ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COMPOSITE COUNTER-WEIGHT APPLICATION IN WASHING

MACHINE

M. Sc. Thesis
Mech. Eng. Didem TÜYSÜZ
(503041203)

Date of submission: 8 May 2006

Date of defence examination: 13 June 2006

Supervisor (Chairman): Assist. Prof. Dr. Vedat TEMİZ

Members of the Examining Committee Assoc. Prof. Dr. Haydar LİVATYALI

Assist. Prof. Dr. Mehmet PALABIYIK

JULY 2006
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Assist. Prof. Dr.
Vedat Temiz for his supervision, support and suggestions throughout my studies.

I would like to express my thanks to Arçelik A.Ş. for invaluable support in the name
of Okan Korgan.

I sincerely thank to Dr. Mustafa Sezer and Dr. Osman G. Ersoy, for their invaluable
help and support and I extend my thanks to all members of the Material
Technologies Department in the name of Sibel Odabaş. My very special thanks are to
Mehmet Ali Oral, Hamza Sancaklı, Hatice Yılmaz, Sevinç Mert, Seyhan Çağıl and
Turgay Gönül, for their contribution in this thesis in almost every possible way.

Last but definitely not least, I thank to my family and my fiance who gave me
support and encouragement throughout the years.

July, 2006 Didem TÜYSÜZ

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS II
TABLE OF CONTENTS III
ABBREVATIONS VI
LIST OF TABLES VII
LIST OF FIGURES VIII
LIST OF SYMBOLS X
SUMMARY XI
ÖZET XII

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. THEORETICAL PART & LITERATURE SURVEY 3

2.1. Polymer Concrete 3
2.1.1. Classification of Polymer Concretes 4
2.2. Polymer Modified Concrete 11
2.2.1. Polymer Impregnated Concrete 12
2.2.2. Polymer Cement Concrete 14
2.3. Polymer Concrete 16
2.3.1. Principle of Polymer Replacement 16
2.3.2. Nature and General Properties of Polymer Concrete 17
2.3.3. Types of Polymer Concrete According to the Resin 20
2.3.3.1. Acrylic Polymer Concrete 20
2.3.3.2. Polyester Polymer Concrete 21
2.3.3.3. Epoxy Polymer Concrete 21
2.3.3.4. Furan Polymer Concrete 22
2.4. Process Technology of Ploymer Concrete 22
2.4.1. Specifications for Process Equipment for Producing Polymer
Concrete Products and Structures 23
2.4.2. Providing the Required Capacity 27
2.4.3. Materials 29
2.4.3.1. Selection of Binder 29

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 Synthetic Resins 32
Activators 34
2.4.3.2. Fillers 35
2.4.3.3. Aggregates 35
2.4.4. Mixing 36
2.4.4.1. Mix Proportioning 37
2.4.5. Placing and Curing 37
2.4.6. Production and Use of Moulds 39
2.4.6.1. Mould Section 39
2.4.6.2. Striking (Demoulding) 40
2.4.6.3. Compaction and Transport 41
2.4.6.4. Material for Preparing Moulds 41
2.4.6.5. Separating Layer for Mould 43
2.4.6.6. Compaction of Polymer Concrete 45
2.5. Properties of Polymer Mortar and Concrete 48
2.5.1. Properties of Fresh Mortar and Concrete 49
2.5.1.1. Workability 49
2.5.1.2. Working Life and Hardening Time 49
2.5.1.3. Bleeding and Segregation 49
2.5.1.4. Setting or Hardening Shrinkage 49
2.5.2. Properties of Hardened Mortar and Concrete 50
2.5.2.1. Strength 50
2.5.2.2. Deformability, Elastic Modulus and Creep 51
2.5.2.3. Water-tightness, Gas- Tightness, Freeze- Thaw Durability, and
Water Resistance 53
2.5.2.4. Chemical Resistance 54
2.5.2.5. Abrasion Resistance, Impact Resistance, and Electrical
Insulating Properties 55
2.5.2.6. Incombustibility and Fire Resistance 55
2.5.2.7 Weatherability, Weather Resistance 55
2.5.2.8. Heat and Fire Resistance 56

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 57
3.1. Selection of the Resin 57
3.1.1. Properties of Unsaturated Polyester (UP) 57

iv
 3.2. Selection of the Curing Agent 59
3.3. Selection of the Filler 61
3.4. Selection of the Mould 62
3.5. Selection of the Working Area 63
3.6. Determination of Physical and Mechanical Properties 63
3.6.1. Density Measurement Tests 63
3.6.2. Compression Tests 64

4. CONCLUSION 68

REFERENCES 69

APPENDIX 70

BIOGRAPHY 102

v
vi
ABBREVIATIONS

BaSO4 : Barium Sulphate

CP : Concrete Polymers
FRP : Fibre Reinforced Plastics
GRP : Glass Reinforced Plastics
MEKP : Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide
MMA : Methyl MethacryIate
PC : Polymer Concrete
PCC : Polymer-Cement Concrete
PSC : Polymer Sulphur Concrete
PMMA : Polymethyl MethacryIate
TMPTMA : Trimethylol Propane Methyl MethacryIate
UP : Unsaturated Polyester

vi
LIST OF TABLES

Page No
Table 2.1. Classification of polymer concrete mixes based on workability .........7
Table 2.2. Classification of the process of degradation of polymer concretes....10
Table 2.3. Classification of the polymer concretes according to type of
hardener and stability of reinforcement..............................................10
Table 2.4. Typical properties of polymer-containing concrete composites and
portland cement concrete....................................................................12
Table 2.5. Typical range of properties of common PC products and portland
cement concrete..................................................................................19
Table 2.6. General characteristics and applications of polymer concrete
products..............................................................................................20
Table 2.7. Physical properties of polymer concretes...........................................51
Table 2.8. Freeze- thaw durability of polymer concretes....................................54
Table 2.9. Chemical resistance of polymer concretes.........................................55
Table 3.1. Confidence level of compression test results.....................................67
Table A-2.1. Properties of MEKP (Unsaturated Polyester Promoters Web Site)...72
Table B.1. Theoretical Density Values................................................................73
Table C.1. Experimental Density Values of the Specimens................................76
Table D.1. Preparation of Compression Test Samples.........................................79
Table E-1.1. Compression Strenghts of Specimens................................................82

vii
LIST OF FIGURES

Page No
Figure 1.1 : Top counter-weight of WM.............................................................1
Figure 1.2 : Front counter-weight of WM...........................................................2
Figure 2.1 : Classification of polymer concretes of polymers (Mikhailov, K.V.
et.al.,1992)............................................................................................5
Figure 2.2 : Effects of test temperature on compression stress-starin curves for
polyester concrete (Chandra, S. et al., 1994)......................................52
Figure 2.3 : Curing period vs. compressive strength and exotherm temperature
of polymethyl methacrylate (Chandra, S. et al., 1994).......................52
Figure 2.4 : Creep of polyester and epoxy concretes (Chandra, S. et al., 1994)..53
Figure 2.5 : Weatherability of polymer mortars and polyester concretes
(Chandra, S. et al., 1994)....................................................................56
Figure 3.1 : Chemical composition of MEKP.....................................................59
Figure 3.2 : Cure performance measurment system............................................60
Figure 3.3 : Exotherm curves of various ketone peroxides.................................60
Figure 3.4 : Gel and cure time of various ketone peroxides................................61
Figure 3.5 : Chemical composition of the die sand.............................................62
Figure 3.6 : Mould layout....................................................................................63
Figure 3.7 : Compression test unit.......................................................................64
Figure 3.8 : Compression test results...................................................................65
Figure 3.9 : One way anova analysis...................................................................66
Figure 3.10 : Box plot analysis..............................................................................66
Figure A-1.1. Datasheet of the polyester resin CE 92 N8 (Ortoftalik Polyester
Genel Amaçlı CTP Uygulamaları, Şişecam Web Site)..................... 70
Figure E-2.1. Compression Test Graphs Event 1...................................................83
Figure E-2.2. Compression Test Graphs Event 2...................................................83
Figure E-2.3. Compression Test Graphs Event 3...................................................84
Figure E-2.4. Compression Test Graphs Event 4...................................................84
Figure E-2.5. Compression Test Graphs Event 5...................................................85
viii
Figure E-2.6. Compression Test Graphs Event 6...................................................85
Figure E-2.7. Compression Test Graphs Event 7...................................................86
Figure E-2.8. Compression Test Graphs Event 8...................................................86
Figure E-2.9. Compression Test Graphs Event 9...................................................87
Figure E-2.10. Compression Test Graphs Event 10...............................................87
Figure E-2.11. Compression Test Graphs Event 11...............................................88
Figure E-2.12. Compression Test Graphs Event 12...............................................88
Figure E-2.13. Compression Test Graphs Event 13...............................................89
Figure E-2.14. Compression Test Graphs Event 14...............................................89
Figure E-2.15. Compression Test Graphs Event 15...............................................90
Figure E-2.16. Compression Test Graphs Event 16...............................................90
Figure E-2.17. Compression Test Graphs Event 17...............................................91
Figure E-2.18. Compression Test Graphs Event 18...............................................91
Figure E-2.19. Compression Test Graphs Event 19...............................................92
Figure E-2.20. Compression Test Graphs Event 20...............................................92
Figure E-2.21. Compression Test Graphs Event 21...............................................93
Figure E-2.22. Compression Test Graphs Event 22...............................................93
Figure E-2.23. Compression Test Graphs Event 23...............................................94
Figure E-2.24. Compression Test Graphs Event 24...............................................94
Figure E-2.25. Compression Test Graphs Event 25...............................................95
Figure E-2.26. Compression Test Graphs Event 26...............................................95
Figure E-2.27. Compression Test Graphs Event 27...............................................96
Figure E-2.28. Compression Test Graphs Event 28...............................................96
Figure E-2.29. Compression Test Graphs Event 29...............................................97
Figure E-2.30. Compression Test Graphs Event 30...............................................97
Figure E-2.31. Compression Test Graphs Event 31...............................................98
Figure E-2.32. Compression Test Graphs Event 32...............................................98
Figure E-2.33. Compression Test Graphs Event 33...............................................99
Figure E-2.34. Compression Test Graphs Event 34...............................................99
Figure E-2.35. Compression Test Graphs Event 35.............................................100
Figure E-2.36. Compression Test Graphs Event 36.............................................100
Figure E-2.37. Compression Test Graphs Event 37.............................................101

