UNIT-1

Food additives
It provides protection against food spoilage during storage, transportation, distribution and
processing. According to Food Protection Committee of the Food & Nutrition Board, Food
additives maybe defined as “A substance or mixture of substances, other than a basic food stuff,
which is present in a food as a result of any aspect of food production, processing, storage or
packaging”. The term does not include chance contaminants.

 Roles of food additives

Food additives play a vital role in today’s food supply. They allow the people to have a variety
of foods year-round. And, they make possible an array of convenience foods without the
inconvenience of daily shopping. Food additives perform a variety of useful functions in foods
that are often taken for granted. Since, most people no longer live on farms, additives help keep
food wholesome and appealing while en route to markets sometimes thousands of miles away
from where it is grown or manufactured. Additives also improve the nutritional value of certain
foods and can make them more appealing by improving their taste, texture, consistency or colour
(U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 1993).

Need for food additives

         It provides protection against food spoilage during storage, transportation, distribution
and processing.

         It is included in the preparation of convenience foods like jams and jellies.

         To fortify or enrich the foods.

         It is used to add colour, flavour, firmness and retards or hastens chemical reaction in
food.

         To maintain nutritional quality of food.

         Used as a preservative and colouring agent.

Classification of food additives

The food additives can be classified as following:

         Preservatives

         Coloring agents

         Artificial sweeteners
         Antioxidants

         Flavoring agent

         Emulsifiers, Stabilizers and Thickeners

         Flour improvers

         Humectants

         Curing agents

         Chelating agents

         Leavening agents

1. Preservatives

Preservatives are used to extend the shelf-life of certain products and ensure their safety
through that extended period. Most importantly, they retard bacterial degradation, which can
lead to the production of toxins and cause food poisoning. Thus they offer a clear consumer
benefit in keeping food safe over the shelf-life of the product, which itself may be extended
by their use and thus meet the demands of modern lifestyles, including infrequent bulk
shopping expeditions.

A food additive, which prolongs the shelf-life of a food by protecting against deterioration
caused by microorganisms. It prevents or inhibits spoilage of food due to fungi, bacteria and
other microorganisms. It stops microbes from multiplying and spoiling the food.

Types of preservatives:

i. Antimicrobial preservative

ii. Antimicrobial synergist

iii. Antimould and antirope agent

iv. Antimycotic agent

v. Bacteriophage control agent

vi. Fungistatic agent

Some preservatives are: a) Benzoic acid and benzoates - are found in soft-drinks, beer,
margarine and acidic foods. They are used to extend shelf life and protect food from fungi and
bacteria.
b) Nitrites and nitrates - are found in processed meats, such as sausages, hot dogs, bacon, ham,
and luncheon meats, smoked fish. They are used to extend shelf life and protect food from fungi
and bacteria; preserve color in meats and dried fruits.

c) Sulfites - are found in dried fruits, shredded coconut, fruit based pie fillings. They are used to
extend shelf life and protect food from fungi and bacteria.

Preservatives are the compounds used to prevent and retard the microbial spoilage of food. They
are classified in to

         Class I and

         Class II preservatives.

Class I preservative: They are natural substances and addition of it in food is not restricted. Eg.
Salt, sugar, honey, vegetable oil, spices etc.

Class II preservative: They are chemical substances which should be included in food in a
restricted quantity. Eg. Benzoic acid, Sorbic acid etc.

2. Colouring agents

Colorants are used to enhance the visual properties of foods. As with all additives, their use is
strictly controlled and permitted only where there is a case of need is proven, e.g. to restore
color that is lost in processing, such as in canning or heat treatment to ensure consistency of
color and for visual decoration. Color is important in consumer perception of food and often
denotes a specific flavor.

It is a dye, pigment or substance to impart colour in the food. It is classified into

         Natural colours (Naturally available Eg. Turmeric)

         Synthetic colours (Synthesised from fruits, vegetables and chemicals Eg: Tartrazine,
sunset yellow)

3. Artificial sweeteners

These are said to be sugar substitute which contains less energy, which are not produced
naturally. Eg. Saccharin, Aspartame, Dulcin etc.

4. Anti-Oxidants

Antioxidants reduce the oxidative deterioration that leads to rancidity, loss of flavour, colour and
nutritive value of foodstuffs. Fats, oils, flavouring substances, vitamins and colours can oxidise
spontaneously with oxygen when exposed to air. Some antioxidants actually remove oxygen by
self-oxidation, e.g. ascorbic acid, whilst others interfere in the mechanism of oxidation, e.g.
tocopherols, gallic acid esters, butylated hydroxyl anisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytolene
(BHT). All have specific properties, making them more effective in some applications than in
others. Often a combination of two or more antioxidants is more effective than any one used
simply because of their synergistic effects. Antioxidants cannot restore oxidized food; they can
only retard the oxidation process. As oxidation is a chain reaction process, it needs to be retorted
as early as possible. The most effective use of antioxidants is therefore in the fats and oils used in
the manufacturing proces. There is a potential health benefits from the use of antioxidants.
Recent medical evidence suggests that oxidation reactions in the body could be linked to the
incidence of atherosclerosis (blocking of blood vessels) leading to heart attacks. Ascorbic acid (E
300), Citric acid (E 330), Tocopherols (E 307), Butylated hydroxyanisole (E 320) are some of
the common antioxidants.

Antioxidants are added to oils and fats to prevent oxidative rancidity Eg. Ethyl Propyl, Octyl
Gallates etc

5. Flavouring agents

Flavor enhancers enhance a food's existing flavors. They may be extracted from natural sources
(through distillation, solvent extraction, maceration, among other methods) or created artificially.
They can be incorporated in to different types of food and food products. Some of common
flavor enhancers used are Dioctyl sodiumsulfosuccinate-used in processed foods, Disodium
guanylate-used in canned meats, meat based foods, Hydrolyzed vegetables-used in mixes, stock,
processed meats and Monosodium glutamate (MSG)-used in Chinese food, dry mixes, stock
cubes, and canned, processed, and frozen meats.

They form a divergent group of organic compounds both natural and synthetic in nature. Eg.
Menthol, vanillin etc.

6. Emulsifiers, Stabilizers and Thickeners

The purpose of emulsifiers and stabilizers is to facilitate the mixing together of ingredients that
normally would not mix namely fat and water. This mixing of the aqueous and lipid phases is
then maintained by stabilizers. These additives are essential in the production of mayonnaise,
chocolate, ice cream, homogenized milk products and fat spreads (WHO, 2009). In addition to
this function, the term stabilizer is also used for substances that can stabilize, retain or intensify
an existing colour of a foodstuff and substances that increase the binding capacity of the food to
allow the binding of food pieces into reconstituted food. These types of emulsifiers used in food
industries are Clouding agent, Crystallization inhibitor, Density adjustment agent (flavouring oils
in beverages), Dispersing agent, Emulsifier, Plasticizer, Surface active agent, and Suspension
agent.

A variety of organic compounds form the group of emulsifiers, stabilizers and thickening agents
Eg. Guar gum, Gelatin, Agar-agar etc.

7. Humectants

These are moisture retention agents. It controls viscosity, texture, bulking, retention of moisture,
reduction of water activity, control of crystallization and improvement of softness. Eg. poly
hydroxyl alcohols.
8. Flour improvers

Flavors are additives that give food a particular taste or smell, and may be derived from natural
ingredients or created artificially.

Flavor enhancers

Flavor enhancers enhance a food's existing flavors. They may be extracted from natural sources
(through distillation, solvent extraction, maceration, among other methods) or created artificially.

Types of flavor enhancing agents

i. Flavor enhancer ii. Flavor synergist Some flavor enhancers are as follows: a) Dioctyl
sodium-sulfosuccinate - used in processed foods. b) Disodium guanylate - used in
canned meats, meat based foods. c) Hydrolyzed vegetable - used in mixes, stock,
processed meats. d) Monosodium glutamate (MSG) - used in Chinese food, dry
mixes, stock cubes, and canned, processed, and frozen meats.
ii. Flour treatment agents A food additive, which is added to flour or dough to improve
its baking quality or colour.
iii. Types of flour treatment agent i. Dough conditioner ii. Dough strengthening agent iii.
Flour bleaching agent iv. Flour improver v. Flour treatment agent
These are bleaching and maturing agents used to bleach and mature the flour. Eg. Benzyl
peroxide.

9. Curing agents

These are additives to preserve meat, give them desirable colour, flavour, and discourage
microbial growth. Eg. Sodium nitrite

10. Chelating agents

These are anti-oxidants. They serve as scavengers of metals which catalyze oxidation. Eg.
Ethylene Diamide Tetraacetic

11. Leavening agents

Leavening agent causes expansion of dough and batter by releasing gas and gives porous
structure. Eg. Yeast, Baking powder and baking soda

12. Glazing agents

A food additive, which when applied to the external surface of a food, imparts a shiny
appearance or provides a protective coating. Glazing agents provide a shiny appearance or
protective coating to foods.

