fragrance to the room.

Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends, not roses lend

Rule 2

Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a singular verb.

Examples:
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.

Rule 3
The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun closest
to it.

Examples:
Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.
Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.

This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if I is one of two (or more) subjects, it could
lead to this odd sentence:

Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.

If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but awkward sentences.

Better:
Neither she, I, nor my friends are going to the festival.
OR
She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival.

Rule 4

As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by
and.

Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.

But note these exceptions:

Exceptions:
Breaking and entering is against the law.
The bed and breakfast was charming.

In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound nouns.

Rule 5. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along with, as well as,
besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject. Ignore them and use a
singular verb when the subject is singular.

Examples:
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.

Rule 5
 With words that indicate portions—a lot, a majority, some, all, etc.—Rule 1 given earlier is
reversed, and we are guided by the noun after of. If the noun after of is singular, use a
singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.

Examples:
A lot of the pie has disappeared.
A lot of the pies have disappeared.
A third of the city is unemployed.
A third of the people are unemployed.

All of the pies are gone.

Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.

NOTE

In recent years, we have considered none to be strictly singular. However, according to

Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage: "Clearly none has been both singular and
plural since Old English and still is. The notion that it is singular only is a myth of unknown
origin that appears to have arisen in the 19th century. If in context it seems like a singular to
you, use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable
beyond serious criticism." When none is clearly intended to mean "not one," it is followed by
a singular verb.

Rule 6

In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.

Examples:
There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Here are the keys.

NOTE

The word there's, a contraction of there is, leads to bad habits in informal sentences like
There's a lot of people here today, because it's easier to say "there's" than "there are." Take
care never to use there's with a plural subject.

Rule 7

Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when considered as
a unit.

Examples:
Three miles is too far to walk.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor.

Rule 8

Some collective nouns, such as family, couple, staff, audience, etc., may take either a singular
or a plural verb, depending on their use in the sentence.

Examples:
The staff is in a meeting.
Staff is acting as a unit.
The couple disagree about disciplining their child.
The couple refers to two people who are acting as individuals.

NOTE

Anyone who uses a plural verb with a collective noun must take care to be accurate—and
also consistent. It must not be done carelessly. The following is the sort of flawed sentence
one sees and hears a lot these days:

The staff is deciding how they want to vote.

Careful speakers and writers would avoid assigning the singular is and the plural they to staff in the
same sentence.

Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.

Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding sentence would read
even better as:

The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.

Rule 9

The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to fact:

Example: If Joe were here, you'd be sorry.

Shouldn't Joe be followed by was, not were, given that Joe is singular? But Joe isn't actually here, so
we say were, not was. The sentence demonstrates the subjunctive mood, which is used to express
things that are hypothetical, wishful, imaginary, or factually contradictory. The subjunctive mood
pairs singular subjects with what we usually think of as plural verbs.
Examples:
I wish it were Friday.
She requested that he raise his hand.

In the first example, a wishful statement, not a fact, is being expressed; therefore, were, which we
usually think of as a plural verb, is used with the singular subject I.

Normally, he raise would sound terrible to us. However, in the second example, where a request

is being expressed, the subjunctive mood is correct.

Note: The subjunctive mood is losing ground in spoken English but should still be used in formal
speech and writing.

Exceptions to the Rules

There are a few exceptions to the subject verb agreement rules. For example:

 Anyone, everyone, someone, no one, and nobody always require singular verbs.
 Neither and either require singular verbs even though they seem to be referring to two
separate things.
 Sums of money or periods of time require a singular verb.
 When a sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and only one is plural, the
verb should agree with the positive subject.
 Words that indicate portions of a whole, such as percent, fraction, some, all, none, and
remainder require a singular verb only if the object of the preposition is singular.
 Who, that, and which are singular or plural according to the noun directly in front of them.
 Typically, you should use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected
by and.
 There and here are never considered to be subjects. In sentences beginning with here or
there, the subject follows the verb.
 As well as and along with do not function the same as and. The phrase introduced by as well
as or along with modifies the earlier word, but does not compound the subjects.
 If a sentence includes modifiers between the subject and verb, this does not affect whether
the verb is singular or plural.
 Just because a word ends in –s does not automatically make it plural. Consider the word is as
an example of this rule.
 A collective noun such as team or staff can be either singular or plural depending upon the
rest of the sentence.