School of Engineering Study Material

Centurion
UNIVERSITY

Engineering Thermodynamics

Satyabrata Nayak
Session-1
Introduction

All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy and matter.
Thermodynamics is a science that governs the Energy and its transformation,
and Feasibility of a process involving transformation of energy and
Equilibrium processes More importantly, thermodynamics deals with energy
conversion, energy exchange and the direction of exchange. the following
engineering devices are typically designed based on the principles of
thermodynamics.

Turbines, Compressors, Pumps Nuclear Power Plants, aircraft Propulsion

systems Refrigeration, Air-conditioning and Heating Devices.

Different Approaches in the Study of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics can be studied through two different approaches:

(a) Macroscopic Approach

and

(b) Microscopic Approach

Statistical Thermodynamics is microscopic approach in which, the

matter is assumed to be made of numerous individual molecules. Hence, it
can be regarded as a branch of statistical mechanics dealing with the average
behaviour of a large number of molecules. Classical thermodynamics is
macroscopic approach. Here, the matter is considered to be a continuum
without any concern to its atomic structure.

Consider a gas in a container. Pressure exerted at the wall of the

container is the average force per unit area due to the collision of the gas
molecules on the wall surface. To determine this pressure, we need not know
the behaviour of individual molecules of the gas. This approach is
macroscropic approach.
The microscopic and microscopic point of view can be compared as follows:

Sl. MACROCSCOPIC APPROCH MICROSCOPIC APPROCH

No.

1 Certain quantity of matter is considered It consider that system made up of a

without taking into account the event very large no of discrete particles,
occurring at molecular level. This method known as modules. These modules
of study is called classical have different velocities and energies.
thermodynamics. The values of these energy are
constantly changing with time. This
method of study is called statistical
thermodynamics.

2. It requires simple mathematical formula It requires advanced statistical and

for analysis mathematical methods to explain the
changes in the system.

3. In order to describe the system only few Large number of variable are needed
properties are needed to describe a system.

4. The change of properties can be felt by The change of properly can’t be felt
our senses by our senses.

Thermodynamic system and control volume

 A Thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region
in space upon which attention is concentrated during the analysis of a
problem.

Everything external to the system is defined as surroundings. In its

usual context the term ‘surroundings’ is restricted to the regions in the
immediate vicinity which has a detectable influence on the system.

Boundary is the surface which separates the system from its

surroundings. It may be fixed or moving and real or imaginary.
Surroundings
System

Boundary

Types of Thermodynamic Systems

There are three types of thermodynamic systems :

a) Closed System

b) Open System and

c) Isolated System

In closed system, attention is focused on a fixed mass. Energy in the form

of heat and work can cross the boundary of the system. But there is no mass
flow across the boundary

In open system, both matter and energy can cross the boundary. Here, the
behaviour of a fixed region in space called control volume is investigated
and hence, there is no change in volume. The surface of the control volume
is known as control surface

A system that exchanges neither energy nor matter with its surroundings is
known as an isolated system
Session-2-4

PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM:

The state of a system may be identified or described by certain observable

quantities such as volume, Temperature, pressure, density etc. All the
quantities, which identity the state of a system are called properties.

Thermodynamic properties of a system may be divided into the following

two general classes.

1. Intensive properties and 2. Extensive properties

Intensive properties are independent of quantity of matter or mass

whereas extensive properties are dependent on mass

Consider a vessel containing air. If a membrane is assumed to be introduced

into the vessel, such that it is divided into two equal parts. The properties
remaining unchanged such as pressure and temperature are intensive
properties. Volume of air will be reduced to half of its initial value. Hence,
it is an extensive property

INTENSIVE PROPERTIES: The properties which are independent of

mass of the system are called intensive properties which are independent of
e.g.: Temperature, pressure, density etc.

EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES: The properties which are dependent on the

mass of the system are called extensive properties.

e.g. Volume, energy, enthalpy, entropy etc.

It mass is increased; the values of extensive properties also increase.

Specific extensive properties i.e. extensive properties per unit mass, are
intensive properties, e.g. sp.enthalpy etc.

STATE PROCESS AND CYCLE: .

Every system has certain characteristics by which its physical condition

may be described. Such characteristics are called properties of a system
which are macroscopic in nature. When all the properties have definite
values the system is said to exist in a definite state. Any operation in which
one or more peoperties of a system changes is called change of state. The
succession of states passed during the change of state is called the path of
change of state. If the path is completely specified it is called a process like a
constant pressure process or a constant volume process.

PROCESS

Non flow process Flow process

Steady flow process

Unsteady flow process

Non-Flow Process: It is the process in which a fixed mass within the

defined boundary is undergoing a change of state. System undergo non flow
process e.g. substance being heated in a closed under.

Steady Flow process: In steady flow process, the rate which mass entering
is equal to the rate at which mass leaving the system so that total mass of the
system remains constant.

Cycle: Any process or source of process whose end state are identical is
called as cycle.

Exact and inexact differentials

Mathematically, if P is a property of the system, then the change in the

property in going from the initial state 1 to the final state 2 is given by
 2 – p1

If p(x,y) then,

Dp = y dx + x dy = adx + bdy

Where

a= y and b = x

If x = y

, then dP is said to be an exact differential, and P is a point function. A

thermodynamic property is a point function and not a path function.
Pressure, temperature, volume or molar volume are some of the quantities
which satisfy these requirements. e.g. Pressure, Temperature, Volume etc.
Their change can be written as difference between their end states. Thus
{dv=v2-v1, an exact deferential

Thermodynamic functions are classified into two categories namely

point and path functions. Point functions are those for which the change
depends on only the end states and not on the path followed. Hence point
functions are inexact differentials

Path functions are those for which the change depends not only on the end
states but also on the path followed. Hence path functions are exact
differentials. These are quantities which cannot be localized by a point on
the graph. But these are given by area. In this case, the area on the graph,
pertaining to the particular process is a function of path of the process; such
quantities are called path functions. e.g. heat and work are in exact
differentials, their change cannot be written as the difference between their
end states. It can be observed the change in any property during a process
depends only on end states. Therefore all the properties are point functions.

For a point function

2 – V1
And for a path function

2 – W1

Rather

1-2 or 1W2

To distinguish inexact differential đw

from exact differential dV or dP , the differential sign is being cut by a line

at its top.

We know that đw= pdV

dV= 1/p đw

Here 1/p is called the integrating factor. Therefore an inexact differential

when multiplied by an integrating factor becomes an exact differential.

For a cyclic process, the initial and final states of the system are the same
hence the change in any property is zero.

Therefore the cyclic integral of a property is always zero.

Session-5

REVERSIBLE PROCESS: A process is said a reversible process it system

and surrounding can be restored to initial states by reversing the process a
reversible process is possible only in the absence of friction and heat transfer
takes place with finite temperature difference.

e.g. frictionless relative motion, expansion & compression of a spring,

frictionless expansion of compression of flied etc.

IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS: A process which does not solicit the above

condition is called irreversible process e.g. A process with friction;
combustion, Treating process, Diffusion,

A process involving mining , Free expansion process.

Thermodynamic equilibrium

A system is said to be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium when no

change in it’s macroscopic property is registered, if the system is isolated
from the surrounding.

An equilibrium state of a thermodynamic system is a state that can not

be changed without any interaction with its surroundings. The factors that
cause a change without any interactions with its surroundings are:

1. Pressure difference
2. Temperature difference
3. Chemical reaction
If a system is balanced in all respects, it is in a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium. Balanced in all respects means :
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM: The temperature of the system of the
system does not change with time and has the same value at all points of the
system.

MECHANICAL EQUILIBRIUM: There are no unbalanced forces within

the system or between the system and surrounding. The pressure in the
system is same at all points and does not change or very with time.

CHEMICAL EQUILIUBRIUM: No chemical reaction takes place in the

system and chemical composition should be same through-out the system
and this chemical composition should not very with time.

THEMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM: A system is said to be in a state of

thermodynamic equilibrium, it statistics, the following three types of
equilibriums.

Thermal equilibrium 2.Mechanical equilibrium and 3.Chemical equilibrium.

Thus we can say the system is in Thermodynamic equilibrium it the
pressure, and temperature at all points are same, there should be no
unbalanced forces and chemical compotation should be same throughout

Quasistatic process
When a system is taken from one equilibrium state to another, the
change is known as process. The series of intermediate states through which
a system passes during a process is called the path of the process. If all these
intermediate states are equilibrium states, the process is known as quasi
equilibrium or quasi-static process.

Consider a certain quantity of gas taken in a frictionless piston cylinder

arrangement as shown in Figure. The system is in thermodynamic
equilibrium so that there is no unbalanced force acting on piston.
Single weight Series of weights
 Cylinder
Piston

(a) (b)

The moment the weight is removed from the piston, mechanical

equilibrium does not exist and as a result the piston moves upward until
mechanical equilibrium is restored again. Therefore the actual process
occurs only when equilibrium does not exist.

When the entire weight on the piston is removed suddenly, the

deviation from the equilibrium is high and the expansion is rapid. Here the
intermediate states are not equilibrium states and hence the process would be
non-quasi-equilibrium.

If the weight is assumed to be made of a large number of small pieces

as shown in Fig.b and taken off one by one, the deviation from equilibrium
is less. The process could be considered quasi-equilibrium.

The word quasi means almost. Infinite slowness is the characteristic

feature of a quasistatic process. A quasistatic process is thus a succession of
equilibrium states. A quasistatic process is also known as a reversible
process
Session-6-7

ZEROTH LAW OF THEMODYNAMICS: When a body A is thermal

equilibrium with body B, and also separately with body C, then B and C
will be in thermal equilibrium with each other, It is the basic of
temperature measurement.

TEMPERATURE: It is an intensive thermodynamic property, which

determines the degree of hotness or level of heat intensity of a body. A
body is said to be at high Temperature or hot, if it shows high level of
heat intensity instrument used for measuring temperature are

1. Thermometer and 2.Pyrometer

Thermometer is used for measuring ordinary temperature and is used for

measuring high temperature. Several properties of materials are found to
be varying with temperature in a predictable way. This variation is used
to measure temperature. In mercury thermometers, expansion of mercury
with temperature is used for temperature measurement

TEMPERATURE SCALES:

There are four scales commonly used for measuring temperature of a

body .

1.celsius or centigrade scale and 2. Kelvin scale . 3. fahrenhite 4.

rankine

Each of their scale is based on two fixed points known as freezing point
of water at atmosphere pressure or ice point and the boiling of water or
steam point.
Reference Celsius Kelvin Fahrenheit Rankine
state

Steam 100 373 212 672

point

Ice point 0 273 32 492

Absolute -273 0 0
Zero

The temperature in 0C and 0F related by the equation. 100=

c=

In order to obtain a quantitative measure of temperature, a reference

body is used and a certain physical characteristic of the body which
changes with temperature is selected. The changes in the selected
characteristics may be taken as an indication of change in temperature.
The selected characteristic is said to be thermometric property and the
reference body which is used in the determination of temperature is
called the thermometer . for example in a mercury in glass thermometer
mercury is the thermometric substance and expansion of mercury Is the
thermometric property

thermometer Thermometric symbol

property

1. constant volume pressure p

gas thermometer

2. constant pressure Volume V

gas thermometer
 3. Electric resistance R
resistance
thermometer

4. thermocouple Thermal e.m.f Є

5. mercury in glass length L

thermometer

Temperature Scale

Based on zeroth law of thermodynamics, the temperature of a group of

bodies can be compared by bringing a particular body (a thermometer) into
contact with each of them in turn. To quantify the measurement, the
instrument should have thermometric properties. These properties include:
The length of a mercury column in a capillary tube, the resistance (electrical)
of a wire, the pressure of a gas in a closed vessel, the emf generated at the
junction of two dissimilar metal wires etc. are commonly used thermometric
properties.