Types of glazing agent i. Coating agent ii. Film forming agent iii. Glazing agent iv. Polishing
agent v. Sealing agent vi. Surface-finishing agent

13. Bleaching agent: A bleaching agent is used to lighten or whiten a substrate through chemical
reaction. The bleaching reactions usually involve oxidative or reductive processes that degrade
color systems. A food bleaching agent is simply used for the purpose of decolorizing food. For
example, food manufacturers usually add flour bleaching agent to flour in order to make it
appear whiter and to oxidize the surfaces of the flour grains and help with developing of gluten.
Usual bleaching agents are: • Organic peroxides, namely benzoyl peroxide • Calcium peroxide •
Nitrogen dioxide • Chlorine • Chlorine dioxide • Azodicarbonamide • Atmospheric oxygen, used
during natural aging of flour

Harmful effects of food additives

         Hydrogenated Fats— It cause cardiovascular disease and obesity

         Artificial Food Colors— It leads to allergies, asthma and carcinogenic

         Nitrites and Nitrates— Carcinogenic

         Sulfites (sulfurdioxide, metabisulfites, and others)— It leads to allergy and asthmatic
reactions

         Sugar and Sweeteners— It leads to obesity, dental cavities, Hypoglycemia and diabetes

         Artificial Sweeteners (Aspartame, AcesulfameKandSaccharin)—Itcause behavioral

problems, hyperactivity, allergies. The government has given statutory warning against the use
of any artificial sweetener for children and pregnant women foods.

         Preservatives (BHA, BHT, EDTA, etc.)— causes allergic reactions, hyperactivity, and

liver problems

         Artificial Flavours— leads to allergic and behavioral problems

         Refined Flour— low-nutrient calories, carbohydrate imbalances, altered insulin

production

         Salt (excessive)- Increase in blood pressure

Effects of food additives

The side effect of food additives is a hot issue at this time. The effects raised are different for
people with age, immune response, frequency and other factors. It has been suggested that the
exposure to some additives like azo are associated with increased risk for hyperactivity effects on
child behavior, or increased attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Sandler et al., 1999; Gil,
2014). Branen and Haggerty (2002) have reported that avoiding or minimizing toxins in a diet is
an important step toward enhancing the health and lowering risk of disease. Foods, amongst
other things (cosmetics and medications), represent a source of these toxins. Effects of food
additives may be immediate or may be harmful in the long run if consumers have constant
exposure. Immediate effects may include headaches, change in energy level and alterations in
mental concentration, behavior, or immune response. Long-term effects may increase the risk of
cancer, cardiovascular disease and other degenerative conditions (US Food and Drug
Administration, 1993). Although additives and preservatives are essential for food storage, they
can give rise to certain health problems (Tuormaa, 1994). They can cause different allergies and
conditions such as hyperactivity and attention deficit disorder in some people who are sensitive
to specific chemicals. Gil (2014) found in his research that the foods containing additives can
cause asthma, hay fever and certain reactions such as rashes, vomiting, headache, tight chest,
hives and worsening of eczema.
Some of the known dangers of food additives and preservatives are as follows: Benzoates can
trigger the allergies such as skin rashes and asthma as well as believed to be causing brain
damage. Bromates destroy the nutrients in the foods. It can give rise to nausea and diarrhea.
Butylates are responsible for high blood cholesterol levels as well as impaired liver and kidney
function. Caffeine is a colourant and flavourant that has diuretic, stimulant properties. It can
cause nervousness, heart palpitations and occasionally heart defects. Saccharin causes toxic
reactions and allergic response, affecting skin, gastrointestinal tract and heart. It may also cause
tumors and bladder cancer. To minimize the risk of developing health problems due to food
additives and preservatives, researchers recommend avoiding the foods containing additives and
preservatives. Before purchasing the canned food, consumers must check its ingredients. They
should buy organic foods, which are free from artificial additives.
Safety Requirements of food additives
The safety evaluation involves examination of the chemical structure and chemical
characteristics of the additive, including its specifications, its impurities and potential breakdown
products in its intended use (Gil, 2014). Toxicological data (data derived from tests to determine
whether a substance is harmful) are essential to identify and characterize any possible health
hazards associated with the additive and to allow extrapolation of the findings in animals and
other test systems to humans (Food safety authority of Ireland, 2010). According to the safety
evaluation protocol, the additive should be administered to laboratory animals, usually mixed
with their diet, but at much higher concentrations than would occur in human food. European
Food Safety Authority (2007) reported that studies on safety evaluation should be done for long
term and re-evaluated for authorized additives; additives may have the consequence of short or
long term effects to the people.
The Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) organization, which acts as an expert composed mainly
of toxicologists, has issued guidelines setting out the tests that must be carried out on food
additives in order to demonstrate their safety. The guidelines require an extensive range of test
animals and other tests to assess every conceivable risk to the consumer: metabolic studies (to
understand how the body absorbs, distributes, metabolites and eliminates the substance); genetic
toxicity (the potential for gene and chromosome damage); reproduction and teratogenicity
studies (life-time studies, including the potential for fertility and birth defects); chronic and
carcinogenicity studies (the potential for causing cancer) (Branen and Haggerty, 2002). Sandler
et al. (1999) reported that everything is toxic if consumed at a high enough dose, and everything
is safe,
with a few exceptions, if taken at a low enough dose. To put it another way, a threshold level
exists above which consumption is unsafe and below which consumption is safe. The plan of
testing is the identification of an adverse effect caused by the additive (Rulis and Levitt, 2008).
The target is to test at three different dosages: the top dose should show an effect and both mid-
and low doses show no effect. This being the case, the mid-dose becomes the no observable
effect level (NOEL). This is considered to be a safe level for humans since there were no effects
in animals. The toxicologist takes this level and applies a safety factor which recognizes,
amongst other things, that humans are not just big rats. The safety factor is usually, but not
always, 100. The value then obtained by dividing the NOEL by 100 is called the
Allowable/Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI). So, for instance, a NOEL of 5000 mg/kg gives an
ADI of 50 mg/kg for humans (Branen and Haggerty, 2002; Emerton and Choi, 2008). Branen
and Haggerty (2002) have also suggested three categories of food additive intake: Those below
30% of the ADI are certainly safe for whole population. Those between 30 and 100% of the ADI
indicate concern for the safety of extreme consumers, often children in particular. Those greater
than 100% are unsafe for all population. Current evidence suggests that additive intakes do not
often exceed their ADI, but that in the cases where they do, additive usage and the regulations
should be altered.
FDA use three principal factors to determine the estimated daily intake, namely: (a) the amount
of the additive to be added to particular foods; (b) the frequency with which consumers will eat
those foods; and (c) the amounts of those foods consumed by individuals across the various
subpopulations of consumers stratified by age groups (Rulis and Levitt, 2008). ADI is different
among different targeted consumers such as adults, children, infants, old people immune
suppressed consumers. Food safety authority of Ireland conducted a survey on the acceptable
daily intake some authorized and approved food additives (Table 2).
Approval of food additives
Prior to their authorization, food additives are evaluated for their safety by the European Food
Safety Authority (EFSA) and other organizations, the expert risk assessment body that advises
the European Commission on questions relating to food safety (FDA, 2014). The FDA evaluates
new additive petitions to determine if substances are considered safe for addition to the food
supply and maintains a database for evaluation and monitoring of these substances (FDA, 1998).
This petition of additives must specify all pertinent information concerning the additive
including the chemical identity and composition; its physical, chemical, and biological
properties; and information regarding possible byproducts or impurities.

Other information that must be included relates to method of preparation, identify of the
manufacturer, determination of stability, proposed uses or concentrations of use, and methods of
analysis or recovery (Branen and Haggerty, 2002). To be included in the approved list, additives
must comply with the conditions set out in regulation whereby should not present safety
concerns, should be technologically justified, and should not mislead the consumer. Additives
should also have advantages and benefits for the consumer such as preserving the nutritional
quality of food, enhancing its keeping quality or stability, aiding the manufacture and processing
of the product or in its transport or storage (Food Additive Unit, 2002; Food Standard Agency,
2015).
Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), the Commission will then initiate the process to amend the
legislation to add the substance to the list of authorized food additives via a Commission
Regulation. Vapnek and Spreij (2005) also reported that assessments must be based on all
toxicological data and other relevant available information in order to determine the Acceptable
Daily Intake (ADI). The ADI must provide a large safety margin and is the amount of each food
additive that can be consumed daily over a lifetime without any adverse effect on human health
(Branen and Haggerty, 2002). In addition to inclusion of the substance on the list, specific
conditions are normally laid down under which the additive may be used, in particular the types
of food it can be used in and the maximum level of use (Jie, 2015). Once authorized at EU level,
a food additive or foods containing it can be placed on the market. Food additives must comply
with the approved specifications, which include information to adequately identify the food
additive, including origin, and to describe the acceptable criteria of purity (Food safety authority
of Ireland, 2010).
Food additive which has identified and approved has the code as, E-number (European Union
legislation, 2016). According to the conditions and feeding habits of people, some of food
additives may not have acceptability even if used in other country.
E-numbering The regulatory agency has developed several lists of additives. The E-system,
developed by the European Economic Community, is a list of food additives that is updated on a
regular basis, including additives that are considered safe, and allows foods to move from
country to country within the common market (Al-Shammari et al., 2014). To regulate these
additives and inform consumers, each additive is assigned a unique number, termed as “E-
numbers", which is used in all over the world for all approved additives (European Union
legislation, 2016). This numbering scheme has now been adopted and extended by the Codex
Alimentarius Commission to internationally identify all additives, regardless of whether they are
approved for use (CAC, 2001).
INS numbering system of food additives
The Codex Alimentarius Commision created the International Numbering System for Food
Additives (INS). This system identifies food additives, similar to the E-numbering system, which
is accepted Internationally.
ID numbers are used for labeling purposes on food labels and it consists of 3 or 4 digits.
Sometimes, the numbers are followed by alphabetical or numeral subscripts- they indicate the
subclasses of the product.
The functions performed by the food additives are included in the INS as well. The additives fall
under twenty- three categories, with an exclusive category for modified starches.
The highlight –the INS is an open list subject to the inclusion of additives or removel of existing
ones on an ongoing basis.
This action will be carried out by the Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants(CCFAC)
Food additives can be divided into several groups, although there is some overlap because some
additives exert more than one effect. For example, salt is both a preservative as well as a flavor. [5]
[1]