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LIST OF SYMBOLS

a : length of the specimen

b : width of specimen
E : modulus of elasticity
Ey : tensile strain
F : applied load
h : thickness of specimen
σc : compression stress
x : displacement

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COMPOSITE COUNTER-WEIGHT APPLICATION IN WASHING
MACHINES

SUMMARY

Dynamic systems of washing machines are balanced by the help of the concrete
counter-weights. In Truva type washing machine (WM), designed by ARCELIK, two
different counter-weights are used; one located at the top of the plastic tub and the
other located in front of the WM. Polymer-composite materials are required by
industry, as a result of their cost effectiveness and higher physical performance.
The aim of this thesis is, to design and manufacture composite material which will be
applied as an alternative material to the counter-weight of the WM. Inhibition of
physical and mechanical properties of the selected composites are also the goals of
this work.
The first part of the thesis consists of a literature survey about the chemical
composition, production methods and process technology of the polymer concrete.
Three different methods to produce polymer concrete are obtained and Polymer
Concrete (PC) is defined as the method of the study.
In the second part, experimental works were performed to evaluate the physical and
mechanical properties of the composite specimens. The chemical components of the
specimens were:
• Resin: Polyester in different ratio, varying from 20% to 30% (constant in all
the specimens)
• Activators: Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide and Cobalth-Naphtanate
• Fillers: Used die sand, unused die sand and BaSO4 applied in different ratio,
ranging from 70% to 80% (variable in all the specimens)
Nine different formulations which were prepared by the addition of polyester resin
with different filler varying in both chemistry and amount. Three specimens for the
same formulations were also prepared to be able to determine the effects of mixing
and preparing errors. A special mould was designed and manufactured for casting the
specimens. Finally, density measurement and compression tests were performed.
In the last part results of all the mechanical tests and density measurements were
given and investigated in detail. Considering all the data gathered from these
experiments, a suitable formulation among nine different formulations was chosen to
be appropriate to be used in a composite counter-weight that would be exposed to
washing machine working conditions. It was seen that polyester 25% - BaSO4 75%
composites are the most appropriate material used in this work.

xi
ÇAMAŞIR MAKİNALARI İÇİN KOMPOZİT DENGE AĞIRLIĞI
UYGULAMASI

ÖZET

Çamaşır makinelerinin tahrik grupları beton denge ağırlıkları vasıtasıyla

dengelenmektedir. ARÇELİK tarafından tasarlanmış Truva tipi çamaşır
makinelerinde, biri plastik kazanın üstünde, diğeri önünde olmak üzere iki farklı
denge ağırlığı kullanılmaktadır. Fiyat avantajı ve yüksek fiziksel performansları
nedeniyle kompozit malzemeler sanayide tercih edilmektedirler.
Bu tezin amacı çamaşır makinelerinde kullanılan denge ağırlığı için alternatif bir
kompozit malzeme tasarlamaktır. Seçilen kompozitlerin fiziksel ve mekanik
özelliklerin belirlenmesi de tezin amaçları arasındadır. Tezin ilk bölümü, polimer
betonunun kimyasal yapısı, üretim metodları ve üretim teknolojisi hakkında literatür
araştırmasını içermektedir. Polimer beton (PC) elde etmek için kullanılan üç farklı
method mevcut olup; tez çalışması için polimer beton yöntemi seçilmiştir.
İkinci bölüm, malzemelerin fiziksel ve mekanik özelliklerin değerlendirilmesi için
yapılan deneysel çalışmaları içermektedir. Numunelerin kimyasal bileşenleri
şunlardır:
• Reçine: %20’den %30’a kadar değişen oranlarda Polyester (Reçine tüm
numunelerde sabit alınmıştır.)
• Aktivatörler: Metil Etil Keton Peroksid and Kobalt-Naftanat
• Dolgular: 70’ten %80’e kadar değişen oranlarda uygulanmış olan kullanılmış
kalıp kumu, kullanılmamış kalıp kumu ve BaSO4 (Tüm numunelerde dolgu
malzemesi değişken alınmıştır.)
Farklı kimyasal yapıda ve miktardaki dolgu malzemesi ile poliester reçinesi
kullanılarak dokuz farklı formülasyon hazırlandı. Karışım oranları ve karıştırma
esnasında oluşabilecek hataları göz önüne alabilmek için aynı formülasyondan üçer
adet numune hazırandı. Numuneleri dökebilmek için özel bir kalıp tasarlanarak imal
edildi. Son olarak, dökülen numunelere yoğunluk ölçümü ve basma testleri
uygulandı.
Son bölümde yoğunluk ölçümleri ve basma testlerinin sonuçları elde edilerek
düzenlendi ve detaylandırıldı. Deneylerden elde edilen tüm bulgular bir araya
getirilerek dokuz farklı formülasyon arasından çamaşır makinesinin çalışma
koşularına maruz kalabilmeye en uygun olan seçildi. %25 poliester - %75 BaSO4
kompozitinin çalışmadaki en uygun malzeme olduğuna karar verildi.

xii
1. INTRODUCTION

In washing machines (WM) so as to suspend the unbalance especially in the higher

spin speed values, concrete counter-weights are used. In Truva type plastic tubs
designed by ARCELIK, which has maximum spin speed values between the range
1000 up to 1600 rpm two counter-weights are assembled, one at the top of the tub,
one in front f the tub.

Figure 1.1 Top counter-weight of WM

1
 Figure 1.2 Front counter-weight of WM

Industry increasingly requires products that are cost effective and easy to use, with
high physical performance. Incorporating a polymer in a cementitious mix brings key
advantages, particularly in terms of workability, abrasion and impact resistance, with
the resulting physical and chemical properties dependent upon the nature of the
polymer material and the quantity used in relation to the cement phase.

The aim of this thesis is to apply composite counter-weight in washing machine. The
first and second parts of the thesis consist of a literature survey about polymer
concrete classification and composition. Three methods of producing polymer
concrete is obtained according to the literature research and the appropriate method
is chosen as polymer concrete of synthetic resin. Third part of the thesis deals with
the investigation of three different filler and one constant resin in three different ratio
of the mixture, and the experimental work including density measurement and
mechanical testing. In the last part results of all the mechanical tests and density
measurements are given and investigated in detail. Considering all the data gathered
from these experiments, a suitable formulation among nine different formulations
was chosen to be appropriate to be used in a composite matrix that would be exposed
to conditions of the counter-weight.

2
2. THEORETICAL PART & LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1. Polymer Concrete

Polymer concretes represent a new generation of efficient and chemical-resistant

materials in which the mineral fillers and aggregates reach 90 to 95% by weight. The
content of the polymer binder in these comparatively new materials is only 54 to 10
% of the total weight of the polymer concrete. The cost of polymer concretes is
therefore far less than that of plastics.

