LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

FROM BIRTH
TO THREE
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LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
FROM BIRTH
TO THREE

Moshe Anisfeld
Yeshiva University
Firs! Published 1984 by Lawrence Erlhaum Associa!es, Inc.

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Permission has been granted to quote from the following sources:

THE CONSTRUCTIQN OF REAUTY IN THE CHILD, by Jean Piaget. Translated by

Margaret Cook. ©1954 by Basic Books Inc., Publishers. Bypermission ofthe publishers. And
by permission of Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.

NEW DIRECTIONS IN THE STUDY OF LANOU AGE, edited by E. H. lenneberg, pub-

lished by THE MIT PRESS, 1%4, by permission of Publisher.

PLAV, DREAMS AND IMITATION IN CHILDHOOD by lean Piaget, Translated by C.

Gatlegno and F. M. Hairston, by permission of W. W. Norton & Company, Ine. All Righls
Reserved 1951, Norlon Ubrary Edition, 1962. And by permission of Routledge & Kegan Paul
Lid.

An article by D. Horgan entitled, "Learning to tcll jokcs: A ease study of metalinguistic

ahilities," which appeared in the Journal ofChild Language, 1981,8, 217- 224, published by
Cambrid8e Univcrsity Press, by permission of Publisher.

ISBN 978-0-898-59625-0 (pb k)

Llbrary or Conlr"! ell.lol Number: 113-82493

Publlsber 's Note

The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the qualit)' ofthis reprint
001 points out thaI some imperfeclions in the original may be apparenl.
 To
My Mother
My Wife
My Children
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 Contents

Preface xi

1. Introduction 1

I. THE EMERGENCE AND SOCIALIZATION OF THE

SYMBOLIC FUNCTION

2. Representation, Language, and

Infant Mentation 7
Internal Representation 7
Infant Mentation 14
The Processes of Growth 16

3. Development of the Symbolic Function 19

Stages 1-2 (First Half of First Year): No

Representation; Only Sensorimotor
Memory 20
Stage 3 (Third Quarter of First Year): Beginning
of Sensorimotor Representation 28

vii
viii CONTENTS

Stages 4-5 (Fourth Quarter of First Year and

First Quarter of Second Year): Beginnings of
Detached Sensorimotor Representation 35
Stage 6 (Last Three Quarters of Second Year):
Internal Representation Established 56
Ages and Stages 62
A General Summary of Sensorimotor
Development 64

4. The Socialization of Verbal Symbols 66

Levels of Meaning 66
The Functions of Early Words 91
Processes of Word Learning 94
Lexical Development in Broader Context 100

11. EARLY SYNTAX

5. Aspects of Syntax 113

The Mean i ngs of Sentences 114

The Structure of Sentences 116
Elements of the Generative Transformational
Theory of Syntax 122
Form and Meaning 126

6. The Characteristics of Early Sentences 128

The Indicators of Syntactic Productivity 129

The Meanings Expressed in
Early Sentences 132
Some Remarks on Function 140
The Form of Early Sentences 142
Conclusion 153

7. The Emergence and Early Development

of Syntax 154
The Cognitive Basis of Syntax 154
Compensatory and Learning Strategies 156
 CONTENTS ix

Mother-Child Interaction and the Acquisition

of Syntax 171
How Syntax is Acquired 181

111. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPEECH

AND MORPHOLOGY

8. The Nature of Speech 189

The Segments of Speech 189
Phonetic and Phonological Analyses 195
Speech as a System of Relations 195
The Combination of Phonemes 198
Speech Perception 199
Conclusions 202

9. Development of Morphology 203

Nature of Morphological Processes 203
The Acquisition of Inflections 205
Children's Creativity 215

10. Development of Speech 217

Prelinguistic Discriminatory Capacities
and Vocal Activities 218
Speech Development in the Early Linguistic
Period 229
Summary 244

11. Summary and Integration 245

Glossary 249

References 261
Author Index 275
Subject Index 281
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 Preface