To assign numerical values to the thermal state of a system, it is necessary to

establish a temperature scale on which temperature of a system can be read.
Therefore, the temperature scale is read by assigning numerical values to
certain easily reproducible states. For this purpose, it is customary to use

a. Ice Point: The equilibrium temperature of ice with air saturated

water at standard atmospheric pressure which is assigned a
value of 0oC.
b. Steam Point: The equilibrium temperature of pure water with
its own vapor at standard atmospheric pressure, which is
assigned a value of 100oC.

But the use of two fixed points was found unsatisfactory and later
abandoned because the difficulty of achieving equilibrium between pure ice
and air saturated water and extreme sensitiveness of steam point to the
change in pressure.

Method in use after 1954

Since 1954 only one fixed point has been in use that is the triple point of
water, the state at which ice, liquid water and water vapour coexist in
equilibrium. Its value is assigned the value of 273.16 K. designationg the
triple point by , and with being the value of the thermometric property when
the body, whose temperature is to be measured, is placed in contact with
water at its triple point,

Session-8-10

Comparison of thermometers

Perfect Gas Scale

An ideal gas obeys the relation

P =RT

where R is the Universal Gas Constant ( R = 8.314 J/mol K). This equation
is only an approximation to the actual behavior of the gases. The behavior of
all gases approaches the ideal gas limit at sufficiently low pressure (in the
limit P 0). The perfect gas temperature scale is based on the
observation that the temperature of a gas at constant volume increases
monotonically with pressure. If the gas pressure is made to approach zero,
the gas behavior follows the relation
P =RT

Figure shows a constant volume gas thermometer.

The bulb is placed in the system whose temperature is to be measured. The
mercury column is so adjusted that the level of mercury stands at the
reference mark S . This ensures that the volume of the gas is held at a
constant value. Let the pressure of the gas be read as P. Let a similar
measurement be made when the gas bulb is maintained at the triple point of
water, Ptp. We can obtain triple point by putting water and ice in an insulated
chamber and evacuating air ( which is then replaced by water vapour).
The temperature of the triple point of water has been assigned a value of
273.16 K. Since for an ideal gas T varies as P ,

or,

T= 273.16

where Ttp is the triple point temperature of water.

Suppose a series of measurements with different amounts of gas in the bulb

are made. The measured pressures at the triple point as well as at the system
temperature change depending on the amount of gas in the bulb. A plot of
the temperature Tcal , calculated from the expression T = 273.16 ( P/ P tp ) as
a function of the pressure at the triple point, results in a curve as shown in
figure
 Figure

When these curves are extrapolated to zero pressure, all of them yield the
same intercept. This behaviour can be expected since all gases behave like
ideal gas when their pressure approaches zero. The correct temperature of
the system can be obtained only when the gas behaves like an ideal gas, and
hence the value is to be calculated in limit Ptp 0. Therefore

T= 273.16 , as

A constant pressure thermometer also can be used to measure the

temperature. In that case,

T= 273.16 ; when

Here Vtp is the volume of the gas at the triple point of water and V is the
volume of the gas at the system temperature.

Electric resistance thermometer

In this type of thermometer the change in resistance of a metal wire due to
its change in temperature is the thermometric property. The wire basically
platinum may be incorporated in a wheatstone bridge circuit.the platinum
resistance thermometer measures temperature to a high degree of accuracy
and sensitivity, which makes it suitable as a standard for the calibration of
other thermometers in a restricted range the following quadratic equation is
often used R= R0 (1+ At +Bt2 )

where R0 is the resistance of the platinum wire when it is surrounded by

melting ice. and A and B are constants

Thermocouple

A thermocouple circuit made up from joining two wires A and B made of

dis similar metals as shown in the figure. Due to seebeck effect, a net e.m.f.
is generated in the circuit which depends on the difference in temperature
between the hot and cold junctions and is therefore, a thermometric property
of the circuit. This e.m.f. can be measured by a microvoltmeter to a high
degree of accuracy. The choice of metals depends largely on the temperature
range to be investigated, and copper- constantan, chromel-alumel and
platinum-platinum-rhodium are typical combinations in use
A thermocouple is calibrated by measuring the thermal e.m.f. at various
known temperatures, the reference junctions being kept at o0C . the results
of such measurements on most thermocouples can usually be represented by
a cubic equation of the form

є= a +bt+ ct2 +dt3

Where e is the thermal emf and the constants a,b ,c and d are different for
each thermocouple. The advantage of thermocouple is that it comes to
thermal equilibrium with the system, whose temperature is to be measured
quite rapidly because its mass is small.

Session-11-13

Pressure

Pressure is the normal force exerted by a system against unit area of the
boundary surface.

P=
where δA approaches zero.

The unit for pressure in SI is pacsal, Pa

1 Pa = 1 N/m2

Two other units are widely used

1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 kPa = 0.1 MPa

and the standard atmosphere, where

1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar = pressure exerted by a columan of 760

mm of Hg

PRESURE: The term pressure may be depined as this normal force for unit
area. The unit of pressure depends upon the units of force and area in S.I
System of unit, The practical unit of pressure is N/M2, KN/M2 etc.
Sometimes a bigger unit of pressure is used. Called bar such that 1bar=1x10 5
N/M2. Sometimes the pressure is expressed in another unit called.

ABSOLUTE, GAUGE & VACUUM PRESSURE:

The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems. In one system

it is measured above the absolute zero and it is called absolute pressure and
in other system, the pressure is measured above atmosphere pressure. And is
called gauge pressure.

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE (Pobs): It is defined as the pressure which is

measured with reference to absolute zero.

GAUGE PRESSURE (Pg): It is defined as the pressure which is measured

with the help of a pressure measuring instrument in which the atmospheric
pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric on the scale is marketed as two.
VACUUM PRESSURE(Pracuum): It is defined as the pressure Below the
atmospheric. Related between Pabs, pg and Pvacuum, patm

(i)Pabs = patm + pg ii) Pabs = patm - Pvacuum

MEASURMENT OF PRESSURE:

A manometer mainly consists of a glass or plastic U-tube containing one or

more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil. To keep the size of the
manometer to a manageable level, heavy fluids such as mercury are used if
large pressure differences are anticipated.
Consider the manometer shown in Fig. that is used to measure the pressure
in the tank. Since the gravitational effects of gases are negligible, the
pressure anywhere in the tank and at position 1 has the same value.
Furthermore, since pressure in a fluid does not vary in the horizontal
direction within a fluid, the pressure at point 2 is the same as the pressure at
point 1, P2=P1. The differential fluid column of height h is in static
equilibrium, and it is open to the atmosphere. Then the pressure at point 2 is
determined directly from Eq. P2 = Patm +ρgh

where ρ is the density of the fluid in the tube. Note that the cross-sectional
area of the tube has no effect on the differential height h, and thus the
pressure exerted by the fluid. However, the diameter of the tube should be
large enough (more than a few millimeters) to ensure that the surface tension
effect and thus the capillary rise is negligible.

Question
A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a tank. The fluid
used has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column height is 55
cm, as shown in Fig. If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine
the absolute pressure within the tank.

ρ= specific gravity x density of water

= 0.85 x 1000 = 850 kg/m3

P = Patm +ρgh

= 96 kpa +850kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s2 x 0.55 m= 100.6 kpa

Other Pressure Measurement Devices

Another type of commonly used mechanical pressure measurement device is
the Bourdon tube, named after the French engineer and inventor Eugene
Bourdon (1808–1884), which consists of a hollow metal tube bent like a
hook whose end is closed and connected to a dial indicator needle. When the
tube is open to the atmosphere, the tube is undeflected, and the needle on the
dial at this state is calibrated to read zero (gage pressure). When the fluid
inside the tube is pressurized, the tube stretches and moves the needle in
proportion to the pressure applied. Electronics have made their way into
every aspect of life, including pressure measurement devices. Modern
pressure sensors, called pressure transducers, use various techniques to
convert the pressure effect to an electrical

effect such as a change in voltage, resistance, or capacitance. Pressure

transducers

are smaller and faster, and they can be more sensitive, reliable, and precise
than their mechanical counterparts. They can measure pressures from less
than a millionth of 1 atm to several thousands of atm. A wide variety of
pressure transducers is available to measure gage, absolute, and differential
pressures in a wide range of applications. Gage pressure transducers use the
atmospheric pressure as a reference by venting the back side of the pressure-
sensing diaphragm to the atmosphere, and they give a zero signal output at
atmospheric pressure regardless of altitude. The absolute pressure
transducers are calibrated to have a zero signal output at full vacuum.
Differential pressure transducers measure the pressure difference between
two locations directly instead of using two pressure transducers and taking
their difference. Strain-gage pressure transducers work by having a
diaphragm deflect between two chambers open to the pressure inputs. As the
diaphragm stretches in response to a change in pressure difference across it,
the strain gage stretches and a Wheatstone bridge circuit amplifies the
output. A capacitance transducer works similarly, but capacitance change is
measured

instead of resistance change as the diaphragm stretches. Piezoelectric

transducers, also called solid-state pressure transducers, work on the
principle that an electric potential is generated in a crystalline substance
when it is subjected to mechanical pressure. This phenomenon, first
discovered by brothers Pierre and Jacques Curie in 1880, is called the

piezoelectric (or press-electric) effect. Piezoelectric pressure transducers

have a much faster frequency response compared to the diaphragm units and
are very suitable for high-pressure applications, but they are generally not as
sensitive as the diaphragm-type transducers.

Session-14-15

Work and Heat

Work

Work is one of the basic modes of energy transfer. The work done by a
system is a path function, and not a point function. Therefore, work is not a
property of the system, and it cannot be said that the work is possessed
by the system. It is an interaction across the boundary. What is stored in the
system is energy, but not work. A decrease in energy of the system appears
as work done. Therefore, work is energy in transit and it can be
indentified only when the system undergoes a process.