In spite of such a comparatively low consumption of polymer binder per unit weight,
polymer concretes possess high density, strength, chemical resistance, and many
other desirable features. The appropriate selection of binder, fillers and aggregates
helps to produce polymer concretes with high dielectric characteristics or, on
contrarily, those possessing good electrical conductivity, vacuum tightness, or
damping characteristics. Compositions of special concretes with excellent properties
of protection from various kinds of radiation have been developed. Further, the high
proportion of fillers used in such concretes sharply reduces shrinkage (which is equal
to that of cement concretes), while the modulus of elasticity is greatly enhanced, This
permits the use of such concretes in load-bearing and other vital structural members
and also in machine tool manufacturing and engineering industries. For example,
compositions of polymer concretes having a density of 2200 to 2400 kg/m3 possess
the following compressive strengths: based on phenol-formaldehyde resins 40-60
MPa, carbamide resins 50-80 MPa, polyester and methyl methacrylate resins 80-120
MPa, epoxide resins up to 150 MPa, vinyl esters and furan-epoxide resins up to 190
MPa.

Depending on the type of mineral fillers and aggregates, heat-insulating polymer

concretes with a density ranging from 300-400 to 800-1000 kg/ m3, light polymer
concretes with a density up to 1800-2000 kg/ m3 and super heavy polymer concretes
wııh a density up to 5500 kg/ m3 can be produced.

The results of investigations show that the above physical and mechanical

3
characteristics of polymer concretes are not the maximum possible values and
technological improvements can be expected to surpass these values significantly in
the very near future. The great advances made in the chemical sciences and by the
industry in the field of synthesizing new types of monomers and oligomers, many of
which possess unique properties, point to such a possibility.

lt is quite well known that one of the vital drawbacks of polymer concretes is their
comparatively low thermal stability (80 to 120°C). Organosilicon and other binders
which have already been developed can be used to produce polymer concretes with a
thermal stability of up to 600°C or more.

Some ten types of monomers or oligomers are used throughout the world in various
combinations along with modifiers to yield over thirty varieties of polymer
concretes. The more extensively used are those based on polyesters and epoxide
resins, vinyl esters and methyl methacrylate monomers. Phenol resins are used less
frequently. Apart from these resins, polymer concretes based on furan, furan-
epoxide, carbamide, and phenol-formaldehyde resins are also quite extensively used.

An analysis of the literature and the reports of international congresses on the use of
polymers in concrete revealed a perceptibly increasing interest in these materials not
only among specialists and scientists, but also a wide group of representatives from
the industry. This is because the experience gained in using the various types of
polymer concretes in extremely diverse fields has proved their positive features and
cost effectiveness.

2.1.1. Classification of Polymer Concretes

The search for ways and means of increasing the strength, density, chemical
resistance, and durability of plain and reinforced concrete has led to the formulation
of a wide group of concretes with additives or based on polymers, called polymer
concretes.

The use of polymers in concrete involves three fundamental principles: full or partial
replacement of inorganic by organic aggregates; total or partial replacement of
inorganic by organic binder; and introduction of organic binder into the porous
structure of the cement, stone or concretes.

The substitution of inorganic by organic filler is directed towards obtaining light

4
concretes, reducing their average density, and improving their heat insulating
characteristics. The properties of concrete using organic aggregates, for example,
foam polystyrene, are practically no different from those which could be produced
with inorganic aggregates, such as foam glass, claydite (day filler), azurite, etc.

A very complex picture emerges on the interaction of synthetic resins and cement
used as binder, especially on totally replacing the inorganic by organic hinder. In this
case, material of a new type with special properties is formed.

It should be pointed out that, apart from a general classification, polymer concretes
have also been classified according to the ease of application of the mixes, types of
polymer binders and hardeners and degradation processes in polymer concretes
under the influence of various aggressive media and physical effects.

According to the general classification developed by the authors, special concretes

with additives or those based on polymers are divided into four main categories
depending on the composition and the method of production: concretes based on
polymer binders-polymer concretes (PC); cement concretes modified by polymers-
polymer-cement concretes (PCC); sulphur concretes modified by polymers-polymer
sulphur concretes (PSC); and cement concretes impregnated with monomers or
oligomers-concrete polymers (CP) (Fig. 2.1).

Figure 2.1 Classification of polymer concretes (Mikhailov, K.V., Paturoev, V.V.,

1992)

5
Polymer concretes denote compositions based on synthetic resins or monomers and
chemically stable fillers and aggregates without using mineral binders and water. The
composition of polymer concretes consists of no less than three fractions of fillers
and aggregates: finely dispersed fillers with a particle size less than 0,15 mm;
aggregates-sand with a grain size up to 5 mm; and rubble up to 50 mm in size.
Unlike polymer concretes, polymer slurries do not contain aggregates. Pastes contain
only one dispersed filler fraction.

The main properties of polymer concretes are determined by the chemical nature of
the synthetic resin and the type and content of the finely dispersed filler fraction.
Coarse fractions of aggregates (sand and stone aggregates), while essentially
performing the role of a skeleton, influence the main physical and mechanical
properties to a small extent. Therefore, in the case of non-reinforced material, the
abbreviation of the name of the polymer binder and the type of finely dispersed filler
are shown after the word ‘polymer concrete’; for reinforced material, the type of
reinforcement is shown before the name of the material, e.g., polymer concrete FAM
(grade of furan resin) based on andesite, polymer concrete PN (polyester maleinate
resin) using marshalite (silica flour), steel polymer concrete FAM using agloporite,
etc.

Polymer cement concretes (PCC) are cement concretes during the production of
which organosilicon or water-soluble polymers, aqueous emulsions of the type of
polyvinyl acetate, or water-soluble epoxide resins are added to the mix at 8-20%.

Polymer sulphur concretes (PSC) are concretes based on a sulphur binder during the
production of which modifying additives of the type of dicyclopentadiene or
chloroparaffin are added to the molten sulphur at 1-2 to 12-15%.

Concrete polymers (PC) are cement concretes which, after the completion of
hardening and structure formation processes, are subjected to drying and
impregnated with various monomers or oligomers in the porous structure of the
concrete followed by radiation or thermo catalytic polymerization. The impregnation
of the cement concrete with monomers or oligomers ensures the possibility of
producing concrete polymers possessing high density and strength characteristics.

The workability of the polymer concrete, as in the ease of cement concretes, is

6
determined by the plasticity of the mix and is primarily dependent on the type and
quantity of the synthetic resin used and also on the dispersability of the filler and the
ratio between the fractions of the fillers and the aggregates. Polymer concrete mixes
can be divided into four main groups based on their plasticity; their average
compositions are given in Table 2.1. In this Table, the lower values of the quantity of
resin refer to the heavy concretes and the higher values to the light concretes using
porous aggregates.

Table 2.1 Classification of polymer concrete mixes based on workability

(Mikhailov, K.V., Paturoev, V.V., 1992)
*The amount of hardener is selected depending on consumption of the resin.

The most important factor determining the properties of polymer concretes is the
type of polymer binder and its compatibility and high adhesive bond with concretes
based on inorganic binders. These are determined not only by the type of binder but
also by the type of hardening system. For example, polymer concretes based on furan
resins hardened by acidic catalysts should not be combined with cement concretes
since, during hardening, the acid catalyst can damage the molecular structure of the
cement concrete.

An analysis of the most common aggressive media and degradation processes

noticed in polymer concrete structures showed that all external influenecs can be
divided into two main groups based on the type of action on the polymer material.
The first type includes the action of water and some other liquid media causing a
reversible adsorptive reduction of strength; the second type includes the effects
causing irreversible degradation processes.

In turn, the effects causing irreversible degradation or deterioration processes in

polymer material can be divided into three main subgroups. The degradation is
caused by the dissolution of the polymer by different solvents; accelerated formation
of free radicals and atoms and chemical action with the aggressive products

7
associated with the deterioration of the polymer molecules.

The first subgroup represents the dissolution of the polymer binder by different
solvents. For a binder based on thermosetting resins with a spatial cross-link, this
type of action is manifest in limited ranges. There are highly active solvents for each
type of binder.

For polymer concretes based on thermoplastic polymers, the intensity of of the action
of heat and various types of radiation can increase significantly; in such a case, the
operational conditions and the types of permissible solvents acting on such polymer
concretes should be more thoroughly studied.

The second subgroup combines the degradation processes associated with the action
of heat and various types of radiation. it is known that sometimes the free radicals
and atoms arising in the polymer under the action of heat, solar radiation, and
radioactive radiations take active part in breaking down the polymers. Being reactive
by nature, the free radicals and atoms break the polymer molecules and these
fragments form new free radicals which also take part in the degradation process. As
a result, the structure of the polymer, its chemical composition and molecular weight
undergo change and, as a consequence, the physical and mechanical properties of the
polymer also change.