Acidulants
Acidulants confer sour or acid taste. Common acidulants include vinegar, citric acid, tartaric
acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, and lactic acid.
Acidity regulators
Acidity regulators are used for controlling the pH of foods for stability or to affect activity of
enzymes.
Anticaking agents
Anticaking agents keep powders such as milk powder from caking or sticking.
Antifoaming and foaming agents
Antifoaming agents reduce or prevent foaming in foods. Foaming agents do the reverse.
Antioxidants
Antioxidants such as vitamin C are preservatives by inhibiting the degradation of food
by oxygen.
Bulking agents
Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without affecting its
taste.
Food coloring
Colorings are added to food to replace colors lost during preparation or to make food look more
attractive.
Fortifying agents
Vitamins, minerals, and dietary supplements to increase the nutritional value
Color retention agents
In contrast to colorings, color retention agents are used to preserve a food's existing color.
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as in mayonnaise, ice
cream, and homogenized milk.
Flavors*
Flavors are additives that give food a particular taste or smell, and may be derived from natural
ingredients or created artificially. *In EU flavors do not have an E-code and they are not
considered as food additives.
Flavor enhancers
Flavor enhancers enhance a food's existing flavors. A popular example is monosodium
glutamate. Some flavor enhancers have their own flavors that are independent of the food.
Flour treatment agents
Flour treatment agents are added to flour to improve its color or its use in baking.
Glazing agents
Glazing agents provide a shiny appearance or protective coating to foods.
Humectants
Humectants prevent foods from drying out.
Tracer gas
Tracer gas allow for package integrity testing to prevent foods from being exposed to
atmosphere, thus guaranteeing shelf life.
Preservatives
Preservatives prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms.
Stabilizers
Stabilizers, thickeners and gelling agents, like agar or pectin (used in jam for example) give
foods a firmer texture. While they are not true emulsifiers, they help to stabilize emulsions.
Sweeteners
Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep
the food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects regarding diabetes
mellitus, tooth decay, or diarrhea.
Thickeners
Thickening agents are substances which, when added to the mixture, increase
its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties.
Packaging
Bisphenols, phthalates, and perfluoroalkyl chemicals (PFCs) are indirect additives used in
manufacturing or packaging. In July 2018 the American Academy of Pediatrics called for more
careful study of those three substances, along with nitrates and food coloring, as they might harm
children during development.
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)
The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) is an international
scientific expert committee that is administered jointly by the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations FAO and the World Health Organization WHO. It has been meeting since
1956, initially to evaluate the safety of food additives. Its work now also includes the evaluation
of contaminants, naturally occurring toxicants and residues of veterinary drugs in food.
JECFA has evaluated more than 1500 food additives, approximately 40 contaminants and
naturally occurring toxicants, and residues of approximately 90 veterinary drugs. The Committee
has also developed principles for the safety assessment of chemicals in food that are consistent
with current thinking on risk assessment and take account of recent developments in toxicology
and other relevant sciences.

• Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives administered jointly by World

Health Organization (WHO) and Food Agriculture Organization (FAO)
• International expert scientific committee in existence since 1956
• Performs risk assessments and provides scientific advice (to Codex and others)
• Evaluates the safety of food additives, contaminants, naturally
occurring toxicants and residues of veterinary drugs in food
• Experts are invited
• Develops principles for the safety evaluation of chemicals in food
(e.g., EHC 240)
• Secretariats
– Kim Petersen, WHO Secretary JECFA
 – Markus Lipp, FAO Secretary JECFA
Sites related to JECFA
JMPR The Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues is the related expert committee for
pesticide residues in food. It is responsible for reviewing and evaluating toxicological residue
and analytical aspects of the pesticides under consideration. Codex Alimentarius the Codex
Alimentarius Commission was created in 1963 by FAO and WHO to develop food standards,
guidelines and related texts such as codes of practice under the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards
Programme. The main purposes of this Programme are protecting health of the consumers and
ensuring fair trade practices in the food trade, and promoting coordination of all food standards
work undertaken by international governmental and non-governmental organizations. Codex
standards are based on scientific advice as provided by JECFA and JMPR.
Codex Alimentarius
• Established in 1962 by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World
Health Organization (WHO) of the United Nations (UN)
• International standard-setting organization
• A collection of standards, guidelines, and codes of practice adopted by the Codex
Alimentarius Commission
• Comprised of Committees
• Decisions are made by a general agreement
Procedural Manual Section I, Rule XII:
Elaboration and Adoption of Standards
Participation and Purpose of Codex
• Members and Observers (2018)
– 189 Codex Members
• 188 Member Countries
• 1 Member Organization (EU)
229 Codex Observers
• 57 International Governmental Organizations (IGOs)
• 156 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
USP is an Observer
• Purpose
– Protect consumer health
– Ensure fair practices in food trade
Types of Codex Committees
• General Subject Committees
– Develop General Standards, Guidelines and Codes of Practice which are applied broadly
across all products and product categories
• Codex Committee on Contaminants in Foods (CCCF); General Standard for
Contaminants and Toxins in Food
and Feed
• Codex Committee on Food Additives (CCFA); General Standard for Food Additives
• Codex Committee on Food Hygiene (CCFH)
• Codex Committee on Food Import and Export Inspection and Certification Systems
(CCFICS)
• Codex Committee on Food Labelling (CCFL)
• Codex Committee on General Principles (CCGP)
• Codex Committee on Methods of Analysis and Sampling (CCMAS)
• Codex Committee on Nutrition and Foods for Special Dietary Uses (CCNFSDU)
• Codex Committee on Pesticide Residues (CCPR)
• Codex Committee on Residues of Veterinary Drugs in Foods (CCRVDF)
• Commodity Committees
– Develop standards that define the physical and chemical characteristics of
nearly 200 internationally traded products
• Codex Committee on Cereals, Pulses and Legumes (CCCPL)
• Codex Committee on Fresh Fruits and Vegetables (CCFFV)
• Codex Committee on Fats and Oils (CCFO)
• Codex Committee on Processed Fruits and Vegetables (CCPFV)
• Codex Committee on Sugars (CCS)
• Codex Committee on Spices and Culinary Herbs (CCSCH)
Use of Codex Standards
• Development of national requirements
• Promote international trade of safe food
• Relationship to trade agreements
• Codex standards are
 – Recommendations by FAO/WHO
– Voluntary
Codex Committee on Food Additives (CCFA)

• Primary responsibilities of the Committee

– Establish maximum levels for the use of food additives (General
Standard for Food Additives (GSFA))
– Maintain a priority list of food additives for risk assessment by the
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)
– Assign functional classes to food additives (International Numbering
System (INS))
– Recommend specifications for identity and purity for food additives
for adoption by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC)
General Standardfor Food Additives (GSFA)
• Intended to be Codex’s single authoritative reference point for food
additives– Currently contains over 4100 adopted provisions for the use of
more than 300 food additives in over 250 food categories
• Intended to promote international harmonization for the use of food
additives -Serves as a reference for developing countries
FAO/WHO Scientific Bodies
• Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)
• Joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues (JMPR)
• Joint FAO/WHO Expert Meeting on Microbiological Risk
Assessment (JEMRA)
• Joint FAO/WHO Expert Meeting on Nutrition (JEMNU)
ESTABLISHING PERMISSIBLE LIMITS OF FOOD ADDITIVES
The limit is established with due importance to following factors:
 The estimated level of consumption of the food product by the
consumers for which the additive is proposed.
 Finding out minimum levels which would produce significant deviation from
physiological behavior.
 Legal control over the use of food additives. This can be accomplished only
when a list of permitted additives exists with specified safe levels and toxic levels.
 Stringent labeling on foods i.e. declaring the usage of additives in food and their
quantities. Employing trained food inspectors, food control laboratories and reliable
analytical methods are of utmost important for regulation / control over usage of food
additives.
GMP under Indian food laws:
All food additives subject to the provisions of this Standard shall be used under conditions of
good manufacturing practice, which include the following:
a) the quantity of the additive added to food shall be limited to the lowest possible level
necessary to accomplish its desired effect;
b) the quantity of the additive that becomes a component of food as a result of its use in the
manufacturing, processing or packaging of a food and which is not intended to accomplish any
physical, or other technical effect in the food itself, is reduced to the extent reasonably possible;
and,
c) the additive is prepared and handled in the same way as a food ingredient.