Work must be regarded only as a type of energy in transition across a well

defined, zero thickness, boundary of a system. Consequently work, is never
a property or any quantity contained within a system. Work is energy driven
across by differences in the driving forces on either side of it. Various kinds
of work are identified by the kind of driving force involved and the
characteristic extensive property change which accompanied it. Work is
measured quantitatively in the following way. Any driving force other than
temperature, located outside the system on its external boundary, is
multiplied by a transported extensive property change within the system
which was transferred across the system boundary in response to this force.
The result is the numerical value of the work associated with this system and
driving force. In static Equilibrium, F=PA. The dX is small so that P does
not change. The change in volume of the gas = AdX. The elemental work,

dW=FdX=PAdX=PdV

Figure

Thermodynamic Definition of Work

In thermodynamics, work done by a system on its surroundings during a

process is defined as that interaction whose sole effect, external to the
system, could be reduced as the raising of a mass through a distance against
gravitational force. Let us consider the raising of mass m from an initial
elevation z1 to final elevation z2 against gravitational force. To raise this
mass, the force acting on the mass is given by F = mg . The work done on
the body is W = mg( z2 - z1 )

 An external agency is needed to act on the system

 It can be seen that expansion of the gas gets reduced to raising a mass
against gravitational force (Figure 4.2)

dW = F dX = P A dX = P dV
 W=

During this expansion process, the external pressure is always

infinitesimally smaller than the gas pressure.

Figure

Compare two systems shown in the. Let the resistor be replaced by a motor
drawing the same amount of current as the resistor. The motor can wind a
string and thereby raise the mass which is suspended. As far as the battery is
concerned, the situations are identical. So, according to thermodynamic
definition of work, the interaction of a battery with a resistor is called work.
By manipulating the environment, that is external to the battery (system), the
effect can be reduced to raising of a mass against the gravitational force and
that is the only effect on the surroundings. We can see that the
thermodynamic definition of work is more general than that used in
mechanics.

Sign Convention of Work

 Work done by the system on the surroundings is considered as positive
work. And Work done on the system by the surroundings is taken as
negative work.

P-dV work or Displacement work

Consider a piston cylinder arrangement as given in the Figure . If the

pressure of the fluid is greater than that of the surroundings, there will be an
unbalanced force on the face of the piston. Hence, the piston will move
towards right.

Force acting on the piston  Pressure  Area

 pA

 Work done  Force  distance

 pA  dx

 pdV

where dV - change in volume.

This work is known as displacement work or pdV work corresponding to the elemental
displacement dx. To obtain the total work done in a process, this elemental work must be added


from the initial state to the final state. Mathematically, . 1W2 pdV
2

1
Session-16-21

PdV- work for various quasistatic process

1. Constant Pressure Process

 pdV
2

1
W2 = = p(V2 – V1)
1

2. constant volume process

Since there is no change in volume, the displacement work is equal to zero

Polytropic Process

Any process can be represented by the general form pV n  constant. Based on the valve of
n, the process differs as given below;For other values of n, the process is known as polytropic
process. Figure 2.8 shows the polytropic process of various possible polytropic index ‘n’ on p-V
coordinates. Expression for displacements work for a polytropic process can be obtained as
follows :

W2   pdV
2

1
1

 V
2
C
n
dV where C = pVn
1
 
 C V dV
n
2

 V  n 1 
 C  
2

  n  1 1

 CV  n 1  CV1  n 1 
  2 
2

  n 1 1

 p 2V2 nV2  n 1  p1V1 nV1  n 1 

   since C  p1V1n  p2Vn2
  n 1 
1

 p 2V2  p1V1 
   n 1 
 

Sl. PROCESS P-V-T Work done

no Relationship W1-2

1 Constant vol or P1/t1=p2/t2 or p/t=c 0

isochoric process

(V=c)

2 Constant pr. Or V1/T1 =V2/T2 or V/T=c P(V2-V1) or mr(T2-T1)

isobaric process

(P=C)

3 Constant temp or P1V1 = P2V2 P1v1ln (V2/v1)

 Pv=C
isothermal process
(T=c) P1v1ln (p1/p2)

MRTln (V2/V1)

MRTln (P1/P2)
4 Adiabatic process P1V1ν =P2V2 ν

P1V1-P2V2 / ν -1

ii)T2/T1 =(V1/V2) ν -1 Or

iii)T2/T1 =(P2/P1) ν -1/ ν MR(T1-T2)/ ν -1

5 Polytrophic process P1V1n = P2V2n

= > P1/P2=(V2/V1)n P1V1-P2V2/n-1

T2/T1 =(V1/V2)n-1 Or

T2/T1 = (P2/P1)n-1/n Mr(T1-T2)/n-1

Other types of work transfer

Electrical Work

In an electric field, electrons in a wire move under the effect of electromotive forces, doing work.
When N coulombs of electrical charge move through a potential difference V, the electrical work done

is

which can also be expressed

We = (KJ)

When both V and I remain constant during the time interval _t, it reduces to

We = V I ∆t (KJ)

Shaft Work
Energy transmission with a rotating shaft is very common in engineering practice Often the torque T
applied to the shaft is constant, which means that the force F applied is also constant. For a specified
constant torque, the work done during n revolutions is determined as follows: A

force F acting through a moment arm r generates a torque T

T=Fr => F=

This force acts through a distance s, which is related to the radius r by

S = 2п r n

Then the shaft work is determined from

Wsh = FS= ( ) 2п r n = 2п nT

The power transmitted through the shaft is the shaft work done per unit time, which can be expressed
as

Wsh = 2п nT KW

where n is the number of revolutions per unit time.

Heat

Heat is energy transfer which occurs by virtue of temperature difference across the
boundary. Heat like work, is energy in transit. It can be identified only at the boundary of
the system. Heat is not stored in the body but energy is stored in the body. Heat like
work, is not a property of the system and hence its differential is not exact. Heat and
work are two different ways of transferring energy across the boundary of the system.
The displacement work is given by


W2 pdV
2

1
1

It is valid for a quasi-static or reversible process. The work transfer is equal to the
integral of the product of the intensive property P and the differential change in the
extensive property, dV .

Just like displacement work, the heat transfer can also be written as


Q1-2 TdX =  dQ
2 2

1 1

The quantity dQ is an inexact differential.

dQ = TdX

X is an extensive property and dX is an exact differential. The extensive property is yet to

be defined. We shall see later that X is nothing but the entropy, S of a system.

It is possible to write

dX =
or,

where is integrating factor.

Session-22-23

First Law of Thermodynamics for a closed system undergoing a cycle

A series of Experimants carried out by Joule between 1843 and 1848 from
the basis for the First Law of Thermodyanmics

Figure

Work done on the system by lowering the mass m through distance h=

Z1- Z2= change in PE of mass m

Let us consider a closed system which consists of a known mass of water
contained in an adiabatic vessel having a thermometer and a paddlewheel as
shown in the diagram. Let a certain amount of work w1-2 be done upon the
system by the paddle wheel. These quantity of work is equal to the change in
P.E of the mass. The system was initially at a temperature T1 as that of
atmosphere and after work transfer let the temperature rise to T2 the pressure
is always 1 atm . the process 1-2 undergone by the system is shown in the
figure given below in generalized thermodynamic coordinates x and y . let
the insulation now be removed. The system and the surrounding interact by
heat transfer till the system return to initial temperature t1 the amount of
heat transfer Q2-1 from the system during the process 2-1 can be estimated .
the system thus executes a cycle which consists of a definite amount of
work input w1-2 to the system followed by transfer of an amount of heat Q2-1
from the system . it has been found that this w1-2 is always proportional to
Q2-1 and the constant of proportionality is called joule’s equivalent or the
mechanical equivalent of heat

If the cycle involve many more heat and work quantities the same result
will be found and expressed algebraically as

(∑w)cycle = J (∑Q)cycle

This can also be expressed as

Where the symbol denotes the cyclic integral for the closed path . this is
the first law for a closed system undergoing a cycle. It is accepted as a
general law of nature

First law for a system undergoing a process

 First law can be written for a closed system in an equation form as
 Energy entered   Energy left  Change in the energy 
into the system    the system   content of the system 
     

For a system of constant mass, energy can enter or leave the system
only in two forms namely work and heat.

Let a closed system of initial energy E1 receives Q units of net heat and
gives out W units of work during a process. If E2 is energy content at the
end of the process as given in Figure 3.1, applying first law we get

Q  W (E2  E1)

Where the total energy content

 Internal Energy + Kinetic energy + Potential energy
 The term internal energy usually denoted by the letter U is the energy
due to such factors as electron spin and vibrations, molecular motion and
chemical bond.

Kinetic energy term is due to the system movement with a velocity C.

For stationary systems this term will be zero. The term g c is a constant of
value 1 in SI unit. It will be dropped here after since SI unit is followed
throughout the book.

Potential energy term is due to the location of the system in the

gravitational field. It remains constant for a stationary system. The unit of
energy in SI is kJ.

Sign convention followed in this text:

 Work done by a system on its surroundings is treated as a positive

quantity.

. Energy transfer as heat to a system from its surroundings is treated

as a positive quantity
Energy a property of a system

Consider a system undergoing a process from state1 to state2 along

path A as shown in above Figure. Let the system be taken back to the initial
state 1 along two possible paths B and C. Process A, combined separately
with process B and C forms two possible cycles.
Cycle 1A2B1

QA  QB  [WA  WB]

QA  WA  [QB  WB]

EA  EB -------------------------------------------- (1)

Cycle 1A2C1

QA  QC  [WA  WC]

QA  WA  [QC  WC]

EA  EC ------------------------------------------------

(2) From Equation 1 and 2 it can be concluded that energy
change in path B and path C are equal and hence energy is a point function
depending only on the end states.
 It has been already shown that all the properties are point functions and
hence energy is also a property of the system.

Session-24-

Specific heat ( at constant volume( cv and at constant pressure cp )

Specific heat at constant volume of a substance is the amount of heat added to rise the
temperature of unit mass of the given substance by 1 degree at constant volume

From first law for a stationary closed system undergoing a process

dQ  pdV + dU or dq  pdv + du

For a constant volume process

dQ  dU or dq  du

 

or du  CvdT )

Similarly specific heat at constant pressure is the quantity of heat added to rise the temperature of
unit mass of the given substance by 1 degree at constant pressure

where dQ  pdV + dU

dQ  pdV + d(H  PV)

dQ  pdV + dH  Vdp  pdV

dQ  dH  Vdp

For a constant pressure process dp  0

Hence dQ  dH or dq  dh


 or dh  CpdT

Sign convention followed in this text:

 Work done by a system on its surroundings is treated as a positive quantity.

 Energy transfer as heat to a system from its surroundings is treated as a positive

quantity

The Thermodynamic Property Enthalpy

Consider a stationary system of fixed mass undergoing a quasi-equilibrium constant

pressure process

Applying first law

Q12  1W2  E2  E1

where E2  E1  (U2  U1) + m(C22  C12) + mg(Z2  Z1)

 U2  U1 since it is a stationary system.

also 1W2  p(V2  V1)

 p2V2  p1V1

  Q12  (p2V2  p1V1) + (U2  U1)

 Q12  (U2 + p2V2)  (U1 + p1V1)

The terms within brackets are all properties depending on the end states. This combination
of properties may be regarded as a single property known as enthalpy. It is usually denoted by
the letter H.

ie H  U + pV

(or) h  u + pv

Where h is specific enthalpy in kJ/kg

u is specific internal energy in kJ/kg and

v is specific volume in m3/kg

A Perpetual Motion Machine of First Kind

Thermodynamics originated as a result of man's endeavour to convert the disorganized

form of energy (internal energy) into organized form of energy (work).