Such degradation processes usually proceed most intensely in thermoplastic

polymers with a linear structure. In this case, the breakdown of the polymers can be
significantly inhibited by blocking the free radicals which arise initially as well as
those formed as secondary products of the reactions. For these purposes, various
stabilizers based on the derivatives of phenols, amines, sulphides, and
organophosphorus compounds are added to the polymer at 0.1 to 3%.

The third subgroup represents the degradation of polymers associated with ionic and
molecular processes which mostly occur under the influence of acids, oxidizing
agents and alkalis.

Thus, by classifying the diverse reactive media and the external processes according
to their typical effects and generalizing the results of laboratory investigations and
the data of research on polymer concrete products and structures used in various
industrial works and installations under the action of aggressive media, we can
identify four main types of degradation of polymer concretes. Each type can be

8
defined by the sum total of prominent features.

All reversible processes arising in polymer concretes under the action of water and
other non-aggressive liquids can be placed in the first type. As a result of liquid
diffusion deep into the material, a weight increase and adsorptive reduction of
strength arise. On drying, for instance, evaporation of the liquid from the material,
the initial weight and strength are practically restored.

Processes which cause the dissolution of the polymer and its washout from the
polymer concrete structure can be placed in the second type. In this process, there is
a weight reduction of the material and also its strength reduction.

Degradation phenomena of the polymer binder associated with the appearance of free
radicals and atoms can be placed in the third type. This type of destruction causes
brittleness of the material and strength reduction. In this process, there is no
perceptible weight variation of the material.

The fourth type of degradation of the polymer binder is associated with the
breakdown of the polymer molecules under the action of acids, oxidizing agents and
alkalis. The type of degradation causes an increase in weight, strength reduction and
spilling of the material is given in Table 2.2.

9
Table 2.2 Classification of the process of degradation of polymer concretes
(Mikhailov, K.V., Paturoev, V.V., 1992)

According to the hardener, the least favorable for the reinforcement in polymer
concretes hardened by various acids. The third group of polymer concretes occupies
an intermediate position with respect to these characteristics (Table 2.3).

Table 2.3 Classification of the polymer concretes according to type of hardener and
stability of reinforcement (Mikhailov, K.V., Paturoev, V.V., 1992)

10
The reduction of intensity or the suppression of all types of degradation processes
involves the correct selection of the polymer binder that is most stable under the
action of actual aggressive media and achieving the maximum possible density of the
polymer concretes so as to reduce the diffusive penetration of aggressive media deep
into the material.

The classification of the types of polymer concrete degradation into the above four
main types facilitates not only a more correct selection of the type of polymer
concrete depending on the operational conditions and a more rational approach for
formulating new polymer concrete compositions, but also helps to predict the
behavior of the reinforcement in a given situation.

2.2. Polymer Modified Concrete

Polymer modified concrete may be divided into two classes: polymer impregnated
concrete and polymer cement concrete. The first is produced by impregnation of
precast hardened Portland cement concrete with a monomer that is subsequently
converted to solid polymer. To produce the second, part of the cement binder of the
concrete mix is replaced by polymer (often in latex form). Both have higher strength,
lower water permeability, better resistance to chemicals, and greater freeze-thaw
stability than conventional concrete.

Although its physical properties and relatively low cost make it the most widely used
construction material, conventional Portland cement concrete has a number of
limitations, such as low flexural strength, low failure strain, susceptibility to frost
damage and low resistance to chemicals. These drawbacks are well recognized by the
engineer and can usually be allowed for in most applications. In certain situations,
these problems can be solved by using materials which contain an organic polymer
or resin (commercial polymer) instead of or in conjunction with Portland cement.
These relatively new materials offer the advantages of higher strength, improved
durability, good resistance to corrosion, reduced water permeability and greater
resistance to damage from freeze-thaw cycles.

There are three principal classes of composite materials containing polymers:

polymer impregnated concrete; polymer cement concrete and polymer concrete. The
distinction between these three classes is important to the design engineer in the

11
selection of the appropriate material for a given application.

The typical properties of these polymer-containing composites are compared with

conventional Portland cement concrete in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4 Typical properties of polymer-containing concrete composites and

portland cement concrete (Blaga, A., Beaudoin, J. J., 1985).

Freeze-
thaw
Modulus Shear Resistance,
Tensile of Compressive Bond Water No. Of
Strength, Elasticity, Strength, Strength, Sorption, Cycles / Acid
Material Mpa Gpa Mpa Kpa % %Wt. Loss Resistance

Polymer
impregnated
concrete 10,5 42 140 - 0,6 3500/2 10

Polymer
impregnated
concrete 14,7 49 273 - ≤0,6 - ≥10

Polymer
Cement
Concrete 5,6 14 38 ≥4,55 - - 4

Portland
Cement
Concrete 2,5 24,5 35 875 5,5 700/25 -

2.2.1. Polymer Impregnated Concrete

Polymer impregnated concrete is made by impregnation of precast hardened Portland

cement concrete with low viscosity monomers (in either liquid or gaseous form) that
are converted to solid polymer under the influence of physical agents (ultraviolet

12
radiation or heat) or chemical agents (catalysts). It is produced by drying
conventional concrete; displacing the air from the open pores (by vacuum or
monomer displacement and pressure); saturating the open pore structure by diffusion
of low viscosity monomers or a prepolymer-monomer mixture (viscosity 10 cps; 1 x
10-2 Pa*s); and polymerization of the monomer or prepolymer-monomer mixture,
using the most economical and convenient method (radiation, heat or chemical
initiation). The important feature of this material is that a large proportion of the void
volume is filled with polymer, which forms a continuous reinforcing network. The
concrete structure may be impregnated to varying depths or in the surface layer only,
depending on whether increased strength and/or durability is sought. The main
disadvantages of polymer impregnated concrete products are their relatively high
cost, as the monomers used in impregnation are expensive and the fabrication
process is more complicated than for unmodified concrete.

Impregnation of concrete results in a remarkable improvement in tensile,

compressive and impact strength enhanced durability and reduced permeability to
water and aqueous salt solutions such as sulfates and chlorides. The compressive
strength can be increased from 35 MPa to 140 MPa, the water sorption can be
reduced significantly and the freeze-thaw resistance is considerably enhanced. The
greatest strength can be achieved by impregnation of autoclaved concrete. This
material can have a compressive-strength-to-density ratio nearly three times that of
steel. Although its modulus of elasticity is only moderately greater than that of non-
autoclaved polymer impregnated concrete, the maximum strain at break is
significantly higher.

The monomers most widely used in the impregnation of concrete are the vinyl type,
such as methyl methacrylate (MMA), styrene, acrylonitrile, t-butyl styrene and vinyl
acetate. Acrylic monomer systems such as methyl methacrylate or its mixtures with
acrylonitrile are the preferred impregnating materials, because they have low
viscosity, good wetting properties, high reactivity, relatively low cost and result in
products with superior properties. By using appropriate bifunctional or
polyfunctional monomers (cross-linking agents) in conjunction with MMA, a cross-
linked network is formed within the pores, resulting in products with greatly
increased mechanical strength and higher thermal and chemical resistance.
Improvement of these properties will depend on the degree of cross-linking. A cross-

13
linking agent commonly used with vinyl monomers such as MMA and styrene is
trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate.

Thermosetting monomers and prepolymers are also used to produce polymer

impregnated concrete with greatly increased thermal stability (i.e. resistance to
deterioration by heat). These include epoxy prepolymers and unsaturated polyester-
styrene. These monomers and prepolymers are relatively viscous and, therefore, their
use results in reduced impregnation. Their viscosity can be reduced by mixing them
with low-viscosity monomers such as MMA.

2.2.2. Polymer Cement Concrete

Polymer cement concrete is a modified concrete in which part (10 to 15% by weight)
of the cement binder is replaced by a synthetic organic polymer. It is produced by
incorporating a monomer, prepolymer-monomer mixture, or a dispersed polymer
(latex) into a cement-concrete mix. To effect the polymerization of the monomer or
prepolymer-monomer, a catalyst is added to the mixture. The process technology
used is very similar to that of conventional concrete. Therefore, polymer cement
concrete can be cast-in-place in field applications, whereas polymer impregnated
concrete has to be used as a precast structure.

The properties of polymer cement concrete produced by modifying concrete with

various polymers range from poor to quite favorable. Poor properties of certain
products have been attributed to the incompatibility of most organic polymers and
monomers with some of the concrete mix ingredients. Better properties are produced
by using prepolymers, such as unsaturated polyester cross-linked with styrene or
epoxies. To achieve a substantial improvement over unmodified concrete, fairly large
proportions of these polymers are required. The improvement does not always justify
the additional cost.