UNIT-2
2.1 Acidity regulator
Acidity regulators are used to change or otherwise control the acidity and alkalinity of foods.
Acidity regulators or pH control agents, are food additives used to change or
maintain pH (acidity or basicity).
They can be organic or mineral acids, bases, neutralizing agents, or buffering agents. Typical
agents include the following acids and their sodium salts: sorbic acid, acetic acid, benzoic acid,
and propionic acid. Acidity regulators are indicated by their E number, such as E260 (acetic
acid), or simply listed as "food acid".
Acidity regulators differ from acidulants, which are often acidic but are added to confer sour flavors.
They are not intended to stabilize the food, although that can be a collateral benefit. Acidulants are
chemical compounds that confer a tart, sour, or acidic flavor to foods or enhance the perceived
sweetness of foods. Acidulants can also function as leavening agents and emulsifiers in some
kinds of processed foods. Though acidulants can lower pH they do differ from acidity regulators,
which are food additives specifically intended to modify the stability of food or enzymes within
it. Typical acidulants are acetic acid (e.g. in pickles) and citric acid. Many beverages, such as
colas, contain phosphoric acid. Sour candies often are formulated with malic acid. Other
acidulants used in food production include: fumaric acid, tartaric acid, lactic acid and gluconic
acid.

Types of acidity regulator i. acid ii. acidifier iii. acidity regulator iv. alkali v. base vi. buffer vii.
buffering agent viii. pH adjusting agent
 Wilde applications of acidity regulators are flavoring agents in food products,
preservatives, antioxidants, and chelating agents drive the market growth. However,
overconsumption of acidity regulators causes ill effects such as nausea, vomiting,
toothache, and others, restricting the market grow
 Acidity regulators market is influenced by the strict government regulations to control
adulterations, enhance the shelf life, inhibit the growth of microorganisms, and prevent
food products from rancidity.
 These factors collectively create opportunities for market growth, while excessive intake
of these compounds can cause health issues, thus limiting the market growth.
 Food and beverages has high rate of adoption in the acidity regulators market owing to
increase in demand for food. Rapid growth of acidity regulators in various applications is
expected to increase in subsequent years
 Bakery, confectionery, processed foods, sauces, condiments, and dressings, and
beverages are identified as the lucrative targets for investment. Beverages and processed
food are expected to grow at high CAGRs of 8.3% and 8.0%, respectively.

Adipates are the salts and esters of adipic acid. The anionic (HO2C(CH2)4CO2−) and

dianionic (−O2C(CH2)4CO2−) forms of adipic acid are also referred to as adipate.
Some adipate salts are used as acidity regulators, including:
 Sodium adipate (E number E356)
 Potassium adipate (E357)
Some adipate esters are used as plasticizers, including:
 Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate
 Dioctyl adipate
 Dimethyl adipate

Acidity Regulator (INS330) when taken in large amounts can cause teeth erosion. People
can be allergic to citric acid. seek emergency medical help if any allergic symptoms
 occur while taking citric acid like hives, difficulty in breathing, swelling of face, lips,
tongue, or throat.
ACIDITY REGULATOR

Acidity regulators, or pH control agents, are food additives added to change or maintain pH
(acidity or basicity). They can be organic or mineral acids, bases, neutralizing agents, or
buffering agents.
Acidity regulators are indicated by their E number, such as E260 (acetic acid), or simply listed as
"food acid".

Commonly used acidity regulators are citric, acetic and lactic acids.
ACIDITY REGULATORS

lactic acid
Description: also known as milk acid, is a chemical compound that plays a role in
various biochemical processes and was first isolated in 1780 by the Swedish
chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. Lactic acid(E 270) used in cheese, milk,
meat and poultry, salads, sauces and beverages

adipic acid
Description: the organic compound with the formula (CH2)4(COOH)2. From the
industrial perspective, it is the most important dicarboxylic acid: About 2.5 billion
kilograms of this white crystalline powder are produced annually, mainly as a
precursor for the production of nylon.

monosodium fumarate
Description: Buffering agent, flavoring agent, oxidation resistance auxiliaries.
Used in producing wine, cold drink, sweet products, canned fruit, jam, jelly, etc.
fumaric acid
Description: the chemical compound with the formula HO2CCH=CHCO2H. This
white crystalline compound is one of two isomeric unsaturated dicarboxylic acids,
the other being maleic acid. Fumaric acid (E 297) is added to foods as an acidity
regulator and flavouring agent. They are used in bread, fruit drinks, pie fillings,
poultry, wine, jams, jelly.

malic acid
Description: an organic compound with the formula HO2CCH2CHOHCO2H. It is a
dicarboxylic acid that is made by all living organisms, contributes to the pleasantly
sour taste of fruits, and is used as a food additive. Malic acid (E 296) used in tinned
fruit, vegetables and pulses, jams, jelly, frozen vegetables.

citric acid
Description: a weak organic acid. It is a natural preservative/conservative and is
also used to add an acidic, or sour, taste to foods and soft drinks. Citric acid (E
330) enhances the activity of many antioxidants, but is no antioxidant by itself.
It is mainly used as an acidity regulator as well as aroma compound. In
addition it increases gel consistency in marmalades and decreases enzymatic
browning in fruits and fruit products.
metatartaric acid
Description: a white crystalline diprotic organic acid. It occurs naturally in many
plants, particularly grapes, bananas, and tamarinds, is commonly combined with
baking soda to function as a leavening agent in recipes, and is one of the main
acids found in wine.

tartaric acid
Description: a white crystalline diprotic organic acid. It occurs naturally in many
plants, particularly grapes, bananas, and tamarinds, is commonly combined with
baking soda to function as a leavening agent in recipes, and is one of the main
acids found in wine. Tartaric acid (E 334) used in bakery, candies, jams,
juices and wine.
hydrochoric acid
Description: Hydrochloric acid is a clear, colourless solution of hydrogen chloride
(HCl) in water. It is a highly corrosive, strong mineral acid with many industrial
uses. Hydrochloric acid is found naturally in gastric acid.

acetic acid
Description: an organic compound with the chemical formula CH3CO2H (also
written as CH3COOH or C2H4O2). It is a colourless liquid that when undiluted is
also called glacial acetic acid.
sodium sesquicarbonate
Description: Sodium sesquicarbonate (Systematic name trisodium
hydrogendicarbonate) Na3H(CO3)2 is a double salt of sodium bicarbonate and
sodium carbonate, and has a needle-like crystal structure.

sodium carbonate
Description: Sodium carbonate (also known as washing soda or soda ash), Na2CO3
is a sodium salt of carbonic acid. It most commonly occurs as a crystalline
heptahydrate, which readily effloresces to form a white powder, the monohydrate.

potassium carbonate
Description: Potassium carbonate (K2CO3) is a white salt, soluble in water
(insoluble in alcohol), which forms a strongly alkaline solution. It can be made as
the product of potassium hydroxide's absorbent reaction with carbon dioxide.
potassium hydrogen carbonate
Description: Potassium bicarbonate (also known as potassium hydrogen carbonate
or potassium acid carbonate) is a colorless, odorless, slightly basic, salty substance.

potassium hydroxide
Description: Potassium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the formula
KOH, commonly called caustic potash. Along with sodium hydroxide (NaOH),
this colorless solid is a prototypical strong base.
calcium hydroxide
Description: Calcium hydroxide, traditionally called slaked lime, is an inorganic
compound with the chemical formula Ca(OH)2. It is a colorless crystal or white
powder and is obtained when calcium oxide (called lime or quicklime) is mixed, or
"slaked" with water.

calcium lactate
Description: Calcium lactate is a white crystalline salt made by the action of lactic
acid on calcium carbonate. It is used in foods (as a baking powder) and given
medicinally. Its E number is E327. Calcium acetate (E 263) has several
functions. It is used in some foods as a thickening agent (cake mixtures,
puddings, pie fillings), but can act as a buffer in controlling the pH of food
during processing, as a preservative to prevent microbial growth, and as a
calcium supplement in pet products.
sodium dihydrogen citrate
Description: used as acidity regulators, antioxidants, emulsifiers in food industry.

trisodium citrate
Description: Trisodium citrate has the chemical formula of Na3C6H5O7. It is
sometimes referred to simply as sodium citrate, though sodium citrate can refer to
any of the three sodium salts of citric acid.
tripotassium citrate
Description: In food industry, it is used as buffer, chelating agent, stabilizer, anti-
oxidant, emulsifier, flavoring additive etc.

calcium hydrogen phosphate

Description: Dicalcium phosphate, also known as calcium monohydrogen
phosphate, is a dibasic calcium phosphate. It is usually found as the dihydrate, with
the chemical formula of CaHPO4 • 2H2O, but it can be thermally converted to the
anhydrous form.

sodium tripolyphosphate
Description: Sodium triphosphate (STP, sometimes STPP or sodium
tripolyphosphate or TPP,) is an inorganic compound with formula Na5P3O10. It is
the sodium salt of the polyphosphate penta-anion, which is the conjugate base of
triphosphoric acid.

sodium polyphosphate
Description: soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvent; It has got strong
hygroscopicity and can absorb humidity from the air to become into pasty form.

tripatossium orthophosphate
Description: a cleaning agent, food additive, stain remover and degreaser. It is a
white, granular or crystalline solid, highly soluble in water producing an alkaline
solution.

trisodium orthophosphate
Description: Trisodium phosphate (TSP, E339) is a cleaning agent, food additive,
stain remover and degreaser. It is a white, granular or crystalline solid, highly
soluble in water producing an alkaline solution.
tricalcium orthophosphate
Description: Tricalcium phosphate is a calcium salt of phosphoric acid with the
chemical formula Ca3(PO4)2. It is also known as tribasic calcium phosphate and
bone phosphate of lime, BPL.
sodium dihydrogen phosphate
Description: Monosodium phosphate (NaH2PO4), also known as anhydrous
monobasic sodium phosphate and sodium dihydrogen phosphate, is a chemical
compound of sodium with a phosphate counterion. It is used as a laxative and, in
combination with other sodium phosphates, as a pH buffer.