An imaginary device which would produce work continuously without absorbing any
energy from its surroundings is called a Perpetual Motion Machine of the First kind,
(PMMFK). A PMMFK is a device which violates the first law of thermodynamics. It is
impossible to devise a PMMFK (Figure

Figure

The converse of the above statement is also true, i.e., there can be no machine which
would continuously consume work without some other form of energy appearing
simultaneously.

Session-25

First law applied to a flow process

As a fluid flows through a certain control volume, its thermodynamic properties may vary along
the space coordinates as well as with time . if the rates of flow of mass and energy through the
control surface change with time , the mass and energy within the control volume also would
change with time.

Steady flow means that the rates of flow of mass and energy across the control surface are
constant. At the steady state of the system any thermodynamic property of the system will have a
fixed value at a particular location and will not alter with time. Thermodynamic properties may
vary along space coordinates but donot vary with time.
First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume

Mass simultaneously entering and leaving the system is a very common phenomenon in
most of the engineering applications. Control volume concept is applied to these devices by
assuming suitable control surfaces. To analyze these control volume problems, conservation of
mass and energy concepts are to be simultaneously considered.Energy may cross the control
surface not only in the form of heat and work but also by total energy associated with the mass
crossing the boundaries. Hence apart from kinetic, potential and internal energies, flow energy
should also be taken into account.

Conservation of mass

Total mass  Total mass   Net change in the 

entering the   leaving the   mass content of the 
     
control volume control volume control volume 

Conservation of energy

 Net energy crossing the  Total energy  Total energy   Net change 
boundary in the  associated withthe  associated withthe   in theenrgy 
      
 form of heat  mass entering  mass leaving  content of the 
       
 and work  the control volume the control volume control volume

.
W

. Control .
min mout
Volume

.
Q
 ( First law applied to a control volume )

Steady flow energy equation

Let A1, A2 cross section of stream

W1, w2 mass flow rate in kg/s

P1, p2 absolute pressure in N/m2

1, 2 specific internal energy m3/kg

v1, v2 velocity

net rate of heat transfer through the control surface in j/s

 . net rate of work transfer through the control surface in j/s

is the ti e i seco d
subscripts 1 and 2 stands for entry and exit sections

Mass balance

W1 = W2

Energy balance
The total work transfer is given by

W=WX – p1 1dm1 + p2 2dm2

In the rate form

= - p1 1 + p2 2 --------------------------------------- (1)

= - p1 1w1 + p2 2 w2

By the conservation of energy principle

Energy into = energy out

W1e1 + = W2e2 +

Substituting for from equation 1

W1e1 + = W2e2 + - p1 1w1 + p2 2 w2

W1e1 + + p1 1w1 = W 2e 2 + + p2 2 w2

Where e = ek + ep.e+ U

Substituting for e

W1( V12/2 + Z1g+ u1)+ + p1 1w1 = W2( V22/2 + Z2g+ u2)+ + p2 2 w2

Substituting h = u+ p a d taki g w1 = W2 = W and dividing by on both sides

We can get

W1( V12/2 + Z1g+ h1)+ = W2( V22/2 + Z2g+ h2)+ (SFEE in terms of energy per time)

h1+ V12/2 +Z1g + = h2+ V22/2 +Z2g + (SFEE in terms of energy per mass)

When more than one stream of fluid is involved energy per time form of equation is used

In terms of rate equation it can be expressed as

Q  W   m 
in  
V2
   out 




V2
 Zg   ECV 

  out  
h Zg m h
in 2 2

...(3.7)
m  m
for a steady flow process


in out

also

ECV   0
Q  W   m  V2
in      out h 


 V2 
 Zg   0
  out  
h Zg m
in 2 2

For problem of single inlet stream and single outlet stream

Q  W  m (h
  V 2  V1 2  
 h1 )   2   Z 2  Z1 g 

   
2
2

This equation is commonly known as steady flow energy equation (SFEE).

Session-26-27

Steady flow process

Application of Steady-state Flow Processes

(a) Turbine:

Turbine converts enthalpy into useful work. Steam or gas at high temperature and pressure is
allowed to expand through a system of rotors.

The change in kinetic and potential energy of steam or gas as it passes through the turbine can
be ignored without introducing much error. Further, if the heat losses from the turbine are
negligible, the first law for this steady state flow reduces to

h1= h2+

so work is done by the fluid at the expence of enthalpy

(b) Compressor:

A compressor can be considered as a turbine operating in reverse. Fluid enters the compressor
at a low pressure and emanates at a higher pressure. If the changes in the kinetic energy and
potential energy are ignored, and the energy losses are negligible, then the first law for this flow
process reduces to

h1= h2-

the enthalpy of the fluid increases at the amount of work input

(c) Nozzle:
 Nozzles are devices which increase the velocity of a fluid at the expense of pressure. A typical
nozzle used for fluid flow at subsonic* speeds is shown in Figure

Figure

In nozzles fluids flow at a speed which is high enough to neglect heat lost or gained as it
crosses the entire length of the nozzle. Therefore, flow through nozzles can be regardedas
adiabatic.. There is no shaft or any other form of work transfer to the fluid or from the
fluid;.Changes in the potential energy of the fluid are negligible

  V2 2  V1 2 
 2      0
 
  
( h h1 )
2
 V2 2  V1 2 
The first law reduces to
   (h1  h2 )
 
 2 

(d) Diffuser:

Diffusers are (reverse of nozzles) devices which increase the pressure of a fluid stream by
reducing its kinetic energy

 
 V2 2  V1 2
(h2  h1 )     0

(e) Heat   2  Exchangers
 V 2  V2 2  device in which heat is transferred
(h2  h1 )   1 
 fluid stream to a cold fluid stream are
 
It is a
from a hot 2
known as heat exchangers.
Heat lost by the hot fluid is equal to the heat gained by the cold fluid. No work transfer across
the control volume and. Changes in kinetic and potential energies of both the streams are
negligible.

Q  m (h
For both hot and cold streams

2  h1 )
As per the assumption,

   Q hot  Q cold

The negative sign in the LHS is to represent that heat is going out of the system.

 h (h1  h2 )  m
m  c (h2  h1 ) 

Throttling Process

The porous plug experiment was designed to measure temperature changes when a fluid
flows steadily through a porous plug which is inserted in a thermally insulated, horizontal
pipe. The apparatus used by Joule and Thomson is shown in Figure
A gas at pressure and temperature flows continuously through a porous plug in a
tube and emerges into a space which is maintained at a constant pressure . The device
is thermally insulated and kept horizontal. Consider the dotted portion as control volume.

This results in

Therefore, whenever a fluid expands from a region of high pressure to a region of low
pressure through a porous plug, partially opened valve or some obstruction, without
exchanging any energy as heat and work with the surrounding (neglecting, the changes in
PE and KE), the enthalpy of the fluid remains constant, and the fluid is said to have
undergone a throttling process.

Therefore, whenever a fluid expands from a region of high pressure to a

region of low pressure through a porous plug, partially opened valve or some
obstruction, without exchanging any energy as heat and work with the
surrounding (neglecting, the changes in PE and KE), the enthalpy of the
fluid remains constant, and the fluid is said to have undergone a throttling
process.
Session-28

Second Law of thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is a law of conservation of energy. It does
not specify the direction of the process. All spontaneous processes processed
in one direction only. The first law of thermodynamics does not deny the
feasibility of a process reversing itself. The first law of thermodynamics
does not provide answers to the following questions.

whether A PARTICULAR PROCESS / REACTION FEASIBLE?

TO WHAT EXTENT DOES THE PROCESS / REACTION PROCEED?

IS COMPLETE CONVERSION OF INTERNAL ENERGY INTO

WORK POSSIBLE?

There exists a law which determines the direction in which a spontaneous

process proceeds. The law, known as the second law of thermodynamics, is
a principle of wide generality and provides answer to the above questions.

If a well insulated tank of fluid is stirred by a rotating paddle wheel, the

energy of the fluid increases. If the stirrer is stopped, however the energy of
the fluid will not decrease and cause the stirrer to rotate in the opposite
direction. The possibility of this process proceeding in the opposite direction
is not excluded by the first law of Thermodynamics. Hence first law of
thermodynamics does not allow us to predict whether a proposed conceived
energy conversion is possible or not.

Thermal energy reservoir

A Thermal reservoir is a large body of infinite heat capacity from

which a finite quantity of energy can be extracted or to which a finite
quantity of energy can be added as heat without changing its
temperature. A source is a thermal reservoir at high temperature from
which a heat engine receives the energy as heat and a sink is a low
 temperature thermal reservoir to which a heat engine rejects energy as
heat.

Heat Engine

A heat engine is a cyclically operating device which converts the

energy it receives as heat, into work. It receives energy as heat form a
high temperature body, converts part of it into work and rejects the
rest to a low temperature body. Example :- thermal power plant

1. In the boiler, the working fluid receives a certain amount of heat Q1

from the combustion products In the boiler

2. The superheated steam enters a turbine where it expands performing

the shaft work WT.

3. The low pressure steam enters a condenser where it exchange energy

as heat at constant pressure with the cooling water And rejects a
certain amount of heat Q2to the cooling water.

4. The low pressure condensate from the condenser enters the pump.
Work Wp is done on the pump to elevate the condensate to the boiler
pressure and return it to the boiler.
In the above example,

Work done by the system WT - Wp

Energy absorbed as heat by the system = Q1

Energy rejected as heat by the system = Q2

According to first law of thermodynamics, the heat and work interaction are
related by the equation.

Finally, the thermal efficiency of a heat engine can be expressed as


Wnet
=
Qin
 Session-29-31

Heat Pump

Heat Pump is cyclically operating device which absorbs energy form a low
temperature reservoir and reject energy as heat to a high temperature
reservoir when work is performed on the device. Its objective is space
heating in winter. The atmosphere acts as the low temperature reservoir.

Refrigerator

A refrigerator is a cyclically operating device which absorbs energy as heat

from a low temperature body and rejects energy as heat to a high
temperature body when work is performed on the device. The objective of
this device is to refrigerate a body at low temperature. Generally it uses
atmosphere as the high temperature reservoir.

Refer to figure Let and represents the amount of energy absorbed as

heat from the low temperature reservoir and the energy rejected as heat to
the high temperature reservoir respectively, Let W be the work done on the
device to accomplish the task.

COP( R) 
Desired Effect
work Re quired

COP 
Ql
W

COP( R) 
Ql
QH  Ql

Similarly for the heat pump

COP 
Desired Effect
work Re quired

COP( HP) 
QH

Since , QH  QL  W
W

COP ( HP) 
QH
QH  Q L

It can be proved that

C.O.P of heat pump = C.O.P of refrigerator + 1

KELVIN PLANCK STATEMENT

It is impossible to construct a device that, operating continuously, will

produce no effect other than transfer of heat from a single thermal reservoir
and performance of an equal amount of work
The only option then is that the engine converts part of the energy it receives
as heat into work and rejects the rest to another thermal reservoir the
temperature of which is less than the temperature of the source. Two thermal
reservoirs, one of high temperature (source), from which the working fluid
receives energy as heat, and the other of low temperature (sink), to which the
working fluid rejects energy as heat, are needed for a heat engine. Once the
heat engine rejects a part of the energy it receives, its efficiency becomes
less than one. Thus the Kelvin Planck statement further implies that no heat
engine can have a thermal efficiency of one (hundred percent). This does not
violate the first law of thermodynamics either.