Modification of concrete with a polymer latex (colloidal dispersion of polymer

particles in water) results in greatly improved properties, at a reasonable cost.
Therefore, a great variety of latexes is now available for use in polymer cement
concrete products and mortars. The most common latexes are based on poly (methyl
methacrylate) also called acrylic latex, poly (vinyl acetate), vinyl chloride
copolymers, poly (vinylidene chloride), (styrene-butadiene) copolymer, nitrile rubber
and natural rubber. Each polymer produces characteristic physical properties. The

14
acrylic latex provides a very good water-resistant bond between the modifying
polymer and the concrete components, whereas use of latexes of styrene-based
polymers results in a high compressive strength.

Curing of latex polymer cement concrete is different from that of conventional

concrete because the polymer forms a film on the surface of the product retaining
some of the internal moisture needed for continuous cement hydration. Because of
the film-forming feature, moist curing of the latex product is generally shorter than
for conventional concrete.

Generally, polymer cement concrete made with polymer latex exhibits excellent
bonding to steel reinforcement and to old concrete good ductility resistance to
penetration of water and aqueous salt solutions, and resistance to freeze-thaw
damage. Its flexural strength and toughness are usually higher than those of
unmodified concrete. The modulus of elasticity may or may not be higher than that
of unmodified concrete, depending on the polymer latex used. For instance, the more
rubbery the polymer is, the lower the modulus. Generally, as the polymer forms a
low modulus phase with the polymer cement concrete, the creep is higher than that of
plain concrete and decreases with the type of polymer latex used in the following
order: polyacrylate; styrene-butadiene copolymer; polyvinylidene chloride;
unmodified cement.

The drying shrinkage of polymer cement concrete is generally lower than that of
conventional concrete; the amount of shrinkage depends on the water-to-cement
ratio, cement content, polymer content and curing conditions. It is more susceptible
to higher temperatures than ordinary cement concrete. For example, creep increases
with temperature to a greater extent than in ordinary cement concrete, whereas
flexural strength, flexural modulus and modulus of elasticity decrease. These effects
are greater in materials made with elastomeric latex (e.g., styrene-butadiene rubber)
than in those made with thermoplastic polymers (e.g., acrylic). Typically, at about
45°C, polymer cement concrete made with thermoplastic latex retains only
approximately 50 percent of its flexural strength and modulus of elasticity.

Polymer mortar and concrete are the composite materials made by fully replacing the
cement hydrate binders of conventional mortar and concrete with polymeric binders
or liquid resins such as thermosetting resins, vinyl monomers, and tar-modified

15
resins. They do not contain a cement hydrate phase. Most of the thermosetting resin
and monomer systems for the polymer mortar and concrete are polymerized at
ambient or room temperature.

The early development of polymer mortar and concrete was done mainly in the
Soviet Union, the U.S., Germany, and Japan in the late 1950s to the early 1960s.

2.3. Polymer Concrete

PC is a composite material in which the binder consists entirely of a synthetic

organic polymer. It is variously known as synthetic resin concrete, plastic resin
concrete or simply resin concrete. Because the use of a polymer instead of Portland
cement represents a substantial increase in cost, polymers should be used only in
applications in which the higher cost can be justified by superior properties, low
labor cost or low energy requirements during processing and handling. It is therefore
important that architects and engineers have some knowledge of the capabilities and
limitations of PC materials in order to select the most appropriate and economic
product for a specific application.

2.3.1. Principle of Polymer Replacement

In polymer mortar and concrete, the cement hydrate binders of conventional mortar
and concrete are replaced with polymeric binders, and the aggregates are strongly
bound to each other by the uniform polymer matrix phases obtained from the
polymeric binders. Accordingly, in comparison with ordinary cement mortar and
concrete, the properties such as strength, adhesion, water tightness, chemical
resistance, freeze-thaw durability, and abrasion resistance of the polymer mortar and
concrete are generally improved to a great extent by polymer replacement. On the
other hand, their poor thermal and fire resistance and their large temperature
dependence of mechanical properties are disadvantages due to the undesirable
properties of the polymer matrix phases. Therefore, the glass transition point (or
temperature) of the polymer matrix phases should be noted from the viewpoint of
such thermal properties. Thermoplastic resins generally retain their practical
properties at temperatures below the glass transition point and lose them at
temperatures exceeding the point, beginning to thermally decompose at somewhat
higher temperatures. The practical temperature range of the thermoplastic resins may

16
be improved by the addition of suitable cross-linking monomers or comonomers
having higher glass transition points. Thermosetting resins do not commonly show a
glass transition point, and they retain their mechanical properties up to the thermal
decomposition temperature. Such essential disadvantages of the polymer mortar and
concrete can be considerably improved by controlling the necessary polymeric
binder content by volume to a minimum.

Except for their special applications, when continuous polymer matrix phases in
polymer mortar and concrete are formed by using sufficient polymeric binders, the
polymer mortar and concrete with good properties can be produced. When the
polymer matrix phases are discontinuous because of too small polymeric binder
content or excessive entraining air content, their properties tend to become inferior.

The cost of various polymers for the polymeric binders is quite high compared to that
of Portland cement or other cements. Consequently, it is most important for their mix
design to find out the necessary minimal contents of the polymeric binders to
disperse the aggregates in close-packed conditions in the continuous polymer matrix
phases. The bond or adhesion between the polymeric binders and aggregates in the
polymer mortar and concrete is very strong, differing from that between the cement
hydrate binders and aggregates in the ordinary cement mortar and concrete. As a
result, the strength properties of the polymer mortar and concrete tend to depend on
the polymeric binder-aggregate bond or adhesion. Accordingly, the use of high-
strength aggregates is required in their structural applications. Also, it is necessary to
devise proper mixing procedures to reduce the entrained air content of the polymer
mortar and concrete, as the use of the usual antifoaming agents is impossible.

2.3.2. Nature and General Properties of Polymer Concrete

Polymer concrete consists of a mineral filler (for example, an aggregate) and a

polymer binder (which may be a thermoplastic, but more frequently, it is a
thermosetting polymer. When sand is used as filler, the composite is referred to as a
polymer mortar. Other fillers include crushed stone, gravel, limestone, chalk,
condensed silica fume (silica flour, silica dust), granite, quartz, clay, expanded glass,
and metallic fillers. Generally, any dry, non-absorbent, solid material can be used as
filler.

To produce PC, a monomer or a prepolymer (i.e., a product resulting from the

17
partial polymerization of a monomer), a hardener (cross-linking agent) and a catalyst
are mixed with the filler. Other ingredients added to the mix include plasticizers and
fire retardants. Sometimes, silane coupling agents are used to increase the bond
strength between the polymer matrix and the filler. To achieve the full potential of
polymer concrete products for certain applications, various fibre reinforcements are
used. These include glass fibre, glass fibre-based mats, fabrics and metal fibres.
Setting times and times for development of maximum strength can be readily varied
from a few minutes to several hours by adjusting the temperature and the catalyst
system. The amount of polymer binder used is generally small and is usually
determined by the size of the filler. Normally the polymer content will range from 5
to 15 percent of the total weight, but if the filler is fine, up to 30 percent may be
required.

Polymer concrete composites have generally good resistance to attack by chemicals

and other corrosive agents; have very low water sorption properties, good resistance
to abrasion and marked freeze-thaw stability. Also, the greater strength of polymer
concrete in comparison to Portland cement concrete permits the use of up to 50
percent less material. This puts polymer concrete on a competitive basis with cement
concrete in certain special applications. The chemical resistance and physical
properties are generally determined by the nature of the polymer binder to a greater
extent than by the type and the amount of filler. In turn, the properties of the matrix
polymer are highly dependent on time and the temperature to which it is exposed.

The viscoelastic properties of the polymer binder give rise to high creep values. This
is a factor in the restricted use of PC in structural applications. Its deformation
response is highly variable depending on formulation; the elastic module may range
from 20 to about 50 GPa, the tensile failure strain being usually 1%. Shrinkage
strains vary with the polymer used (high for polyester and low for epoxy-based
binder) and must be taken into account in an application.

A wide variety of monomers and prepolymers are used to produce PC. The polymers
most frequently used are based on four types of monomers or prepolymer systems:
MMA, polyester prepolymer-styrene, epoxide prepolymer hardener (cross-linking
monomer) and furfural alcohol. The typical range of properties of PC products made
with each of these four polymers is presented in Table 2.5 and general characteristics

18
and principal applications are described in Table 2.6.