diammonium hydrogen phosphate

Description: Diammonium phosphate (DAP) (chemical formula (NH4)2HPO4,
IUPAC name diammonium hydrogen phosphate) is one of a series of water-soluble
ammonium phosphate salts which can be produced when ammonia reacts with
phosphoric acid.
potassium dihydrogen phosphate
Description: Monopotassium phosphate (also potassium dihydrogen phosphate,
KDP, or monobasic potassium phosphate, MKP) -- KH2PO4 -- is a soluble salt
which is used as a fertilizer, a food additive and a fungicide.

sodium dihydrogen phosphate

Description: Monosodium phosphate (NaH2PO4), also known as anhydrous
monobasic sodium phosphate and sodium dihydrogen phosphate, is a chemical
compound of sodium with a phosphate counterion. It is used as a laxative and, in
combination with other sodium phosphates, as a pH buffer.

potassium dihydrogen phosphate

Description: Monopotassium phosphate (also potassium dihydrogen phosphate,
KDP, or monobasic potassium phosphate, MKP) -- KH2PO4 -- is a soluble salt
which is used as a fertilizer, a food additive and a fungicide.

calcium dihydrogen phosphate

Description: a chemical compound with the formula Ca(H2PO4)2. It is commonly
found as the monohydrate, Ca(H2PO4)2•H2O.

tetrasodium pyrophosphate
Description: also called sodium pyrophosphate, tetrasodium phosphate or TSPP, is
a colorless transparent crystalline chemical compound with the formula Na4P2O7.

disodium dihydrogen pyrophosphate

Description: Disodium pyrophosphate or sodium acid pyrophosphate is a buffering
and chelating agent, with many food and industrial uses. It is polyvalent, and acts
as a Lewis base, so is effective at binding polyvalent cations.
phosphoric acid
Description: also known as orthophosphoric acid or phosphoric(V) acid, is a
mineral (inorganic) acid having the chemical formula H3PO4.

Preservatives: The term “preservatives” refers to the functional name for a wide variety of
compounds that help slow or prevent bacterial growth in a wide range of products, including
foods, medicines, and personal care products. These compounds can be natural or synthetic.
Preservatives play important roles in many products people use every day – for example, by
helping prevent the growth of harmful microorganisms and protect products from spoilage or
contamination.
Preservatives in Food
Preservatives are added to food to fight spoilage caused by bacteria, molds, fungus, and yeast.
Preservatives can keep food fresher for longer periods of time, extending its shelf life. Food
preservatives also are used to slow or prevent changes in color, flavor or texture and delay
rancidity.
Preservatives are added to food to fight spoilage caused by bacteria, molds, fungus, and
yeast. Preservatives also help keep food fresh for longer periods of time. Preservatives can be
made of “natural” chemicals such as salt or alcohol. They can also be man-made, or synthetic
chemicals. “Natural” or “organic” chemicals are not necessarily healthier than synthetic or man-
made chemicals. In fact, artificial preservatives such as sodium nitrate, sod ium benzoate and
propionate have long been used in food preparation because they are effective in small amounts.
Today, food and color additives, including preservatives, are more strictly studied, regulated and
monitored than at any other time in history, and FDA has the primary legal responsibility for
determining their safe use. To add a new food preservative to the market, or before using a
substance already approved for one use in another application, the manufacturer or other sponsor
must obtain approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and provide scientific
data demonstrating that the substance is safe for its intended use. Preservatives are added to
foods to help prevent or slow spoilage due to bacteria, molds, fungi or yeast, as well as to slow or
prevent changes in the food’s color, flavor or texture, delay rancidity, and maintain freshness.
Food preservatives are classified into two main groups: antioxidants and antimicrobials.
Antioxidants are compounds that delay or prevent the deterioration of foods by oxidative
mechanisms. Antimicrobial agents inhibit the growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms
in food.
Antioxidants

chemical agent mechanism of action Antioxidants

ascorbic acid oxygen scavenger

butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) free radical scavenger

butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) free radical scavenger

citric acid enzyme inhibitor/metal chelator

sulfites enzyme inhibitor/oxygen scavenger

tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) free radical scavenger

free radical scavenger

tocopherols

disrupts cell membrane function (bacteria, yeasts, some

acetic acid
molds)
 Antioxidants

chemical agent mechanism of action Antioxidants

disrupts cell membrane function/inhibits enzymes

benzoic acid
(molds, yeasts, some bacteria)

binds sterol groups in fungal cell membrane (molds,

natamycin
yeasts)

disrupts cell membrane function (gram-positive

nisin
bacteria, lactic acid-producing bacteria)

inhibits enzymes/disrupts cell membrane function

nitrates, nitrites
(bacteria, primarily Clostridium botulinum)

propionic acid disrupts cell membrane function (molds, some bacteria)

disrupts cell membrane function/inhibits

sorbic acid enzymes/inhibits bacterial spore germination (yeasts,
molds, some bacteria)

inhibits enzymes/forms addition compounds (bacteria,

sulfites and sulfur dioxide
yeasts, molds)

According to FSSAI rules → preservatives are class I and class II

Class I preservatives
a. Common salt
b. Sugar
c. Dextrose
d. Glucose
e. Spices
f. Vinegar or acetic acid
g. Honey
h. Edible vegetable oil
Class II preservatives
a. Benzoic acid including salts
b. Sulphurous acid including salts
c. [Nitrates of] nitrites of sodium or potassium
d. Sorbic acid including its sodium, potassium and calcium salts
e. Niacin
f. Propionic acid including salts
g. Methyl or propyl para-hydroxy benzoate
h. Sodium diacetate
i. Sodium, potassium and calcium salts of lactic acid
Addition of class I preservatives in any food is not restricted. Use of class II preservatives
is restricted. They shall be added to only specified product and at a concentration not
exceeding the proportion specified for the product. Use of more than one class II
preservative is prohibited. No person shall use in or upon a food more than one class II
preservative
Chemical Preservatives
✓ The purpose of using a chemical agent as a preservative is to retard food spoilage
caused by microorganisms.
✓ As per one estimate of WHO, it was declared that 20% of the world’s food is lost
by different type of spoilages.
✓ Partial prevention of this spoilage can be achieved through the use of
refrigeration, drying, freezing and fermentation.
✓ The use of chemical additives or preservatives will prolong the shelf life of the
food even further.
Mode of action of Chemical preservatives
At what stage it should be added in food Chemicals that function to preserve the food are
generally added after the food has been processed and before it is packaged.
Interfere with the cell membranes of microorganisms, their enzyme activity or then
genetic mechanisms. Preservatives may also serve as
➢ antioxidants,
➢ stabilizers,

➢ firming agents,
➢ moisture retainers.
Chemical Preservatives: Certain preservatives have been used either accidentally or
intentionally for centuries includes sodium chloride (common salt), sugar, acids, alcohols
 and components of smoke. In addition to preserving our food, these compounds also
contribute to the quality and specificity of the products and these are applied through
processing procedures such as salting, curing, fermentation and smoking.
Different chemical preservatives are used, which involves
1. Traditional chemical food preservatives i)Sugar ii)Salt
2. Acidulants i)Benzoic acid ii)Sorbic acid iii)Lactic acid
3. Gaseous chemical food preservatives/ leavening agents Sulphur dioxide and
sulphites Carbon dioxide
4. Antioxidants Butylated Hydroxy Anisole (BHA)Butylated Hydroxy Toluence
(BHT) Propyl Gallate Natural / Synthetic Tocopherols (Vitamin E)Ascorbic Acid
(vitamin C) and Lecithin.
5. Colour additives
6. Flavour additives
7. Sweeteners
8. Emulsifiers
Site of preservative activity in microbial cell