This book presents a synthesis of two areas of research: infant cognition

and early language development. It treats the development of language,
which beg ins in the second year, as continuous with the development of the
symbolic capacity, which takes place in the first year. The juxtaposition of
the linguistic period with the prelinguistic period results in a sharper por-
trayal of each of these perioos.
The aim of the book is to provide a sophisticated understanding of the
development of symbols and language without requiring a background in
the scientific study of children or language. In pursuance of this goal, I
develop the ideas gradually and make explicit the fundamental insights of
earlier scholars that are taken for granted in current work. A glossary is ap-
pended to help clarify concepts used in the text.
The book is intended for a wide audience, including students in courses
on language development and child psychology, as weIl as professionals in
these fields, and in the fields of education, linguistics, and pediatrics.
Educated parents will also find the book useful in providing the founda-
tions for effective practices that enhance their children's linguistic and
cognitive development.
Work on the book started in earnest during my sabbatical leave in the
Department of Psychology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem during
1976-1977. I am grateful to I. M. Schlesinger for his hospitality and for
reacting constructively to a couple of preliminary chapters. I also wish to
express my gratitude to other friends and colleagues who read chapters
along the way and gave me the benefit of their criticisms. They include:
Hans Furth, Michael Gertner, Shoshana Goldman, Allan Goldstein,
Charles Greenbaum, David Lewkowicz, Rita Neugut, Sue Rose, Phyllis

xi
xii PREFACE

Ross, Benny Shanon, and Joyce Weil. Two anonymous reviewers also pro-
vided enlightening comments. I am particularly grateful to Richard Steiner
for his elose reading of the chapters concerned with speech and its acquisi-
tion. I am thankful to Elizabeth Anslow for making the initial version of the
sketch that appears on the cover. Special thanks are due to Robert Lummis,
Director of the Scientific Computing Center of the Albert Einstein Col-
lege of Medicine of Yeshiva University, to Associate Director Arthur
Rosenthai, and to their staff for opening for me the rich resources of the
UNIX system for text processing. I also thank Dr. I. Bretherton and Dr. P.
D. Eimas for checking my reading of figures in graphs of their articles.
Finally, I owe the greatest debt of gratitude to my family. My wife,
Elizabeth, read and commented on practically every one of the numerous
versions I brought horne from the Computing Center. My son, Shimon,
gave me the benefit of his meticulous reading of various chapters in
preparation and of the galleys and page proofs. My daughters, Miriam and
Rachel, helped with proofreading and with the checking of references and
quotes. Beyond this direct assistance, my wife and children gave me much
more. They helped me-by being who they are-to develop intuitions ab out
children that guided me throughout this project. This book is dedicated to
them and to my mother, who through the calamitous tragedies of war re-
tained the education of her children as the highest priority.

Moshe Anisfeld
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
FROM BIRTH
TO THREE
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 1 Introduction

In the course of the first 3 years of life the child becomes transformed from a
squirming, crying, and impulsive creature into a thinking and talking human be-
ing. This book teIls the story of this fundamental transformation, tracing the
small steps and the large leaps that children take in achieving it.
The story of development that unfolds in the following chapters has the qual-
ity of a good drama. In the flow of developmental events, as in the sequencing of
scenes on the stage, there is anticipation and continuity. Every major change in
functioning has been prepared for by antecedent events. The antecedents are of-
ten not appreciated at the time of their occurrence; their full significance emerges
only when they are viewed from a broad developmental perspective. We see, for
instance, that such behaviors as sucking and grasping, which appear intellectu-
ally inconsequential, serve an important function in the development of thinking
and in the preparation for language. We also see that the distorted speech of the
toddler reflects internal patterns and constitutes a step toward the acquisition of
the standard speech of the community.
The material I draw on inc1udes observational and experimental studies, as
weIl as formallinguistic studies. In observational research the investigator ob-
serves the natural behavior of children-be it speech, play, or interaction with
the mother-records the observations, and analyzes them in search for patterns
and trends. The methods of recording and analysis can vary. Some investigators
write down what they see or hear; others use recording devices, such as video
equipment. The analysis may involve impressionistic summaries, quantitative
statistical calculations, or a combination of both. A noteworthy type of observa-
tional study is the diary study, in which the investigator observes a child, often