Second law restricts the thermal efficiency of a heat engine to less than one.
It stipulates that some portion of the energy absorbed as heat from a source
must always be rejected to a low temperature sink.

PMM2

Wilhelm Ostwald introduced the concept of perpetual motion machine of the

second kind (PMM2), that is a device which would perform work solely by
absorbing energy as heat from a body. Such a device does not violate the
first law of thermodynamics.
A PMM2 is a hypothetical device which working cyclically, receives energy
as heat from a single thermal reservoir, and delivers as equivalent amount of
work. The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law tells us that it is
impossible to constructs a perpetual motion machine of the second kind.

Session-32-

Clausius statement : Unaided by an external agency heat can not be

transferred from a body at lower temperature to a body at
higher temperature.

Devices that are used to transfer heat from a body at lower temperature to a
body at higher temperature are known as refrigerators (or) heat pumps. If the
high temperature side is atmosphere it is a refrigerator. If the low
temperature side is atmosphere it is known as a heat pump. The performance
index here is called coefficient of performance (COP). In refrigerator (and
heat pumps) the performance is the ratio of two independent parameters and
hence the possibility of getting the value more than unity is always there.
But the term efficiency is restricted to a maximum of unity. Hence the term
efficiency is not used here

Carnot cycle, efficiency of reversible and irreversible engine and problems

Reversibility, Irreversibility and Carnot cycle

The second law of thermodynamics distinguishes between reversible and

irreversible processes.

If a process can proceed in either direction without violating the second law
of thermodynamics, it is reversible process. A reversible process is carried
out infinitely slowly with an infinitesimal gradient, so that every state passed
through by the system is an equilibrium state. So, a reversible process is a
quasi-static process which can proceed in either direction.

In a process, if the attempt to reverse its direction leads to a violation of the

second law of thermodynamics, then the given process is irreversible. Any
natural process carried out with a finite gradient is an irreversible process .
A reversible process which consists of a succession of equilibrium states, is
an idealized hypothetical process, approached only as a limit. It is said to be
an asymptote to reality, All spontaneous processes are irreversible.

Irreversibility and Causes of Irreversibility

The factors that make a process irreversible are known as

irreversibilities. Various forms of irreversibilities are listed below.

a) Friction : Friction occurs at the interface of two bodies moving

relative to each other. It is the main cause of
irreversibility in many processes. Energy spent in
overcoming friction is dissipated in the form of heat
which can never be restored.

b) Heat transfer: Once heat is transferred from a body at higher

temperature to a body at lower temperature, it can
never be reversed without the aid of an external
agency.
through finite
temperature
difference
c) Unresisted expansion :
Consider a vessel with two chambers. If
the members separating the gas from vacuum is
removed, gas will expand and occupy the entire space.
Since the expansion has no influence on the
surroundings, there is no work output in this process.
But to restore the initial arrangement, a definite work
input is required.
d) Mixing of two gases : Consider a vessel with two chambers, one with
O2 and the other with N2. When the member separating
O2 & N2 is removed, uniform mixing is taking place
without any work output. But such a process can not be
reversed without any work input.

e) Throttling : It is a totally irreversible process. Gas or vapour

will expand through a restricted passage with its
pressure decreasing rapidly without any work output.
Such an expansion can not be reversed.

Irreversible Processes

The example of irreversible processes are: Motion with friction, free

expansion, Expansion/ compression with finite pressure difference, Energy
transfer as heat with finite , Mixing of matter at different states, Mixing
of non-identical gases.

Session-33-34

A French engineer Sadi Carnot was the first to introduce the idea of reversible cycle.
From the second law, it has been observed that the efficiency of a heat engine is less than
unity. The maximum efficiency of a heat engine can be found by considering the Carnot
cycle. The concept of carnot cycle is executed via Carnot engine.

Carnot Engine
 The processes that make up the Carnot cycle are :

Process 1-2

The working substance is taken in a piston cylinder arrangement Heat

is added reversibly and isothermally from a high temperature reservoir at
TH. Since the process is to be reversible, the temperature TH of the reservoir
should be equal to or infinitesimally greater than that of the working
substance.

Process 2-3

The working substance is allowed to expand reversibly and

adiabatically until its temperature falls down to TL.

Process 3-4

Heat is rejected by the working substance to a low temperature

reservoir kept TL or at temperature infinitesimally smaller than TL.

Process 4-1

The working substance is then compressed reversibly and adiabatically

until its temperature becomes TH and the cycle continues.

The cycle has been represented in a p-V diagram. The included area
represents the net work done in the cycle. From first law of thermodynamics
net workdone is equal to net heat transfer in the cycle. Since QH is the heat
added to system and QL is the heat rejected by the system, the neat heat
transfer is QH  QL.

Wnet
Efficiency of Carnot Engine =
Qin

QH  QL

Qin

= 1
QL
Qin

Where
 QL = 3W4 + U4  U3

Since the process is isothermal U4  U3

 QL  3W4

p 
 P3 V3 ln  3 
p  4 

p 
 mRTL ln  3 
 p4 

p 
QH  mRTH ln  2 
 p1 
Similarly

Process 2-3 is reversible adiabatic

  1 
T2  p 2  
 
 
  
TH
T3  p3  TL



Process 4-1 is also reversible adiabatic

  1 
 p  
 

 1   1  
 

T TH
T4  p 4  TL

From the above two expressions

 1
p2 p
p3 p 4


p 2 p3
p1 p 4
 Substituting the above condition we get

mRTL ln  3 
 p4 
p
 Carnot  1  L  1 
Q
mRTL ln  p 2 
 p1 
Qin

 1 L
T
TH

It shows that efficiency of carnot engine is purely a function of T H and

TL.

Since the carnot cycle being completely reversible, if carried out in

reverse direction, the magnitudes of all energy transfers remain the same but
their sign change. This reversed carnot cycle can be applied for a refrigerator
or a heat pump.
Session-35

What is Entropy?

Entropy can be viewed as a measure of

molecular disorder, or molecular randomness.
As a system becomes more disordered, the
positions of the molecules become less
predictable and the entropy increases. Thus, it is
not surprising that the entropy of a substance is
lowest in the solid phase and highest in the gas
phase. In the solid phase, the molecules of a
substance continually oscillate about their
equilibrium positions, but they cannot move
relative to each other, and their position at any
instant can be predicted with good certainty. In
the gas phase, however, the molecules move
about at random, collide with each other, and
change direction, making it extremely difficult to predict accurately the
microscopic state of a system at any instant. Associated with this molecular
chaos is a high value of entropy.

Two reversible adiabatic paths cannot intercept each other:

Let it be assumed that two reversible adiabatic AC and BC intersects
each other at point C. Let a reversible isotherms AB be drawn in such a way
that it intersects the reversible adiabatic at A and B, the three reversible
processes AB, BC, and CA together constitute a reversible cycle, and the
area included represents the net work output in a cycle. But such a cycle is
impossible, since net work is being produced in a cycle by a heat engine by
exchanging heat with a single reservoir in the process AB, which violates the
Kelvin – Planck statement of the second law. Therefore, the assumption of
the intersection of the reversible adiabatic is wrong. Through one point,
there can pass only one reversible adiabatic.

Since two constant property lines can never intersect each other, it is
inferred that a reversible adiabatic path must respect some property, which is
yet to be identified.

Reversible Cycles and Clausius Inequality

Thus any reversible path in the i-f is equal to the heat transferred in the
isothermal process a-b. Thus any reversible path may be substituted by a
reversible zigzag path, between the same end states, consisting of a
reversible adiabatic followed by a reversible isothermal and than by a
reversible adiabatic, such that the heat transferred during the isothermal
process is the same as that transferred during the original process.

Substitution of a reversible process by the reversible isothermal and

reversible adiabatic processes:

Let a system be taken from an equilibrium state i to another equilibrium state

f by following the reversible path i-f. . Let a reversible adiabatic i-a drawn
through i and another reversible adiabatic b-f be drawn through f. Then a
reversible isotherm a-b is drawn in such a way that the area under i-a-b-f is
equal to the area under i-f.

Applying the first law for process i-f:

Q i-f = Uf – Ui + Wif

Applying the first law for iabf

Q iabf = Uf – Ui + Wiabf

We know Wif = Wiabf (area under the curves are same)

From above Eqns.

Qi-f =Qiabf =Qia +Qab +Qbf

Qia=0 and Qbf =0

Qif = Qab
Heat transferred in the process i-f is equal to the heat transferred in the
isothermal process a-b

Thus, any reversible path may be substituted by a reversible adiabatic, a

reversible isotherm and a reversible adiabatic between the same end states
such that the heat transferred during the isothermal process is the same as
that transferred during the original process.

Session-36

Clausius Inequality
Consider a system undergoing a reversible cycle. The given cycle may be
sub-divided by drawing a family of reversible adiabatic lines. Every two
adjacent adiabatic lines may be joined by two reversible isotherms.

Let a smooth closed curve representing a reversible cycle be

considered. let the closed cycle be divide into a large number of strips by
means of reversible adiabatic. Each strip may be closed at the top and
bottom by reversible isotherms. The original closed cycle is thus replaced
by a zig-zag closed path consisting of alternate adiabatic and isothermal
processes equal to the heat transferred in the original cycle. Thus the original
cycle is replaced by a large number of Carnot cycles. If the adiabatic are
close to one another and the number of car not cycles is large, the saw-
toothed zig-zag line will coincide with the original cycle.
For the elemental cycle abcd dQ1 heat is absorbed reversibly at T1 and dQ2
heat is rejected reversibly at T2.


dQ1 dQ2
…
T1 T2

If heat supplied taken as positive and heat rejected as negative


dQ1 dQ2
=0
T1 T2

Similarly, for the elemental cycle efgh


dQ3 dQ4
=0
T3 T4

If similar equations are written for all the elemental Carnot cycles, then for
the whole original cycle
 + dQ3  dQ4 +…………..=0
dQ1 dQ2

R T  0
T1 T2 T3 T4
dQ
Or
The cyclic integral of dQ/T for a reversible cycle is equal to zero. This is
known as ‘clausius’theorem. The letter R emphasizes the fact that the
equation is valid only for a reversible cycle.

Entropy (property of the system);

Let a system be taken from an initial equilibrium state 1 to a

final equilibrium state 2 by following the reversible path A. the system is
brought back from 2 to 1 by following another reversible path B.then the
two paths A and B together constitute a reversible cycle. From
clausius’theorem.
  0
dQ
AB T

The above integral may be replaced as the sum of two integrals, one for path
A and the other for path B.