Vegetable oil and Aromatic Plant extract

Vegetable oil consists of monoglycerides, Diglycerides and triglycerides.
Mechanism of action: In pickles it prevents the entry of microorganisms by forming an
impervious layer. It also prevents the entry of oxygen and creating anaerobic condition.
Benzoic acid
Benzoic acid in the form of its sodium salt constitutes one of the most common chemical food
preservative and Sodium benzoate is a common preservative in acid or acidified foods such as

fruit juices, syrups, jams and jellies, pickles, preserves, fruit cocktails, etc. Yeasts are inhibited
by benzoate to a greater extent than are molds and bacteria. Greatest activity at low pH and
become ineffective as the pH increases towards neutral values. The mechanism starts with the
absorption of benzoic acid into the cell. If the intracellular pH changes to 5 or lower, the
anaerobic fermentation of glucose through phosphofructokinase is decreased by 95%. It is most
effective in low pH foods (fish sauce, tomatoes sauce, soft drinks etc). It also affects
microorganisms by inhibiting cellular uptake of substrate molecules. Generally, the stage of
endospore germination is most sensitive to benzoates. Maximum permissible level in foods is
0.1%.
Sulphur dioxide and sulphites
SO2 and sulphites may be added to such foods as dried fruits, fruit pulp, juices and molasses.
They are used to conserve colour, act as antioxidants and control microbial growth. Sulphur
dioxide and its various sulphites dissolve in water and at low pH levels yield sulphurous acid,
bisulphite and sulphite ions. The various sulphite salts contain 5068% active sulphur dioxide. A
pH dependent equilibrium is formed in water and the proportion of SO2 ions increases with
decreasing pH values. At pH values less than 4.0 the antimicrobial activity reaches to its
maximum.
In the past cut fruits and vegetables in salads bars were sprayed or dipped in a solution of
sulphites. Sulphur also inhibits enzymatic browning and keeps plant tissue fresh for longer
period. But this practice has been banned by the FDA because there were over 100 reported
cases of adverse reactions including death. It is also reported that approximately 5-11% of
asthmatics are sensitive to sulphates and experience symptoms such as headaches, nausea,
abdominal pains and dizziness.
SO2 - Aerobic microorganisms are more sensitive
 Yeasts are less sensitive than molds, acetic acid bacteria and lactic acid bacteria.
 Molds (Botrytis sp) on grapes are controlled by periodic gassing with SO2.
 Bisulphites are used to destroy aflatoxins in foods and used at ppm level.
Mechanism of action:
Antimicrobial activity is because of the formation of undissociated sulphurous acid or gaseous
sulphur dioxide. Due to its strong reducing power it lowers the oxygen tension below the level
required by aerobic organisms and by the direct action on certain enzymes it inhibits
microorganisms. Metabisulphites also affects vegetative cells during endospore germination.

Nitrates and Nitrites –

 Sodium nitrite and sodium nitrate - used in meat curing, help to stabilize pink meat
colour, flavor, inhibit spoilage and food poisoning organisms and contribute to flavour
development. They function as preservatives, helping to prevent the growth of harmful
bacteria.
 Have been used as preservatives for meats for centuries especially in hams, bacon,
bologna hotdogs and sausages.
  Nitrites prevent the growth Clostridium botulinum responsible for secreting a deadly
toxin these microorganisms grow in anaerobic condition readily found in the interior of
ham or in meat that has been vacuum package.
 Nitrite is highly reactive and can serve as both oxidizing and reducing agent. Nitrite in
acid environment ionizes to nitrous acid which further decomposes to nitric oxide. This
nitric oxide reacts with myoglobin under reduced condition to produce desired red
pigment, nitroso myoglobin. Nitrites are effective against several food poisoning
(Clostridium sp) and spoilage microorganisms.

The inhibitory or antimicrobial effect results from heat processing or smoking of meat and fish
products containing nitrite. Use of nitrite – for preventing food poising due to Clostridium rather
than color and flavor development. Using at levels of 120 ppm causes antimicrobial effect, and
ppm helps in fixing color and flavor development
Made of action: Antimicrobial effect of nitrite is because of the inhibition of vegetative cell
growth and growth of spores that survive heat processing/smoking during post processing
storage. The antimicrobial effect of nitrite is due to inhibition iron-sulphur enzymes present in
the microorganism. Same effect of nitrite on botulism inhibition observed due to its effect on
iron-sulphur enzymes thus preventing synthesis of ATP from pyruvate.

Sorbic acid and sorbates

Sorbic acid --- It is used in food preservation as salt of calcium, sodium and potassium. Sorbic
acid and its salts are practically tasteless and odorless in foods. The maximum allowable level in
foods is 0.20% and Sorbates are most effective in acid foods (pH below 6) than neutral foods.
Not effective in pH > 6.5. The undissociated form is responsible for antimicrobial activity. It is
considered non toxic and easily metabolized. Among other common food preservatives the
WHO has set the highest acceptable daily intake (25 mg/kg body weight) for sorbic acid.
Sorbates are used for mold and yeast inhibition in a variety of foods including fruits and
vegetables, fruit juices, pickles, syrups, jellies, jams, preserves, high moisture dehydrated fruits,
etc. It is highly effective against Staph aureus, Salmonella, Coliforms, Psychrophilic spoilage
bacteria, Vibrio parahaemolyticus and others.
Potassium sorbate, a white, fluffy powder, is very soluble in water (over 50%) and when added
to foods acidic in nature, it is hydrolyzed to the acid form. Sodium and calcium sorbates also
have preservative activities but their application is limited compared to that for the potassium
salt, which is employed because of its stability, general ease of preparation and water solubility.
Sorbic acid and sorbates effect on microorganisms:

✓ Inhibition of molds is due to the inhibition of dehydrogenase activity.

✓ Catalase positive cocci are more sensitive than catalase negative forms

✓ Aerobes are more sensitive than anaerobes.

✓ It also prevent growth of vegetable cells that are germinating from endospores.
Antimicrobial activity is due to undissociated form. These chemicals affect proton motive force
of bacterial cells. Being lipophilic in nature it acts on cytoplasmic membrane of microorganisms
and separate proton (H+) and hydroxyl ions. The H+ ions move outside the cell and cause acidic
pH while the OH- ions increase pH inside the cell near neutrality. At this pH sorbate inside the
cell dissociate and cause lowering of intracellular pH. These results in weakening of
transmembrane gradient required for transport for amino acids to inside cell, thus adversely
affecting membrane transport and causing subsequent cell death.
Phosphate

These salts are commonly added to certain processed meats to increase their water holding
capacity. They also contribute to flavour and antioxidative activity. Food grade phosphates range
from one phosphate (e.g. trisodium phosphate) to at least 13 (sodium polyphosphate). They
possess anti botulinal activity, especially when combined with nitrites. Combination of 140 ppm
NaNO2, 0.26% potassium sorbate, and 0.14% sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP) delay C.
botulinum neurotoxin production.
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is used as a solid (dry ice) in many countries as a means of low temperature
storage and transportation of food products. Beside keeping the temperature low, as it sublimes,
the gaseous CO2 inhibits growth of psychrotrophic micro-organisms and prevents spoilage of the
food (fruits and vegetables, etc.). Carbon dioxide can also be used as a direct additive in the
storage of fruits and vegetables.
Carbon dioxide
It is used in the controlled/ modified environment storage of fruit and vegetables.
The correct combination of O2 and CO2 delays respiration and ripening as well as retarding
mold and yeast growth resulted in an extended storage of the products for transportation and for
consumption during the off-season. The amount of CO2 (5-10%) required is dependent upon the
factors such as nature of product, variety, climate and extent of storage.
Colour Additives
The acceptance of food products is determined largely by its appearance, consumers become
accustomed to standardized colors in familiar foods and base their purchasing habits / decisions
or past experiences. In order to improve the color of foods colorants are added to carbonated
beverages, frozen desserts some dairy and baked products.

Flavouring agents
Natural food flavors are rarely used because the methods required to obtain the necessary
amounts are expensive. Suppose that a manufactures wanted to produce bananas icecream, it will
take 5 tons of bananas to extract ½ liter of banana oil. So, artificial flavorings become a necessity
for fulfilling the demand for flavorings agents in our food. The flavoring agents commonly used
are esters pentyl acetate responsible for banana flavor and benzyl aldehyde for cherry flavor.
Many flavouring agents possessing definite antimicrobial effects are used in foods. Flavor
compounds generally have more antifungal activity than antibacterial. The non-lactic, Gram
positive bacteria are the most sensitive, and the lactic acid bacteria are rather resistant. The
minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of many flavouring compounds are 1,000 ppm or less
against either bacteria or fungi. Many flavouring agents possessing definite antimicrobial effects
are used in foods. Flavour compounds generally have more antifungal activity than antibacterial.
The non- lactic,
Gram positive
bacteria are the
most
sensitive, and the
lactic acid bacteria
are rather
resistant. The
minimal
inhibitory

concentrations (MIC) of many flavouring compounds are 1,000 ppm or less against either
bacteria or fungi.
Sweeteners – It is added to many foods to enhance taste they can be classified as nutritive or non
nutritive. Nutritive sweeteners contain calories because they are metabolized by the body to
produce energy.
Nutritive sweetener include sucrose, glucose, dextrose, fructose and invert sugar, high fructose
corn syrup. These high fructose corn syrup are produced from corn syrups, that have been treated
with an enzyme, glucose isomerase’s.
Non nutritive sweeteners, such as saccharin do not provide calories because they are not
metabolized. Aspartame is classified as a non nutritive sweeter even though it is metabolized to
two amino acids (phenylalamine and aspartic acid) because the level of aspartame used is
extremely small but produce a sweetness equivalent to sucrose.
UNIT-3
GO THROUGH PPT FOR EMULSION TOPIC
Thickeners A thickening agent or thickener is a substance which can increase the viscosity of a
liquid without substantially changing its other properties. Edible thickeners are commonly used
to thicken sauces, soups, and puddings without altering their taste; thickeners are also used in
Food thickeners are classified into two main categories. These are,
• Polysaccharides (starches, vegetable gums, and pectin).
• Proteins Polysaccharides as a thickener food include the starches, vegetable gums and pectin.
Food starch is a flavorless powder in which can be included arrowroot, cornstarch, katakuri
starch, potato starch, sago, and tapioca.
• Arrowroot- Yet another healthy natural food thickener, arrowroot is added to hot soups and
sauces for a smooth silky texture. However, a sauce thickened with arrowroot, when cooled may
show signs of gelling but gentle reheating returns the sauce to a liquid form.
• Cassava (Tapioca)- This natural food thickener is generally used in cooking desserts. Cassava
doesn't let the sweet dish to gel upon sitting. It even prevents the food from becoming stale.
• Agar-agar- The strong thickening agent, agar-agar is used for making jellies and vegetarian
deserts. This thickener in cooking is used generally when the food needs to withstand warm
temperatures without melting.
• Gelatin- Gelatin is also a natural food thickener as it comes from cows and pigs but for the
same reason many people do not prefer it in cooking vegetarian dishes. However, gelatin is an
inexpensive thickener used for fruit-flavored deserts including ice creams.
• Eggs- Yes, the natural thickener- the very delicious eggs are used as thickening agents in
foods like custards. They are also use widely in ice creams and cooked fillings. Paints, inks,
explosives, and cosmetics.