Table 2.5 Typical Range of Properties of Common PC Products and Portlan Cement
Concrete (Blaga, A., Beaudoin, J. J., 1985)

Thermal
Compres
Modulus Coefficient
sive
Water Tensile Flexural of of
Density Sorption Strength Strength Strength Elasticity Poisson Expansion
Type of
Binder kg/dm % MPa MPa MPa GPa Ratio 106C-1

Poly
(methylmet
hacrylate) 2.0-2.4 0.05-0.60 70-210 9-11 30-35 35-40 0.22-0.33 10-19

Polyester 2.0-2.4 0.30-1.0 50-150 8-25 15-45 20-40 0.16-0.30 10-30

Epoxy 2.0-2.4 0.02-1.0 50-150 8-25 15-50 20-40 0.30 10-35

Furan
polymer 1.6-1.7 0.20 48-64 7-8 - - - 38-61

Portland
cement
Concrete** 1.9-2.5 5-8 13-35 1.5-3.5 2-8 20-30 0.15-0.20 10-12

19
Table 2.6 General Characteristics and Applications of Polymer Concrete Products
(Blaga, A., Beaudoin, J. J., 1985)

Type of Binder Used in PC General Characteristics

Poly(methylmethacrylate) Low tendency to absorb water; thus

high freeze-thaw resistance; low rate of
shrinkage during and after setting; very
good chemical resistance and outdoor
durability.

Polyester Relatively strong, good adhesion to

other materials, good chemical and
freeze-thaw resistance, but have high-
setting and post-setting shrinkage.

Epoxy Strong adhesion to most building

materials; low shrinkage; superior
chemical resistance; good creep and
fatigue resistance; low water sorption.

Furan-based Composite materials with high

polymer resistance to chemicals (most acidic or
basic aqueous media), strong resistance
to polar organic liquids such as
ketones, aromatic hydrocarbons, and
chlorinated compounds.

2.3.3. Types of Polymer Concrete According to the Resin

2.3.3.1. Acrylic Polymer Concrete

The most common acrylic polymer is poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), obtained
by polymerization of MMA. PC made with this acrylic polymer as a binder is a

20
versatile material, has excellent weathering resistance, good waterproofing
properties, good chemical resistance, and relatively low setting shrinkage (0.01 to
0.1%); its coefficient of thermal expansion is equivalent to that of Portland cement
concrete. Because of its very low tendency to absorb water, acrylic PC has a very
high freeze-thaw resistance. The low flash point (11°C) of the MMA monomer is a
disadvantage, however as it constitutes a safety problem.

Although the MMA monomer is more expensive than the prepolymer-monomer used
in the more popular polyester PC, its unique properties account for its use in a great
many diverse applications, including the manufacture of stair units, sanitary
products, curbstones, and facade plates. A highly successful development has been
its use as a rapid-setting, structural patching material for repairing large holes in
bridge decks. The material consists of a highway grade aggregate and a matrix
produced by cross-linking MMA with trimethylol propane trimethacrylate
(TMPTMA).

2.3.3.2. Polyester Polymer Concrete

Because of low cost, the most widely used polymer-binders are based on unsaturated
polyester polymer. In most applications, the polyester binder is a general purpose,
unsaturated polyester prepolymer formulation. These formulations are available in
the form of 60 to 80 percent solutions of the prepolymer in copolymerizable
monomers such as styrene and styrene-methyl methacrylate. During hardening, the
polyester prepolymer and the monomer react through their unsaturated groups
(double bonds). The chemical reaction is called cross-linking, the production process
associated with it is referred to as curing, and the resulting polymer binder is a
thermosetting polymer.

Polyester PC has good mechanical strength, relatively good adhesion to other

materials, and good chemical and freeze-thaw resistance. It has, however large
setting and post-setting shrinkage (up to ten times greater than Portland cement
concrete), a serious disadvantage in certain applications. Polyester PC is used in
various precast and cast-in place applications in construction works.

2.3.3.3. Epoxy Polymer Concrete

Epoxy binder like polyester, is a thermosetting polymer The epoxy polymer can be

21
hardened with a variety of curing agents, the most frequently used being polyamines
(e.g., tertiary polyamines). The use of polyamine hardeners (curing agents) results in
PC products with the highest chemical resistance. Other curing agents are
polyamides and polysulfide polymers. Epoxy PC products cured with polyamides
have greater flexibility, better heat resistance, and reduced chalking tendency in
outdoor exposure, but their solvent and chemical resistance is lower than for similar
products cured with polyamines. The polysulfide polymers usage produce epoxy PC
with even greater flexibility.

Epoxy PC exhibits high strength adhesion to most materials, low-setting and post-
setting shrinkage, high chemical resistance, and good fatigue and creep resistance.
Because they are relatively expensive, epoxy polymers have not been used very
widely as binders in PC products. Therefore, epoxy PC is used for special
applications, in situations in which the higher cost can easily be justified, such as
mortar for industrial flooring to provide physical and chemical resistance, skid-
resistant overlays (filled with sand, emery, pumice, quartz) in highways, epoxy
plaster for exterior walls (e.g., in exposed aggregate panels) and resurfacing material
for deteriorated areas (e.g., in flooring). Epoxy PC reinforced with glass, carbon or
boron fibres is used in the fabrication of translucent panels, boat hulls and
automobile bodies.

2.3.3.4. Furan Polymer Concrete

Furan polymers are based on furfuryl alcohol, which is derived from agricultural
residues such as corn cobs, rice hulls, oat hulls or sugar cane bagasse. The furan
prepolymer is usually cross-linked with furfuryl alcohol, furfuraldehyde or
formaldehyde to yield thermosetting polymers, highly resistant to most aqueous
acidic or basic solutions and strong solvents such as ketones, aromatics, and
chlorinated compounds. The furan polymers are used as binders in mortars and
grouts to achieve chemically resistant brick floors (e.g., carbon brick and red shale
brick) and linings. In addition to exhibiting superior chemical resistance, these floors
have excellent resistance to elevated temperatures and extreme thermal shock.

2.4. Process Technology of Polymer Concrete

Process technology of polymer mortar and concrete is much the same as that of

22
conventional cement mortar and concrete are basically applicable, but the curing
methods differ. The batching, mixing, and placing techniques for cement mortar and
concrete are basically applicable, but the curing methods differ. The optimum cures,
such as dry cure at ambient temperature or heat cure, are selected and applied to the
polymer mortar and concrete. In general, the process technology of the polymer
mortar and concrete is divided into two types: cast-in-place and precast application
systems. At present, the cast-inplace application systems are chiefly applied for the
polymer mortar, and the precast application systems are used for the polymer
concrete. For purposes of reducing the cost of the polymer mortar and concrete and
improving their strength, durability, and other properties, it is most important to find
out the effective mix proportions of the polymeric binders and aggregates. Although
the polymeric binders are toxic and flammable, the use of the safety procedures that
have been well established for them allows them to be handled without undue
difficulty.

2.4.1. Specifications for Process Equipment for Producing Polymer Concrete

Products and Structures

The production method is not the least of the factors that determine the properties of
polymer concretes. The problem of producing high-quality materials possessing
optimum characteristics calls for optimum methods of their production.

Two essentially different methods of producing polymer concretes are recognized:

• batch method

• continuous methods

Both methods have distinct advantages depending on the objectives set out,
requirements skills of workers, planned production indexes, and so forth.

The main link in any technological flow sheet determining in particular the
technological process and the period required for producing the materials and
products is the mixer unit in which the polymer concrete mix is produced. Various
constituents of the reaction are mixed in the mixer and the process once initiated
cannot thereafter be stopped. It is therefore essential lo select a proper mixing device.

The selection of mixing technology is independent of the method of producing the

23
polymer concretes. The following are the requirements for the mixing devices.

The mixing unit should thoroughly blend all the individual constituents to yield a
homogeneous mass. All the fractions of the filler should be adequately wetted by the
binder and the formation of lumps or the presence of dry patches in the mix is not
permissible. The dispersed fibre reinforcement, when additionally added to the mix,
should be distributed uniformly throughout the mass and also wetted well. The unit
should be fast working. The hardening process commences when the constituents of
the mix come into direct contact with each other. The time available before
hardening of the mass should be utilized for thorough mixing of the constituents to a
state of a homogeneous polymer concrete mass, compaction and complete processing
into the finished product. Any loss of time in the mixer affects the entire time
sequence. It should also be remembered that a chemical reaction occurs in the mixer;
the mixer should be cleaned at the appropriate time therefore.

Stratification of the filler is not permissible. This is particularly important when

materials of different densities such as quartz sand and hollow glass globules are
used in the mixture of fillers. Breakage of the filler granules is not permissible, yet is
entirely possible when using light aggregates.

The mixer unit should be amenable to rapid and easy cleaning. The remains of the
polymer concrete mass in the mixer and the requirement of detergents and other
cleaning (washing) agents should be low while the amount of chemical solvents used
for cleaning should be optimal. Simplicity and ease of cleaning also ensure the
economy of wages of the operators.