1 T  2 T  0
2 1
dQ dQ

or

1 T   2 T
2 1
dQ dQ

SinceBisar eversiblepath

1 T  2 T
2 1
dQ dQ


2
dQ
Since A and B represent any two reversible paths, is independent of the
1
T
reversible path connecting 1 and 2.therefore,three exists a property of a
system whose value at the final state 2 minus its value at the initial state 1 is


2
dQ
equal to . This property is called entropy, and is denoted by S. if S 1 is
1
T
the entropy at the initial state 1,and S2 is the entropy at the final state 2,then


2
dQ
=S2-S1
1
T
When the two equilibrium states are infinitesimally near
 dS
dQR
T
Where dS is an exact differential because S is a point function and a
property. The subscript R in dQ indicates that heat dQ is transferred
reversibly.
Clausius inequality can be used to analyze the cyclic process in a
quantitative manner. The second law became a law of wider applicability
when Clausius introduced the property called entropy. By evaluating the
entropy change, one can explain as to why spontaneous processes occur only
in one direction.
Consider a system in initial state 1. Let the system be taken from state 1 to
state 2 along a reversible path 1-A-2, and then be restored to its initial state
by following another reversible path 2BI (Figure ). Then the two paths put
together form a reversible cycle 1A2BI. Apply the Clausius inequality to this
reversible cycle and obtain

Session-37-38

Entropy principle:
For any infinitesimal process undergone by a system, for total
mass..
dS  dQ/T
For an isolated system which does not undergo any energy interaction with
the surrounding dQ=0.
Therefore, for an isolated system
dSiso  0
For a reversible processs,
dSiso = 0
S=constant
For a reversible process
dSiso  0
it is thus proved that the entropy of an isolated system can never decrese. It
always increases and remains constant only when the process is reversible .
This is know as the principle of entropy, or simply the entropy principle. it is
the quantitative general statement of second law from the microscopic view
point.
An isolated system can always be formed by formed by including any
system and its surrounding within a single boundary. sometimes the original
system which is then only a part of the isolated system is called a ‘sub
system’.

The system and the surroundings together(the universe or the isolated

system) include everything which is effected by the process that a system in
the given surroundings can undergo
dSuniv  0
or dSsys + dSsurr  0

Entropy may decrese locally at some region within the isolated system,but it
must be compensated by a grater increase of entropy somewhere with in the
system so the net effect of an irreversible process is an entropy increase of
the whole system. The entropy increase of an isolated system is a measure of
the extent of irreversibility of the process undergone by the system.
Session-39

Properties of pure substances

Phase-Change Process of Pure Substances

The term phase refers to a quantity of matter that is homogeneous

throughout in
both chemical composition and physical structure. Homogeneity in physical
structure
means that the matter is all solid , or all liquid , or all vapor (or equivalently
all gas ).
A system can contain one or more phases.

A system of liquid water and water vapor (steam)

contains twophases. A system of liquid water and ice, including the case of
slush , also contains two phases. Gases, oxygen and nitrogen for instance,
can be mixed in any proportion to form a single gas phase. Certain liquids,
such as alcohol and water, can be mixed to form a single liquid phase. But
liquids such as oil and water, which are not miscible, form two liquid phases.
Two phases coexist during the changes in phase called vaporization, melting
, and sublimation.

A pure substance is one that is uniform and invariable in chemical

composition. A pure substance can exist in more than one phase, but its
chemical composition must be the same in each phase.

if liquid water and water vapor form a system with two phases,the system
can be regarded as a pure substance because each phase has the same
composition. A uniform mixture of gases can be regarded as a pure
substance provided it remains a gas and doesn’t react chemically. Air can be
regarded as a pure substance as long as it is a mixture of gases; but if a liquid
phase should form on cooling, the liquid would have a different composition
than the gas phase, and the
system would no longer be considered a pure substance
There are certain situations when two phases of a pure substance coexist in
equilibrium. As a commonly used substance water may be taken up to
demonstrate the basic principles involved. However, all pure substances
exhibit the same general behaviour.

We shall remember the following definitions:

Saturated State: A state at which a phase change begins or ends

Saturation Temperature: Temperature at which phase change (liquid-

vapour) begins or ends at a given pressure

Tsat =Tsat (p)

Saturation Pressure: It is the pressure at which phase change begins or

ends at a specified temperature.

Psat = Psat (T)

Saturated Liquid: It is the substance at Tsat which is fully liquid (no-

vapour).

Saturated Vapour: It is the substance at Tsat which is fully vapour (no-

liquid).
Subcooled liquid: If the temperature of the liquid (T) is less then Tsat then
the liquid is called sub-cooled liquid.

Superheated vapour: If the temperature of the vapour (T) is greater than

Tsat then the vapour is called superheated vapour.

Session-40

Graphical Representation of P- υ -T Data for Pure Substances

P- υ -T Relation
 Figure A figure B

Figure A is the p– υ – T surface of a substance such as water that

expands on freezing. Figure B is for a substance that contracts on
freezing, and most substances exhibit this characteristic. The coordinates
of a point on the p – υ – T surfaces represent the values that pressure,
specific volume, and temperature would assume when the sub-stance is at
equilibrium.

There are regions on the p– υ – T surfaces of Fig A and B labeled

solid, liquid, and vapor. In these single-phase regions, the state is
fixed by any two of the proper- ties: pressure, specific volume, and
temperature, since all of these are independent when there is a single
phase present. Located between the single-phase regions are two-phase
regions where two phases exist in equilibrium: liquid–vapor, solid–
liquid, and solid–vapor. Two phases can coexist during changes in phase
such as vaporization, melting, and sublimation. Within the two-phase
regions pressure and temperature are not independent; one cannot be
changed without changing the other. In these regions the state cannot be
fixed by temperature and pressure alone; however, the state can be fixed
by specific volume and either pressure or temperature. Three phases can
exist in equilibrium along the line labeled t riple line.

A state at which a phase change begins or ends is called a saturation

state. T h e

dome-shaped region composed of the two-phase liquid–vapor states is

called the
 vapor dome.The lines bordering the vapor dome are called saturated
liquid and

saturated vapor lines. At the top of the dome, where the saturated liquid
and satu-

rated vapor lines meet, is the critical point. T h e critical temperature Tc

of a pure

substance is the maximum temperature at which liquid and vapor phases

can coex-

ist in equilibrium. The pressure at the critical point is called the critical
pressure, Pc

The specific volume at this state is the critical specific volume. At the
critical point, the properties of a substance are called critical properties
(critical temperature (Tc), critical pressure (Pc) and critical specific volume
(vc).
Example
Water Pc= 22.09 MPa
Tc = 374.148°C = 647.298 K
3
vc = 0.003155 m /kg
Air
Pc = 3.77 MPa
Tc= 132.5°C = 405.65 K
3
vc= 0.0883 m /kg

The three-dimensional p– υ – T surface is useful for bringing out the

general rela-

tionships among the three phases of matter normally under consideration.

However,

it is often more convenient to work with two-dimensional projections of

the surface.

These projections are considered next

Projections of the p– υ – T Surface

I f the p– υ – T surface is projected onto the pressure–temperature

plane, a property

diagram known as a phase diagram results. As illustrated by P-T

curve given below if

the surface is projected in this way, the two-phase regions reduce to

lines. A point on

any of these lines represents all two-phase mixtures at that particular

temperature

and pressure.

The term saturation temperature designates the temperature at

which a phase

change takes place at a given pressure, and this pressure is called the
saturation pressure

for the given temperature. It is apparent from the phase diagrams that for
each satu-

ration pressure there is a unique saturation temperature, and conversely.

The triple line of the three-dimensional p– υ – T surface projects onto

a point on the

phase diagram. This is called the triple point. The temperature

assigned to the triple point of water is 273.16 K (491.69°R). The
measured pressure at the triple point of water is 0.6113 kPa (0.00602
atm).

The line representing the two-phase solid–liquid region on the phase

diagram

slopes to the left for substances that expand on freezing and to the right
for those
 that contract.

The commonly used thermodynamic diagrams are

a. Pressure versus Temperature ( P − T )

b. Pressure versus Volume ( P − υ)
c. Temperature versus Volume (T − υ)
d. Temperature versus entropy ( T − S )
e. Enthalpy versus entropy ( h − S )
f. Pressure versus enthalpy ( P − h )

a) P-T Diagram

For water , at 100 kPa, the saturation temperature is 99.60C. Alternatively at

99.60C, the saturation pressure is 100 kPa. Quite often, the saturation
pressure is called the vapour pressure.

In the above diagram The segment 1-T represents sublimation process

during which solid and vapour phases coexist in equilibrium. The segment
2-T represents fusion process during which solid and liquid phases coexist in
equilibrium. The segment T-C represents vapourization .

Sublimation curve 1-T separates solid and vapour. 2-T separates solid and
liquid and T-C separates liquid and vapour. Three curves meet at T, which is
called the triple-point, where all the three phases-solid, liquid and vapour
coexist in equilibrium. At the triple point no thermodynamic property of the
system can be varied independenty. The system is said to be invariant.

Along, 1-T, or T-C, the system is univariant , that is only one

thermodynamic property of the system can be varied independently. The
system is bivariant in the single phases region.

The curve 2-T can be extended indefinitely, the curve T-C terminates at
point C which is called the critical point .

The critical point represents highest temperature and pressure at which both
the liquid phase and vapour phase can coexist in equilibrium.

At the critical point , the specific volumes and all other thermodynamic
properties of the liquid phase and the vapour phase are indentical.

Tc and Pc are called the critical temperature and critical pressure,

respectively. If the substance exist as a liquid on the curve T−C, it is called
saturated liquid, and if it exists as a vapour, it is called a saturated
vapour. Under the constant pressure, the line abc indicates melting, a’b’c’
sublimation and a’’b’’c’’- vaporization.

Session-41

b) P − υ Diagram
The isotherm T1 at a temperature greater than the critical temperature Tc.
The isotherms T2 and T3 are at temperatures less than the critical
temperature and they cross the phase boundary. The point C represents the
critical point. The curve AC is called the saturated liquid line; and the curve
CB is called the saturated vapour line. The area under the curve ACB is the
two-phase region where both liquid and vapour phase are present. Left to the
curve AC is the liquid region. Region to the right of curve CB is the vapour
region

The isotherm T3 appears in three segments: DE, EF and FG. DE is almost

vertical, because the change in the volume of liquid is very small for a large
change in pressure. The segment FG is less steep because vapour is
compressible. Segment EF is horizontal, because the phase change from
liquid to vapour occurs at constant pressure and constant temperature for a
pure substance. EF represents all possible mixtures of saturated liquid and
saturated vapour. The total volume of the mixture is the sum of the volumes
of the liquid and vapour phases.

V T =VL + Vvap
Dividing by the total mass m of the mixture, υ = V/m = +

Since the liquid phase is a saturated liquid and the vapour phase is a
saturated vapour,

Vliq = mliq υf

and

Vvap = mvap υg

so,

υ= × υf + × υg

Introducing the definition of quality or dryness fraction x= and noting

that = 1-x the above expression becomes

υ = (1-x) υf + X υg

The increase in specific volume due to vaporization υg - υf is υfg

υ = υf + x υfg

Again we can write

 mυ = (mliq+ mvap) υ = mliq υf + mvap υg

mliq (υ - υf) = mvap (υg – υ)

or

mliq υ – υ
=
mvap υ υ

Known as lever rule. At the critical point, the specific volumes and all other
thermodynamic properties of the liquid phase and the vapour phase are
identical.