UNIT 4
2.4 Antioxidants:
Antioxidants are compounds that inhibit oxidation, a chemical reaction that can produce free
radicals and chain reactions that may damage the cells of organisms. Antioxidants such as thiols
or ascorbic acid (vitamin C) may act to inhibit these reactions.
A food additive, which prolongs the shelf-life of foods by protecting against deterioration caused
by oxidation. Antioxidants are used to preserve food for a longer period of time. Antioxidants act
as oxygen scavengers as the presence of oxygen in the food helps the bacteria to grow that
ultimately harm the food. In the absence of antioxidant food additive oxidation of unsaturated
fats takes place rendering to foul smell and discoloration of food. Different kinds of antioxidants
foods act in a different way but the end result is to delay or minimize the process of oxidation in
food. Some antioxidants foods additives combine with oxygen to prevent oxidation and other
prevent the oxygen from reacting with the food leading to its spoilage.
Types of anti-oxidant agent i. Anti-browning agent ii. Antioxidant iii. Antioxidant synergist
Some popular antioxidant foods
Antioxidant vitamins
a) Ascorbic acid- E300 Antioxidant vitamins include Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) this antioxidant
vitamin is used in beers, cut fruits, dried potatoes and jams. The antioxidant vitamins in these
foods helps in preventing the discoloration of food by preventing the oxidation. It can also act as
a substitute of vitamin C in potatoes that is lost during processing.
b) Citric acid - E330 It is used in biscuits, jams, tinned fruits, alcoholic drinks, cheese and dried
soup. It has many uses like it prevents the discoloration of food, increases the anti-oxidant effect
of other substances and regulates pH in jams and jellies.
c) Tocopherols – E307 (307a, d-Alpha-Tocopherol; 307b, Tocopherol concentrate and 307c, Dl-
Alpha-Tocopherol) This antioxidant food additive is used in the meat pies and oils to reduce the
oxidation of fatty acids and vitamins.
d) Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) - E320 It is used in margarine, oils, crisps and cheese. This
antioxidant helps in preventing the reactions leading to the breakdown of fats.
Antioxidants benefits
There are many benefits of using antioxidant food additives. Antioxidants prevent the blockage
of arteries with fatty deposits that prevents the heart-attacks. Also these are associated with the
prevention of certain types of cancers, arthritis and more conditions of these kinds.
Anti-caking agents
Anti-caking agents, prevents the formation of lumps making these products manageable for
packaging, transport, and for use by end consumer. Anticaking Agent is the food additive that
prevents agglomeration in certain solids, permitting a free-flowing condition. It reduces the
tendency of particles of food to adhere to one another.
Anti-oxidants are classed as additives and therefore their use is controlled. BHA, BHT, propyl
gallate and TBHQ are permitted in most countries for use individually or in combination at a level
not to exceed 0.02% based on the weight of the fat.

Types of anti-caking agent

i. Anti-caking agent ii. Anti-stick agent iii. Drying agent iv. Dusting agent Anti-caking agents
consist of such substances as starch, magnesium carbonate, and silica and are added to fine-
particle solids, such as food products like table salt, flours, coffee, and sugar. Some of the
common examples of foods that contain anti-caking agents include: i. Vending machine
powders (coffee, cocoa, soup) ii. Milk and cream powders iii. Grated cheese iv. Icing sugar v.
Baking powder vi. Cake mixes vii. Instant soup powders viii. Drinking chocolate ix. Table salt
Anticaking agents
An anticaking agent is an additive placed in powdered or granulated materials, such as table salt
or confectionaries to prevent the formation of lumps (caking) and for easing packaging,
transport, and consumption. Since most products caking come from moisture, anti-caking agents
either act to absorb moisture or act as a sealant or repel water and oil. Like most other food
additives and preservatives, the majority come from sources that are hard for human bodies to
break down over time. There are some natural ways to keep moisture out of your products as
well, like introducing grains such as rice that will absorb moisture.
Here is a list of common anti-caking agents:
● Sodium aluminosilicate - a man-made product Sodium ferrocyanide
● Potassium ferrocyanide
● Calcium carbonate
● Magnesium carbonate
● Calcium silicate
● Silicon dioxide - the principle constituent of sandstone
● Hydrophobic silica
● Calcium phosphate/tri-calcium phosphate - bone ash.

PRESERVATIVES
You are well aware that foods are subject to spoilage due to contamination by microbes. As the
contamination depends upon the temperature besides moisture as one of the factors, we have
been using a conventional method of keeping the food material in the refrigerator to slow down
this process. However, this method will not work when storage for a longer time is required. We
may need to use some chemical preservatives for this purpose. Though a large number of
preservatives are available, for economical and convenience reasons, salt, nitrites and sulphites
have been in use for many years. The antimicrobial activity of sodium chloride is essentially
related to its ability to reduce water activity (aw) and create unfavorable conditions for microbial
growth. Further, though newer packaging techniques, processing and storage methods are
available that can preserve foods without chemical preservatives, chemicals play a significant
role in protecting the food supply, again for convenience and economy.
On the basis of their mode of action, the preservatives can be grouped into three types. These are
antimicrobials that inhibit growth of bacteria, yeasts, or molds for example sorbates that inhibit
most of the species of yeasts, moulds and of some bacteria; antioxidants that slow down the air
oxidation of fats and lipids that cause rancidity. For example, preservatives like
tertbutylhydroquinone (TBHQ), stop the chemical breakdown of food that happens in the
presence of oxygen; and the third group which blocks the natural ripening and enzymatic
processes in foodstuffs. For example, the browning the exposed surface of cut apple due to the
enzyme phenolase can be checked by acids like citric acid and ascorbic acid (vitamin C) that
inhibit the enzyme by making the pH uncomfortably low for it. Sulphur dioxide serves all the
three functions, which makes it along with the related sulphites as an important constituent of a
number of household products.
Class I and Class II Preservatives
Under the prevention of food adulteration Act (PFA) rules, 1954, preservatives are classified into
Class I and Class II preservatives. Class I preservatives, also called natural preservatives include
common salt, sugar, dextrose (glucose), spices, vinegar or acetic acid, honey, and vegetable oils.
There is no restriction to the addition of Class I preservatives to any food. Brewed and synthetic
vinegar (dilute acetic acid) are widely used as antimicrobials in vinegar pickles. Acetic acid is
more effective against yeasts and bacteria than moulds. Only acetic, lactic and butyric bacteria
are markedly tolerant to acetic acid. Like most of the preservatives, acetic acid is also more
effective at lower pH. Sugar and spice also help in preserving foods. Like salt, sugar also acts by
reducing the water activity of the medium to inhibit the growth of microorganisms. Many
chemical substances in spices like terpenes have been shown to have antimicrobial properties.
Class II preservatives are those which can be added in foods as specified by regulations and not
otherwise. These can be added in foods as specified by regulations include, benzoic acid,
sulphurous acid and their salts, nitrates, nitrites, sorbic acid and its sodium, potassium and
calcium salts, lactic acid, propionic acid, sodium or calcium propionate, methyl or propyl-
parahydroxy benzoic acid, sodium diacetate and sodium, potassium and calcium lactate. Of
these, benzoates and sulphites are most widely used for preservation of fruit and vegetable
products; however, recently sorbates have been allowed for some products.
Benzoic acid is found naturally in cranberries, plums, prunes, cinnamon, cloves and most
berries. It is a strong antimycotic agent. Most yeasts and moulds can be controlled using 0.05–
0.1% benzoic acid. Control of many bacteria requires much higher concentration. Due to low
solubility of benzoic acid in water, sodium benzoate salt is preferred.
Benzoic acid is permitted in several products like squashes, syrups, crushes, fruit juices, jams,
jellies, marmalade, beverages, pickles and tomato products. Sulphur dioxide and its various salts
have a long history of use dating back to the times of the ancient Greeks. They have been used
extensively as antimicrobials and to prevent enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning in a variety
of food products. Sulphurous acid inhibits yeasts, moulds and bacteria. Sulphur dioxide and
sulphites are permitted under PFA for a number of products like fruit pulps, squashes, syrups,
crushes, cordials, wines, beverages, and dehydrated fruits and vegetables. Sulphur dioxide is also
used as an antibrowning agent.
Sorbic acid and its sodium, potassium and calcium salts are collectively known as sorbates.
Sorbic acid is present in some berries like berries of the mountain ash berry (rowanberry). These
sorbates inhibit most of the species of yeasts and moulds. Several species of bacteria are also
inhibited by sorbates. At present under PFA, sorbates are permitted for only a few fruit and
vegetable products. They include jams, jellies, marmalades, glazed or candied fruits, fruit bars,
fruit juice concentrates and prunes. Some of the other products include cheese, flour
confectionary, smoked fish, preserved chapattis and fat spreads. Sorbic acid and potassium
sorbate have GRAS status.
Nitrites have been used in meat curing for many centuries For meat curing, nitrite is used along
with a mixture of salt, sugar, spices, and ascorbate. Nitrite contributes to the development of the
characteristic colour, flavour, and texture improvement and preservative effects. Nitrite has a
strong inhibitory action against Clostridium botulinum and several other micro-organisms.
Antimicrobial substances (antibiotics) produced by microorganisms have been known for
many years. These are the products of the defence system of the microbes themselves generated
when they compete with each other for space and nutrients. Some of these, like nisin, and
natamycin, the cheese preservatives called bacteriocins have been allowed in some foods only in
recent years. Some other potential natural preservative sources include honey milk, and even
dried plums.
 Salt has been used as a preservative since the beginning of recorded history. Pickling of
fruits and vegetables and salting of fish and meat are widely practiced
 Sulphur dioxide and several sulphites have GRAS status
 Generally, 1-2 % acetic acid is sufficient to inhibit most of the organisms.
 Antimycotic: An agent inhibiting the growth of fungi.
 Nitrites and nitrates are the food industry's primary chemical defense against the
bacterium Clostridium botulinum. They also impart a pink, fresh hue to cured meat.