The mixer device should satisfy all the requirements of production capacity. For
example, when producing castings weighing 5 tones, 50-litre batch mixers should not
be used since a hundred mixing cycles one after another will then have to be
performed. It should also be borne in mind that the unit should not produce more
polymer concrete than can be processed in a given time interval. The mixer unit
should satisfy the requirements of environmental protection. For example, some
systems of binders call for the use of explosion-proof equipment. Sometimes, the
mixer unit is coupled with other processing machinery. Climatic conditions,
particularly when working directly at the construction site, exert a definite influence.

Batch mixers are most suitable for producing test batches and a small number of

24
products. The following types of batch mixers are used:

• Buckets (1,2,3 liter capacity) and agitators, these represent cheap tools which
are wholly suitable for initial tests and for producing prototypes of articles;

• Paddle mixers, apart from being very slow in operation, are difficult to clean.
These devices are not suitable when using brittle fillers, due to the generation
of intense shearing forces, but are relatively cheap;

• Stirrers with oscillating paddles are also very slow in operation and mixing
efficiency is not very high, but shearing forces are low;

• Propeller agitators are used primarily in the food and aniline dye industries.
The operation of these mixers is extremely rapid but there is danger of break-
up of brittle fillers by the rapidly rotating paddles in these mixers. However,
the paddles may themselves be damaged by the action of coarse fillers and
may become prematurely worn out. Expenses on repair of these mixers are
therefore high;

• Truck-mounted concrete mixers are used for producing polymer concrete, es-
pecially when The volume of material required is large as, for example, when
lining finished embankments. Inaccuracies of dosing the reaction constituents
and also lack of adequate supervision by the personnel often lead to the
hardening of the polymer concrete solution in the mixer. Thus situations have
arisen wherein the hardened polymer concrete slurry and the mixer itself
could not be utilized;

• Integrated mixers function rapidly, can be easily cleaned, and do not use
paddles or blades. Thus these mixers preserve the fillers in good condition for
a long time.

However, all batch mixers suffer from deficiencies which are particularly distinctly
manifest when producing polymer concrete. After each process of mixing, they have
invariably to be thoroughly cleaned. Moreover, the remains of the materials and
solvents after each cleaning have to be removed, which does not always conform to
the principles of environmental protection. Binders are used not only for wetting the
fillers, but are also needlessly used for wetting the mixing drum, paddles, and so
forth. Therefore, each operation of the mixer requires expensive binders in a larger

25
volume than is required in the composition of a given mix.

Irrespective of the rate of operation of the batch mixers, polymer concrete requires
considerable duration for hardening and work cannot be performed on a continuous
basis. This is because hardening begins only on completion of the processing of the
entire batch of the mix present in the mixer and then the equipment requires cleaning.
Therefore, when working with mixers having low hardening periods, batch mixers
are unsuitable. In such cases, it is necessary to use continuous mixers which, at
present, are already being used for producing cement-based concretes since; in this
case also, there is rapid hardening of the mixes as a result of using chemical additives
with the cement.

The batch method of mixing calls for periodic dosing of all the individual
constituents of polymer concretes. Most often, dosing is manual and hence accuracy
and uniformity of dosing depends on the experience of the personnel. Errors in
dosing do arise from time to time but they are detected far too late to take any
corrective measure. Therefore, in plants operating on a batch system, hardening often
occurs either very late or not at all. Often, the reaction commences at the moment
when the mix is right in the mixer itself.

Continuous production of polymer concrete products using batch mixers is

practically impossible. Continuously working dosers, mixers, and casting equipment
meet the requirements of large-scale production as also for producing special
products against special orders. These machines are used not only as mixers, but are
also capable of ensuring continuous and accurate dosing of all types of raw materials
required for producing polymer concrete slurries so that all the technological
operations, i.e., dosing, mixing and casting the products, can be combined into a
single technological process. This eliminates time losses and ensures high accuracy
and uniform operation.

A vital deficiency of casting machines compared with batch mixers is that they
involve very high capital investment which, however, is compensated by several
advantages:

• The individual constituents of the mix are dosed mechanically and uniformly;
the selected individual constituents of the mix are added continuously with no
deviation from the prescribed feeding procedure; human error is eliminated

26
 and the machine yields a homogeneous polymer slurry all through the
technological process;

• All the dosages of the various constituents of the mix can be regulated, each
composition can be easily reproduced and repeated; even the reproduction of
a precise colour shade is possible as, for example, to match with polymer
marble or polymer onyx after a long interval;

• Within the framework of the technological process, all the operations can be
carried out at strictly defined time intervals, the latter being maintained very
accurately irrespective of changes in climatic conditions, which exert a
definite influence on the course of the reaction;

• The optimum properties of polymer concretes are possible only when the
hardening is of high quality; casting machines with a high rate of mixing help
to ensure rapid hardening of the mixes resulting in thorough polymerisation
of the polymer concrete and in many cases eliminating the need for thermal
processing;

• Continuous production considerably enhances the economic efficiency of

producing finished products while the use of casting machines helps
considerably in reducing the number of workers;

• As long as the casting machine functions in a continuous regime, there is no

need to clean it. It is subjected to cleaning only in the case of a prolonged
stoppage but even then the cleaning process takes only a few seconds using a
minimum quantity of detergents. The use of casting machines thus helps to
economize considerable resources and ensures (with minimum wastage)
effective environmental protection; and

• The various types of raw materials used in the casting machines are dosed in
closed systems; the operating personnel hardly come into contact with the
materials and thus phenomena such as gas accumulations, skin irritation, etc.
do not arise.

2.4.2. Providing the Required Capacity

The technological unit should be designed for the given capacity while the casting

27
machine which ultimately determines the overall product yield should ensure this
capacity.

In works producing large-sized structures or applying coatings on large areas, there

are no problems associated with using highly productive casting machines since large
volumes of polymer concrete can be processed quite rapidly. There are no problems
whatsoever in selecting small casting machines (for producing small structures and
products). Some difficulties can arise when producing a large number of small-sized
products and structures using .small moulds. In such cases, the capacity of the
machine should, on the one hand, correspond to the overall required number of
products and, on the other hand, should not exceed certain limits since polymer
concrete fills small moulds more slowly than moulds with large sections and large
charging holes.

Industrial plants of moderate sue have been designed for processing aggregate
fractions of size 3 to 7 mm since the size composition often used in producing
polymer concretes covers this range and corresponds to an average wall thickness of
about 20 mm of the products. Much larger units with greater capacity can handle
fractions up to 16 mm, and some up to 40 mm granules.

When designing the casting machines, the hardness of the filler plays a secondary
role since, on the one hand, modern machines are equipped with wear-resistant
mixing components and can process solid material (granite, corundum, carborundum,
etc.) and, on the other hand, the mixing process is carried out extremely carefully
which poses no problem even when processing very brittle, light-weight fillers. The
mixing components have high-strength surface coatings to a thickness of a few
millimeters and can be restored as they wear out independent of the rest of the
equipment. Therefore, delays associated with the restoration of these components are
quite few.

When designing the mixing unit, dispersed fibre reinforcement mixed with polymer
concrete mix should also be taken into consideration. When the machine is correctly
designed, the addition of any reinforcing material to the polymer concrete mix (for
example, fibreglass and carbon filament or shaped steel fibre) causes no difficulty in
processing them in the polymer concrete mix.

The composition of the filler largely influences the structural design of the machines.

28
This factor is important for designing the dosing unit. Conforming to the varying
physical and chemical properties of fillers, various systems are available at present
for dosing light- as well as heavy-weight fillers. Fine-grained and free-flowing fillers
should be processed differently than hard material, which often tends to cause
congestion in the bunkers.

Fillers of mixed fractions are usually used for producing polymer concretes so that
the application of the binder can be minimized. Often, the filler mixture is produced
away from the casting machine (especially when using four or more fractions). Then,
the casting machine can be equipped with only one container for storing the made-up
filler material and a unit for dosing it. This ensures the storage of a certain amount of
the filler and its addition in the required dose. When using two or three fractions of
the filler, the machine should be provided with an adequate number of containers and
dosing units so as to carry out preliminary mixing of the filler components before
feeding them into the casting machine. A suitable method is selected in each
individual case taking into consideration all the local conditions and after identifying
all the constituents of the composition.

2.4.3. Materials

The binder systems for polymer mortar and concrete differ from those for ordinary
cement mortar and concrete, but the aggregates are the same as those used for cement
mortar and concrete.

2.4.3.1. Selection of Binder

Different resins used for producing polymer concrete, i.e., polyester, epoxide, vinyl
ester, mefhacrylate. Poly-urethane, phenol, furan resins, etc., have specific
characteristics. They differ from each other in density, viscosity and reactivity, and
require different working temperatures for processing and also varying amounts of
activators (hardeners).