(c) T − υ Diagram

Refer to T − υ diagram shown in the below diagram. consider constant

pressure heating of liquid water in a cylinder-piston assembly. If the water is
initially at state 1, on heating at constant pressure, the temperature and the
specific volume of the water increase and follows the path 1-2 as shown in
Fig (a).
At point 2 vaporization starts. The vaporization process is represented by 2-
3. During vaporization, temperature and pressure remain constant. The point
3 represents saturated vapour. Further heating produces super heated vapour,
that is vapour above its saturation temperature at the specified pressure. If
the constant pressure heating is done at several different pressures, the
resulting temperature-volume diagram becomes as it is shown in Fig (b).
The curve AC represents saturated liquid line and the curve BC represents
the saturated vapour line.

Session-42

(d) T-s diagram

The heating of the system of 1 kg of ice at -50 C to steam at 2500C is

considered , the pressure being maintained constant at 1 atm. The entropy
increase of the system in different regions of heating are given below

1. The entropy increase of ice as it is heated from -50 C to 00C at 1

atm
(Cp ice = 2.093kj/kg k)
 ∆S1 = S2 – S1 = = = Cp ln = 0.0398 kj/kgk

2. The entropy increase of ice as it melts at 00C latent heat of

fusion of ice =334.96kj/kg)

∆S2 = S3 – S2 = 334.96/273 = 1.23 kj/kgk

3. Similarly the entropy increase of water as it is heated from o0c
to 1000C
∆S3 = Cp ln = 1.305 kj/kgk (Cp of water = 4.187 kj/kg k )
4. The entropy increase of water as it vapourises at 1000C (latent
heat of vapourisation of water =2257kj/kg)
∆S4 = 2257/273 = 6.05 kj/kg k
5. The entropy increase of vapour as it is heated from 1000 C to
2500C at 1 atm
∆S5 = Cp ln = 0.706 kj/kgk (Cp of water vapour = 2.093 kj/kg k )

These entropy changes are shown in the figure. The curve 1-2-3-4-5-6 is the
isobar of 1 atm. If during the heating process the pressure had been
maintained at 2 atm a similar curve would be obtained. The states 2,3,4,5 are
saturation states. If these states for different pressure are joined the phase
equilibrium diagram of a pure substance on the T-S coordinates would be
obtained.
 ( Isobars on T-S plot)

Most often, liquid- vapour transformations only are of interest. At a

particular pressure, Sf is the specific entropy of saturated water, Sg is the
saturated vapour. The entropy change of the system during the phase change
from liquid to vapour at that pressure is Sfg (=Sg – Sf ). The value of Sfg
decreases as the pressure increases and becomes zero at the critical point.

(e)h-s diagram or mollier diagram for a pure substance

The above figure is the h-s or mollier diagram consisting of liquid

and vapour phases only. As the pressure increases the saturation temperature
increases and so the slope of the isobar also increases. Hence the constant
pressure lines diverge from one another, and the critical isobar is a tangent
at the critical point,as shown in the vapour region,the states of equal slopes
at various pressures are joined by lines, as shown which are the constant
temperature lines. Although the slope of an isobar remains continuous
beyond the saturated vapourline , the isotherm bends towards the right and
its slope decreases asymptotically to zero. Because in the ideal gas region it
becomes horizontal and the constant enthalpy implies constant temperature

At a particular pressure hf is the specific enthalpy of saturated water,

hg is that of saturated vapour and hfg (= hg – hf ) is the latent heat of
vapourization at that pressure. As the pressure increases hfg decreases and at
the critical pressure hfg becomes zero .

Session-43-44

Steam Tables

Two Saturated steam tables

 Saturated Steam Pressure Table

 Saturated Steam Temperature Table

Similar tables can exist for any pure substance (e.g. Freon 12)
 Saturated Steam: Pressure Table (kJ/kg)

P T (m3/kg) h (kJ/kg) s (kJ/kg k)

0
(bar) ( c)
0.01 6.98
0.05 32.90
0.10 45.83
. .
. .
. .
2.0 120.23

In this table pressure is selected as the independent variable.

Saturated Steam: Temperature Table

T P h s
( oc) (bar)
0 6.1×10-3
2
4
. .
. .
. .
374.15 221.2

Superheated Steam Table

P(bar) (0.2) Temperature (oc)

100 200 300 400
8.5
(m3/kg)
 h (kJ/kg) 2686
s (kJ/kg 8.126
k)

DRYNESS FRACTION OR QUALITY (X):

The term dryness fraction of quality related with wet steam. If in 1kg of
liquid-vapour mixture, x kg is the mass of vapour and (1-x)kg is the mass of
liquid, then x is known as the quality or dryness fraction of the liquid-vapour
mixture. Therefore quality indicate the mass fraction of vapour in a liquied
vapour mixture or it can be in simple defined as the ratio of mass of vapour
to the total mass of mixture and is given by

X=Mv/ Mv +ML

Where Mv =mass of vapour

ML=mass of liquid

The value of x varies between O and 1. For saturated water, when water
just start boiling, x=o and, when vaporization complete x=1 for which the
vapor is said to be dry saturated.

Points m in figure indicate the saturated liquid states with x=0 and the points
n indicate the saturated vapour states with X = 1; the lines mn indicating the
transition from liquid to vapour. Points a, b and c at various mass i.e. at
point a, the mass of liquid is 75% and the mass of vapour is 25% of the total
mass, at point b, the mixure consists of 50% liquid and 50% vapour by mass
and at point c, The consist of 75% vapour and liquid by mass the lines
passing through points a, b and c are the constant quality of 0.25, 0.5 and
0.75 respectively. Constant quality lines start from the critical point.

Letr v be the total volume of a liquid vapour mixture of quality x, v f the

volume of saturated liquid and vg the volume of saturated vapour, the
corresponding masses being m, mf , mg respectively

Now m = mf + mg and

V= vf + vg

M υ = mf υ f + mg υ g

= (m-mg) υ f + mg υ g

υ= (1- mg /m) υ f +( mg /m) υ g

υ = (1-x) υ f + x υ g

where x = mg /m called as dryness fraction,

υ f= specific volume of saturated liquid

υ g = specific volume of saturated vapour

and υ = specific volume of mixture of quality x

or

υ = (1-x) υ f + x υ g

= υf + x(υ g - υ f)

υ = υf + x υfg

similarly s = sf + x sfg

h= hf + x hfg

and u= uf + x ufg
where h stands for specific enthalpy, s stands for specific entropy and u
stands for specific internal energy.

ETHAPLY OF WET STEAM (h)

It is defined as the quantity of heat required to convert 1kg of water 0 0C into

wet steam at constant pressure, and is given by

H=hf + xhfg

If steam is dry and saturated, then x=1 h= hf + hfg =hg

SUPERHEATED STEAM:

When steam is heated after it has become dry and saturated, it called
superheated steam and the process of heating is called superheating. The
superheating is always carried out at constant pressure.

Compressed liquid:- when the temperature of the liquid is less then

saturation temperature at the given pressure the liquid is called compressed
liquid

Session-45-46
Heat Transfer Modes

Methods based on experiment are available for evaluating energy transfer by

heat. These methods recognize two basic transfer mechanisms: conduction
and thermal radiation. In addition, empirical relationships are available for
evaluating energy transfer involving a combined mode called convection.
Conduction

Energy transfer by conduction can take place in solids, liquids, and gases.
Conduction
can be thought of as the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles
of a substance to adjacent particles that are less energetic due to interactions
between particles. The time rate of energy transfer by conduction is
quantified macroscopically
by Fourier’s law.
As an elementary application, consider THE ABOVE FIGURE
showing a plane
wall of thickness L at steady state, where the temperature T(x) varies
linearly with position x. By Fourier’s law, the rate of heat transfer across any
plane normal to the x direction, is proportional to the wall area, A, and the
temperature gradient in the
x direction, dT/dx:

where the proportionality constant k is a property called the thermal

conductivity.
The minus sign is a consequence of energy transfer in the direction of
decreasing

Convection
It is a mode of heat transfer where heat is transferred from one end to the
other end of the fluid by the actual movement of molecules .
It is governed by Newton’s law of cooling or heating

Q. = hA (Tw - T∞)

Where Tw is the wall temperature and T∞ is the ambient temp

Convection is of two types

1. Free convection ( causes due to density difference ) also called as
natural convection
2. Forced convection (causes due to external force like a blower or
pump)

The first step of convection is always conduction

So convection = conduction + mixing motion

Radiation
Thermal radiation is emitted by matter as a result of changes in the
electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules within it. The energy is
transported by electromagnetic waves (or photons). Unlike conduction,
thermal radiation requires no intervening medium to propagate and can
even take place in a vacuum. Solid surfaces, gases, and liquids all emit,
absorb, and transmit thermal radiation to varying degrees. The rate at which
energy is emitted, from a surface of area A is quantified macroscopically by
a modified form of the Stefan–Boltzmann law
Q.e = єσ A Tb4
which shows that thermal radiation is associated with the fourth power of
the absolute temperature of the surface, Tb. The emissivity, є is a property
of the surface that indicates how effectively the surface radiates0 є ,
and σ is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant:
σ= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4
In general, the net rate of energy transfer by thermal radiation between two
surfaces involves relationships among the properties of the surfaces, their
orientations with respect to each other, the extent to which the intervening
medium scatters, emits, and absorbs thermal radiation, and other factors.

Session-47-49

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Definition

An engine is a device which converts one form of energy into another form.
Mostly engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work and therefore
they are called heat engines.

Classification of heat engines

Engine components
The major components of the engine and their functions are described
below.

i)Cylinder block: The cylinder block is the main supporting structure for
the various components. The cylinder head is mounted on the cylinder block.
The cylinder head and cylinder block are provided with water jackets in the
case of water cooling or with cooling fins in the case of air cooling. The
cylinder head is held tight to the cylinder block by number of bolts. The
bottom portion of the cylinder block is called crankcase. A cover called
crankcase which becomes a sump for lubricating oil is fastened to the
bottom of the crankcase.

ii)Cylinder: As the name implies it is a cylinderical vessel or space in which

the piston makes a reciprocating motion. The varying volume created in the
cylinder during the operation of the engine is filled with the working fluid
and subjected to different thermodynamic processes. The cylinder is
supported in the cylinder block.
iii)Piston: It is a cylinderical component fitted into the cylinder forming the
moving boundary of the combustion system. It fits perfectly into the cylinder
providing a gas-tight space with the piston rings and the lubricant.

iv)Combustion chamber: The space enclosed in the upper part of the

cylinder, by the cylinder head and the piston top during the combustion
process, is called the combustion chamber. The combustion of fuel and the
consequent release of thermal energy results in the building up of pressure in
this part of the cylinder.

v)Inlet manifold: The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet
valve of the engine and through which air-fuel mixture is drawn into the
cylinder is called the inlet manifold.

vi)Exhaust manifold: The pipe which connects the exhaust system to the
exhaust valve of the engine and through which the products of combustion
escape into the atmosphere is called exhaust manifold.

vii)Inlet and exhaust valves: Valves are commonly mushroom shaped

poppet type. They are provided either on the cylinder head or on the side of
the cylinder for regulating the charge coming into the cylinder and for
discharging the products of combustion from the cylinder.

viii)Spark plug: It is a component to initiate the combustion process in SI

engines and is usually located on the cylinder head.

ix)Connecting rod: It interconnects the piston and the crankshaft and

transmits the gas forces from the piston to the crankshaft. The two ends of
the connecting rod are called as small end and the big end. Small end is
connected to the piston by gudgeon pin and the big end is connected to the
crankshaft by crankpin.

x)Crankshaft: It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful

rotary motion of the output shaft. The crankshaft is enclosed in a crankcase.

xi)Piston rings: Piston rings, fitted into the slots around the piston, provide
a tight seal between the piston and the cylinder wall thus preventing leakage
of combustion gases.
xii)Gudgeon pin: It forms the link between the small end of the connecting
rod and the piston.

xiii)Camshaft: The camshaft and its associated parts control the opening
and closing of the two valves.

xiv)Cams: These are made as integral parts of the camshaft and are
designed in such a way to open the valves at the correct timing and to keep
them open for the necessary duration.

xv)Flywheel: The net torque imparted to the crankshaft during one complete
cycle of operation of the engine fluctuates causing a change in the angular
velocity of the shaft. In order to achieve a uniform torque an inertia mass in
the form of a wheel is attached to the output shaft and this wheel is called
the flywheel.