1
2 1. INTRODUCTION

his or her own, on a regular and continuous basis over aperiod of time, which
may range from a few months to a few years.
Experimental studies, in which specific behaviors are examined under prede-
signed conditions, are harder to conduct with infants and toddlers than with older
subjects. But some ingenious methods have been developed in recent years, and
they have produced results that contribute to our understanding of human
development.
Also used in this book are the studies of linguists conceming the structure of
language. In studying the structure of language, linguists do not typically test
subjects or make observations on them. Rather, they try to develop an account of
the structure of specific languages and of language in general by analyzing com-
monly observed phenomena. We use the work of linguists conceming the struc-
ture of language, because in order to understand how children acquire language,
we need to know something about what it is that they are acquiring.
The most important source material for the present book is the work of the
Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Piaget, who died in 1980 at the age of 84, is
generally acknowledged as a great developmental psychologist. I draw particu-
larly on Piaget's theory of infant development, which is based on a study of his
three children. In his work Piaget combines keen observation of naturally
occurring behaviors with creative experimental interventions.
This book tries to synthesize the different strands of research, coming from
different disciplines, using different methodologies, and deriving from different
theoretical orientations, into a cohesive picture of development. My approach is
based on Piaget' s conception of development and is anchored in current thinking
conceming the nature of human information processing. In some respects it is
similar to the approach ofWemer and Kaplan (1963). I make three basic assump-
tions: that similar behaviors can derive from processes at different levels of
mentation, that there are both gradual and abrupt changes in development, and
that children do not absorb passively the language of their community but con-
struct it actively for themselves.
The substance of the book is presented in three parts. Part I, which contains
Chapters 2-4, deals with the formation and socialization of the symbolic capac-
ity . Chapter 2 lays the groundwork for the study of symbolic development. It
c1arifies the concept of symbol and relates it to other concepts. Chapter 2 also
provides a preview of the nature of presymbolic mentation in infancy. Chapter 3
traces the steps infants go through in advancing from presymbolic thinking to
symbolic thinking. In the presymbolic stage infants cannot represent objects and
people intemally and therefore do not realize that they have substance and per-
manence. For instance, young infants have no notion that their mothers continue
to exist when they are not in sensory contact with them. The symbolic capacity ,
which is developed gradually in the course of the first 18 months, makes possible
the construction of reality and the acquisition of language to represent it. Chapter
 INTRODUCTION 3

4 describes how words are learned and how their meanings change to approxi-
mate gradually the meanings of adults.
The use of sentences represents a higher level of symbolic capacity than the
use of single words, and sentences appear in children's speech after single-word
utterances. Part 11, which contains Chapters 5-7, deals with the nature of early
syntax and its development. Chapter 5 analyzes the nature of sentences in mature
form and thus provides the necessary background for the study of syntactic acqui-
sition. Chapter 6 describes the characteristics of children's early sentences, and
Chapter 7 examines the developments that foreshadow the emergence of syntax
and the factors that facilitate its growth. It describes how toddlers organize for
themselves the task of learning to form sentences. Some children, for instance,
divide the task of sentence construction into manageable parts and concentrate
their efforts on learning each part separately.
Part III, consisting of Chapters 8-10, is concerned with the development of
speech and morphology. Chapter 8 gives an introduction to the nature of human
speech, providing background information needed for the following two chap-
ters. Chapter 9 discusses children's acquisition of morphology. Morphology
deals with the structure of words and involves such things as the use of inflec-
tions (e.g., the plural s). Chapter 10 discusses how children acquire the sound
system of their language, and the ability to perceive sounds and to articulate
them. The chapters of Part III, like the preceding ones, highlight the child's ac-
tive part in learning language. We see, for instance, that children's pronunciation
errors are creative attempts to construct a sound system on the basis of what they
hear. Similarly, such childish renditions as doed (for did) and mans (for men) are
mistakes only from the adult' s point of view. From the child' s perspective, they
reflect discovery of inflectional generalizations.
The ordering of parts in the book is designed to reflect the chronological order
of development. In this connection, a comment is in order on why I placed the
chapters on speech and morphology after the chapters on syntax. Morphology
emerges after the onset of syntax and therefore belongs after syntax in the exposi-
tion. Speech development begins before syntax, but I put it together with mor-
phology because ofthe affinity of the concepts used in the two areas. Also, from
a pedagogical point of view, it seems advisable to move gradually to increasingly
more technical aspects of language; hence the progression from words, to sen-
tences, to speech and morphology. In addition, it is appropriate to conc1ude the
course of development traced in this book with the chapter on the acquisition of
speech, because this chapter spans the entire age range (0-3 years) covered in the
book.
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References

Table of Contents

Author Index Subject Index 189 203 217 245 249 261
275 281 This page intentionally left blank
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