UNIT-5
Coloring agents
Food coloring, or color additive, is any dye, pigment or substance that imparts color when it is
added to food or drink. They come in many forms consisting of liquids, powders, gels, and
pastes. Food coloring is used both in commercial food production and in domestic cooking. Food
colorants are also used in a variety of non-food applications including cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, home craft projects, and medical devices.
Natural: A growing number of natural food colorings are being commercially produced, partly
due to consumer concerns surrounding synthetic colorings. Some examples include:
• Caramel coloring, made from caramelized sugar, used in cola products and also in cosmetics.
• Annatto, a reddish-orange dye made from the seed of the Achiote.
• A green dye made from chlorella algae. (plant grow on water, find it in USA)
• Cochineal, a red dye derived from the cochineal insect, Dactylopiuscoccus.
• Betanin extracted from beets.
• Turmeric
• Saffron
• Paprika
• Elderberry (flowering plant) To ensure reproducibility, the coloured components of these
substances are often provided in highly purified form, and for increased stability and
convenience, they can be formulated in suitable carrier materials (solid and liquid).
Synthetic: The colours below are known as “Primary Colours”, when they are mixed to produce
other colours, those colours are then known as “Secondary Colours”.
• Brilliant Blue, E133 (Blue shade)
• Indigotine, E132 (Dark Blue shade)
• Fast Green, E143 (Bluish green shade)
• Allura Red AC, E129 (Red shade)
• Erythrosine, E127 (Pink shade)
• Tartrazine, E102 (Yellow shade)
• Sunset Yellow, E110 (Orange shade)
Dyes and Lakes
Colour additives are available for use in food as either “dyes” or “lakes”.
Dyes dissolve in water, but are not soluble in oil. Dyes are manufactured as powders, granules,
liquids or other special purpose forms. They can be used in beverages, dry mixes, baked Goods,
confectionery, dairy products, pet foods and a variety of other products.
Lakes are the combination of dyes and insoluble material. Lakes tint by dispersion. Lakes are not
oil soluble, but are oil dispersible. Lakes are more stable than dyes and are ideal for colouring
products containing fats and oils or items lacking sufficient moisture to dissolve dyes. Typical
uses include coated tablets, cake and donut mixes, hard candies and chewing gum.

Sweeteners
Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep the
food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects for diabetes mellitus and tooth
decay and diarrhea. These are the substances that sweeten food, beverages, medications, etc.,
such as sugar, saccharine or other low-calorie synthetic products. They in general can be termed
as sweetening agents. They all are called artificial sweeteners as they are usually not a
component of the product they are added to. As per the source, these substances can be classified
as natural and artificial sweeteners. Natural sweeteners are obtained from the natural sources like
sugarcane and sugar beet and from fruits (fructose) and the artificial ones have a chemical origin.
Artificial sweeteners are further of two type namely non-caloric sweeteners and sugar alcohols.
Noncaloric sweeteners do not add calories to foods. They are used in snack foods and drinks.
Sweeteners like saccharine and aspartame fall under this category. Sugar alcohols are used in
chewing gums and hard candies and have almost same calories as sugar. Examples of sugar
alcohols are sorbitol and mannitol.

Commonly used sweeteners:

a) Acesulfame K - It is a 0 calorie sweetener, 130- 200 times sweeter than sucrose. It is not
metabolized by the body. The only limitation it has is that if used in large quantities, it has an
after taste. It is used in fruit preserves, dairy products and all types of beverages. It is used to
reduce the calories of the products. It is heat resistant and enhances flavors.
b) Aspartame - It is a low calorie sweetener about 200% more sweet than the sugar. It is
disintegrated into aspartic acid, fenylalanine and methanol in the body on digestion. Its taste is
similar to sugar only more sweet. It is used in all types of foods and beverages and medicines. It
is found naturally in protein rich foods.
c) Cyclamate - This is a calorie free sweetener 30-50 times sweeter than sugar. It is metabolized
in the gut by few individuals and generally expelled as such. It is generally used in combination
with other sweeteners. It has a pleasant taste, and is stable at high temperatures and is
economical.
d) Saccharin - It is one of the earliest low calorie sweeteners that is 300-500 times more sweet
than sugar. It doesn't metabolize and absorption is slow. Owing to this it is expelled as such from
the body. Saccharin is the most widely used sweetener. It was earlier banned in certain countries
but now is used quite commonly. There are other sweeteners like Stevioside, Alitame,
Thaumatin, Sucralose, Neohesperidine DC and Aspartame-Acesulfame Salt. All artificial
sweeteners have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). They are
considered harmless if taken in limited quantities.
Non-nutritive Sweeteners
Saccharin: Saccharin was synthesised way back in 1879. During the two world wars, the use of
saccharin as a sweetener increased due to the scarcity of sugar and became an accepted
sweetener for special dietary and dietetic foods even though its safety has repeatedly been
questioned. It was at the centre of controversy when it was shown that rats got urinary cancer
after being fed with saccharin. But it was later related to too high a dose saccharine. Nowadays it
is unlikely to get such a dose as saccharine is used only in processed drinks like coffee and food.
However, saccharine should be avoided by pregnant or breastfeeding women.
Saccharin and sodium saccharin are white crystalline powders soluble in water. They are about
500 times sweeter than sucrose. It has good stability during cooking and baking of food products
but leaves a slight bitter metallic aftertaste. It is permitted as a sweetener in several countries
including India with restrictions.
Cyclamates: Although sodium cyclamate was synthesized in 1937, its actual use as a sweetener
started only in 1950. Cyclamates is a group name used for cyclamic acid, sodium cyclamate and
calcium cyclamate. They are not found in nature. Cyclamates are stable at high temperatures, are
easily soluble in water. They are about 30 times sweeter than sucrose and can be used as a
noncalorie sweetener in a variety of products. Sometimes it is used as a mixture along with
saccharin. Cyclamates are not without safety questions. Therefore, its usage is only allowed with
restrictions like most other non-nutritive sweeteners. The use of cyclamates is not permitted
under PFA.
Aspartame (Nutrasweet): Aspartame was discovered only in 1960. It is the methyl ester of L-
Aspartyl-L-phenylalanine. Aspartame is produced from the amino acids phenylalanine and
aspartic acid. It is an odourless white crystalline powder, slightly soluble in water and almost
150-200 times sweeter than sucrose. Since 1981, it has been used in innumerable food items and
diet soft drinks as it is devoid of any carbohydrates, calories, proteins or fats. Aspartame
provides 4 Kcal/g energy. It provides sugar like sweetness in foods, but under certain moisture,
temperature and pH conditions, it is hydrolyzed and loses its sweetness. Therefore, aspartame is
more suitable for dry products or as a table top sweetener although it is widely used in soft
drinks, dairy products etc. Like saccharine, aspartame has also been implicated in a number of
health related issues but these have not been proved to be correct beyond doubt. However,
person with 'phenylketonuria' disorder must avoid it.
Acesulfame K: Acesulfame K is one of the most recently introduced (1967) non-nutritive
sweeteners. Acesulfame K is the potassium salt of 6-methyl1,2,3-oxathizine-4(3)-one-2,2-
dioxide. It is a white crystalline powder, freely soluble in water, non-hygroscopic and 150-200
times sweeter than sucrose. Acesulfame K is used in soft drinks, chewing gum and as a table-top
sweetener. More food applications are being investigated.
Sucralose (Splenda): - is produced by chlorinating sugar and is comparable to aspartame in
terms of it not containing any fat, protein, calorie or carbohydrates and also in not influencing the
blood sugar level. This is about 600 times sweeter than sucrose and finds applications in soft
drink, candy bars and many other food products. Rebiana is another non-nutritive sweetener
derived from the herb stevia of the sunflower family. Stevia extracts are 250-300 times sweeter
than sucrose. These are heat stable pH stable and non-fermentable. Rebiana is used as a natural
sweetener for the diabetics.
 The body doesn't process this sweetener.
 The ADI value is fixed at 40-mg/kg body weight
For Food Additives permitted level Refer this site
https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/food-additives/lists-
permitted/lists-permitted-food-additives.html