Nomenclature

Cylinder bore(d): The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder is

called the cylinder bore.

Piston area(A): The area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore is
called the piston area.

Stroke(L): The nominal distance through which a working piston moves

between two successive reversals of its direction of motion is called stroke.

Stroke to bore ratio(L/d): L/d ratio is an important parameter in classifying

the size of the engine. If d<L, it is called under-square engine. If d=L, it is
called square engine. If d>L, it is called over-square engine.

Dead centre: The position of the working piston and the moving parts
which are mechanically connected to it, at the moment when the direction of
the piston motion is reversed at either end of the stroke is called the dead
centre. There are two dead centres in the engine. They are: (i) Top dead
centre (ii) Bottom dead centre. Top dead centre(TDP) is the dead centre
when the piston is farthest from the crankshaft. Bottom dead centre(BDC) is
the dead centre when the piston is nearest to the crankshaft.

Displacement or swept volume(Vs): The nominal volume swept by the

working piston when travelling from one dead centre to the other is called
the displacement volume.

Cubic capacity or engine capacity: The displacement volume of a cylinder

multiplied by number of cylinders in an engine will give the cubic capacity
or the engine capacity.

Clearance volume(Vc): The nominal volume of the combustion chamber

above the piston when it is at the top dead centre is the clearance volume.

Compression ratio(r): It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when the
piston is at the bottom dead centre to the clearance volume.

Working principle of engines

If an engine is to work successfully then it has to follow a cycle of

operations.In this section the working principle of spark ignition(SI) engines
and compression ignition(CI) engines are described. Gasoline engine comes
under SI engines and Diesel engine comes under CI engines. Again these
engines are classified into two-stroke and four-stroke engines on the basis of
number of strokes for completing the cycle.

1) Four-stroke spark-ignition engine

In a four-stroke engine, the cycle of operation is completed in four

strokes of the piston or two revolutions of the crankshaft. The cycle of
operation for an ideal four-stroke SI engine consists of the following four
strokes: (i) suction or intake stroke (ii) compression stroke (iii)
expansion or power stroke and (iv) exhaust stroke.
(i)Suction or intake stroke:

Suction stroke starts when the piston is at top dead centre and about to move
downwards.The inlet valve is open at this time and the exhaust valve is
closed. Due to the suction created by the motion of the piston towards the
bottom dead centre, the charge consisting of fuel-air mixture is drawn into
the cylinder. When the piston reaches the bottom dead centre the suction
stroke ends and the inlet valve closes.

(ii)Compression stroke:

The charge taken into the cylinder during the suction stroke is compressed
by the return stroke of the piston from Bottom dead centre to Top dead
centre. During this stroke both inlet and exhaust valves are in closed
position. The mixture which fills the entire cylinder volume is now
compressed into the clearance volume. At the end of the compression stroke
the mixture is ignited with the help of a spark plug located on the cylinder
head. In ideal engines it is assumed that burning take place instantaneously
when the piston is at the top dead centre and hence the burning process can
be approximated as heat addition at constant volume. During the burning
process the chemical energy of the fuel is converted into heat energy
producing a temperature rise of about 2000 C. The pressure at the end of the
combustion process is considerably increased due to the heat release from
the fuel.

(iii)Expansion or power stroke:

The high pressure of the burnt gases forces the piston towards the bottom
dead centre. Both the valves are in closed position. Of the four-strokes only
during this stroke power is produced. Both pressure and temperature
decrease during expansion.

(iv)Exhaust stroke:
 At the end of the expansion stroke the exhaust valve opens and the inlet
valve remains closed. The pressure falls to atmospheric level a part of the
burnt gases escape. The piston starts moving from the bottom dead centre to
top dead centre and sweeps the burnt gases out from the cylinder almost at
atmospheric pressure. The exhaust valve closes when the piston reaches top
dead centre at the end of the exhaust stroke and some residual gases trapped
in the clearance volume remain in the cylinder. These residual gases mix
with the fresh charge coming in during the following cycle, forming its
working fluid. Each cylinder of a four-stroke engine completes the above
four operations in two engine revolutions, one revolution of the crankshaft
occurs during the suction and compression strokes and the second revolution
during the power and exhaust strokes. Thus for one complete cycle there is
only one power stroke while the crankshaft turns by two revolutions.

2) Four-stroke compression-ignition engine

The four-stroke CI engine is similar to the four-stroke SI engine but it

operates at a much higher compression ratio. The compression ratio of an SI
engine is between 6 and 10 while for a CI engine it is from 16 to 20. In the
CI engine during suction stroke, air, instead of a fuel-air mixture, is
inducted. Due to the high compression ratio employed, the temperature at
the end of the compression stroke is sufficiently high to self ignite the fuel
which is injected into the combustion chamber. In CI engines, a high
pressure fuel pump and an injector are provided to inject the fuel into the
combustion chamber. The carburettor and ignition system necessary in the
SI engine are not required in the CI engine. The ideal sequence of operations
for the four-stroke CI engine are (i) suction stroke (ii) compression stroke
(iii) expansion stroke (iv) exhaust stroke.

(i)Suction stroke: Air alone is inducted during the suction stroke. During
this stroke intake valve is open and exhaust valve is closed.

(ii)Compression stroke: Air inducted during the suction stroke is

compressed into the clearance volume. Both valves remain closed during
this stroke.

(iii)Expansion stroke: Fuel injection starts nearly at the end of the

compression stroke. The rate of injection is such that combustion maintains
the pressure constant inspite of the piston movement on its expansion stroke
increasing the volume. After the injection of fuel is completed the products
of combustion expand. Both the valves remain closed during the expansion
stroke.

(iv)Exhaust stroke: The piston travelling from bottom dead centre to top
dead centre pushes out the products of combustion. The exhaust valve is
open and the intake valve is closed during this stroke.

Due to higher pressures in the cycle of operations the CI engine has to be

more sturdy than a SI engine for the same output. This results in a CI engine
being heavier than the SI engine. However, it has a higher thermal efficiency
on account of the high compression ratio used.

Comparison of SI and CI engines

In four-stroke engines, there is one power stroke for every two revolutions of
the crankshaft. There are two-productive strokes of exhaust and suction
which are necessary for flushing the products of combustion from the
cylinder and filling it with the fresh charge. If this purpose could be served
by an alternative arrangement, without the movement of the piston, it is
possible to obtain a power stroke for every revolution of the crankshaft
increasing the output of the engine. However, in both SI and CI engines
operating on four-stroke cycle, power can be obtained only in every two
revolution of the crankshaft.

Two-stroke engines

In two-stroke engines the cycle is completed in one revolution of the

crankshaft. The main difference between two-stroke and four-stroke engines
is in the method of filling the fresh charge and removing the burnt gases
from the cylinder. In the four-stroke engine these operations are performed
by the engine piston during the suction and the exhaust strokes respectively.
In a two-stroke engine, the filling process is accomplished by the charge
compressed in crankcase or by the blower. The induction of the compressed
charge moves out the product of combustion through exhaust ports.
Therefore, no piston strokes are required for these two operations. Two
strokes are sufficient to complete the cycle, one for compressing the fresh
charge and the other for expansion or power stroke.

The air or charge is inducted into the crankcase through the spring loaded
inlet valve when the prerssure in the crankcase is reduced due to upward
motion of the piston during the compression stroke. After the compression
and ignition , expansion takes place in the usual way.

During the expansion stroke the charge in the crankcase is compressed .

Near the end of the expansion stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust ports
and the cylinder prtessure drops to atmospheric pressure as the combustion
products leave the cylinder. Furthur movement of the piston uncovers the
transfer ports, permitting the silghtly compressed charge in the crankcase to
enter the engine cylinder. The top of the piston has usually a projection to
deflect the fresh charge towards the top of the cylinder before flow in to the
exhaust ports. This serves the double purpose of scvanging the upper part of
the cylinder of the combustion products and preventing the fresh charge
from flowing directly to the exhaust ports. The same objective can be
achieved without piston deflector by proper shaping of the transfer port.
During the upward motion of the piston from bottom dead centre the trasfer
ports closed first and then the exhaust ports close when compression of the
charge begins and the cycle is repeated.

Comparison of four-stroke and two-stroke engines

The two-stroke engine was developed to obtain a greater output from the
same size of the engine. The engine mechanism also eliminates the valve
arrangement making it mechanically simpler. Almost all two-stroke engines
have no conventional valves but only ports. This simplicity of the two-stroke
engine makes it cheaper to produce and ease to maintain. Theoretically a
two-stroke engine develops twice the power of a comparable four-stroke
engine because of one power stroke every revolution. This makes the two-
stroke engine more compact than a comparable four-stroke engine. The other
advantages of the two-stroke engine are more uniform torque on crankshaft
and comparatively less exhaust gas dilution. However, when applied to the
spark-ignition engine the two-stroke cycle has certain disadvantages which
have restricted its application to only small engines suitable for motor
cycles, scooters, lawn movers etc. In the SI engine, the incoming charge
consists of fuel and air. During scavenging, as both inlet and exhaust ports
are open simultaneously for some time, there is a possibility that some of the
fresh charge containing fuel escapes with the exhaust. This results in high
fuel consumption and lower thermal efficiency. The other drawbacks of two-
stroke engine is the lack of flexibility , viz., the capacity to operate with the
same efficiency at all speeds. At part throttle operating condition, the
amount of fresh mixture entering the cylinder is not enough to clear all the
exhaust gases and a part of it remains in the cylinder to contaminate the
charge. This results in irregular operation of the engine. The two-stroke
diesel engine does not suffer from these defects. There is no loss of fuel with
exhaust gases as the intake charge in diesel engine is only air. The two-
stroke diesel engine is used quite widely. Many of the high output diesel
engines work on this cycle. A disadvantages common to all two-stroke
engines, gasoline as well as diesel, is the greater cooling and lubricating oil
requirements due to one power stroke in each revolution of the crankshaft.
Consumption of lubricating oil is high in two-stroke engines due to higher
temperature.