Depending on the properties of the materials, various types of feeding and dosing
systems of liquid constituents can be used. Specially fabricated gear-type pumps are
predominantly used for dosing the resins. These prevent high friction coefficients
and shearing stresses. The drive of the pumps can operate on direct as well as
alternating current; preference is given to alternating current since such drives are

29
cheap and at the same time less sensitive to voltage fluctuations in the feed supply.
When using alternating current drives, the control range is usually 1:10 but, by using
transformers of alternating current frequencies, even wider ranges of control arc
possible. To ensure high dosing accuracy and to control the number of revolutions,
transformers of alternating current frequencies are recommended. These help to
mechanize the control of the number of revolutions and, when required, control
automatically the number of revolutions with no time lag.

When using, for example, polyurethane and epoxide resins, the hardeners are
processed by the same method as used for processing the resins. Only the capacity of
the pumps requires to be matched with the required level of material flow.

When producing polymer concrete based on polyester or vinylester resins, the

optimum method is to have two activators (catalyst as well as promoter) in the form
of independent constituents, without mixing them with the resins when preparing the
material manually. When storing the constituents separately, it is possible to regulate
their consumption even in the course of producing the polymer concrete. This helps
to modify at will the proportion of the constituents in the mixture with allowance for
local conditions and operational requirements. When processing these resins,
extremely small amounts of activators (about 2%) are added to the resin. Dosing
should be extremely accurate and is ensured by using diaphragm pumps working at
low pressures as different from piston pumps in which very high pressures are
developed. In spite of the fact that diaphragm pumps, compared with piston pumps,
operate with less intense pulsations, it has not been possible yet to eliminate them
completely. Therefore, pumps in the suction and pressure lines are equipped with
additional dampers to prevent pulsations and thus ensure smooth flow of liquid
fractions into the system. The automatic control of the flow regime of liquid fractions
with optical indicators ensures guaranteed, continuous and uniform flow of activators
even at minimum volume of the material without giving rise to the phenomenon of
pulsations.

The addition of activators using compressed air from suitable high-pressure

reservoirs as practised in the plastics industry falls far behind the present level of
technological developments. The flow regulation in this case is not sufficiently
accurate while the high-pressure reservoir represents a source of great danger.

30
When processing methyl acrylate resins, the promoter is often already mixed in the
resin composition while the catalyst is added in the form of a powder. For reasons
given above, preliminary mixing of the accelerator is not recommended in principle,
but even such binder systems can be processed in the casting machines. The hardener
powder is fed either through a special powder feeding system into the mixer of the
casting machine or (in the case of systems using premixed fillers) into the system of
filler mixing. In the latter case, there is no need for a separate mixing system.

When processing epoxide and polyester resins, it is preferable to heat the resin in the
casting machine to ensure a uniform product of high quality. For this purpose, the
casting machine can be equipped with a healing apparatus working on the principle
of heat exchangers and not on the direct heating principle. A heat exchanger provides
a large heat transfer surface and hence the temperature difference between the heated
apparatus and the heat carrier is not high. This eliminates the danger of sudden local
overheating. Oil is used as a heat carrier in the heat exchangers. The oil, in turn, is
heated in electric heaters. The circulation system ensures a constant circulation of the
hot oil and maintains a constant temperature throughout the heat exchanger block.

The heating of the resin significantly reduces its viscosity, which ensures
considerable economy of resin consumption, accelerates its thickening and increases
the extent of hardening. All of these promote the product quality. Other resins
(methacrylate, phenol, or furan), because of their low viscosity, require no heating
whatsoever.

The construction material of pumps, pipe lines, valves, etc. should invariably
conform to the requirements prescribed for working under conditions of aggressive
chemical substances. While for processing resins and their constituents, the use of
standard steel or cast iron is wholly suitable, high-alloy steels should be used for
components handling activators. When using furan resins hardened by an extremely
aggressive acid, the correct selection of the construction material is particularly
important. The material used for fabricating packings and hoses should also be acid-
resistant and stable to the action of powerful chemical reagents. Materials such as
Teflon, Viton, polyethylene, and polyamide are most frequently used for these
purposes.

When fabricating and installing electric equipment and pipe lines, the appropriate

31
requirements and specifications should also be satisfied, especially when processing
methacrylate resins; in this case, safety of electric equipment and control system used
for storing and handling the raw material and in the course of producing must be
ensured. These measures are dictated by the extremely low ignition point of
methacrylate resins.

In the industry, economy is a decisive factor. In accordance with the well-known rule
that expenses should be the minimum required, casting machines have been
fabricated for the specific binders used by a given customer. However, at present, in
research organizations as well as in industrial plants, casting machines capable of
processing various types of binders are required. Such flexibility is desirable for
industries in which different systems of resins are processed and also for use in
research institutions desiring to enlarge their capabilities. For example, if a consumer
desires to work alternatively with polyester and epoxide resins, it is theoretically
possible to use a single machine to process polyester resins which, after cleaning, can
handle epoxide resins with no special problems. But, epoxide systems cannot be
processed in machines intended for polyester resins since a large amount of
hardeners is required.

Depending on the required content of hardeners, casting machines should be

provided with dosing devices of various capacities. Optimum flexibility can be
ensured when the casting machine has systems of feeding and dosing the various
constituents. In this case, a switchover from one system of resins to another is
possible without expensive cleaning and without risk of undesirable reactions
between the different binders.

Synthetic Resins

Synthetic resins are usually supplied according to the agreement with the supplier in
tank trucks of capacity 10-20 tones from which the resin is emptied into the
containers of the consumer by pneumatic or built-in pumps. The unloading pipe lines
are installed in such a way that they stand completely empty at the end of the
unloading operation. If the pipe lines enter the container, a siphoning effect can be
anticipated.

When pipe lines of long length are used to connect the tank truck with the container
or when it is necessary to overcome large height differences, the diameter of the pipe

32
line should be 80-100 mm and sharp angles and bends should be avoided.

To ensure an optimum regime of raw material supply and to prevent interruptions in

supply, the collector capacity should be not less than 150% of the volume of supply.
To prevent the mixing of the remnants of the preceding batch of raw material with
the new batch, an alternative solution is to install two containers, each holding the
volume of normal supply.

Reservoirs made of alloy steel or pure aluminium are most suitable for storing
synthetic resins. Steel containers are well recommended when the interval between
the fillings is not longer than a few months. The containers are usually filled through
the opening at the bottom when the gradient is normal. For measuring the liquid level
in the container, devices using floats, lever indicators, or air bubble indicators are
used. A thermometer is also recommended for measuring the liquid temperature, this
being particularly important when the containers are placed in the open air.

To ensure more prolonged storage, material should be protected from light and heat.
The most optimum storage temperature is 20°C with an upper limit of 25°C. At
15°C, increased viscosity of medium and highly viscous material may cause certain
difficulties when emptying the containers and also when processing the material.

To ensure a stable temperature of the resin, the reservoirs should be placed in

covered buildings with temperature control. When the containers are placed in the
open, effective thermal insulation must be provided (to prevent any excessive
cooling of the containers also) so that even when there is a temperature drop, the
resin can be pumped through the pipe-line system to the casting machine. Further,
the cross-section of the pipe line should take into consideration the viscosity of the
resin handled and should be large enough for the travel of the material. The highly
viscous epoxide resin, for example, requires large-sized tubes compared to the non-
viscous liquid methacrylate resin.

Instead of one large reservoir, several small containers or some storage tanks can be-
used. These can be connected to the pipe line feeding the casting machine. When
using several containers, each may be placed close to the casting machine and
connected by a short length of pipe.

33
Activators

For storing activators, the appropriate instructions and guidelines should be strictly
adhered to. Hardeners for epoxide, polyurethane and other resins are essentially
regulated by the same requirements and recommendations already given while
describing the resins. However, when considering these aspects for other systems of
binders, some additional requirements should also be taken into consideration.

Fairly strong acids are often used as hardeners, for example, for furan resin.
Therefore, the pipe lines for their storage and transmission should be made of high-
quality alloy steels.

When processing polyester resins, the catalysts (liquid peroxides) and accelerators
used for hardening should be stored separately. Large volumes of peroxides (over
200 kg) are stored in individual bunkers. The bottom should be made with some
inclination in the form of a sump with a settler capacity of about 30 litres. Under
certain conditions, the peroxide catalyst can be completely drawn from it. The
bottom surface should be smooth and dense and must be amenable to easy cleaning.
The closing doors made of steel sheet should open outwards. Slightly above the
bottom, air intake lines of 30 cm x 30 cm with louvres should be provided in the side
walls of the container. Provision should be made under the lid for additional air
intake openings in the required numbers.

The internal dimensions of the storage building should be adequate for total
operational safety with various types of containers in which peroxide is handled. The
height of the building should be not less than 2.5 m. The capacity of the buildings
can be raised by constructing stands with aluminium sections. Aluminium grills can
be used as supports; they promote air circulation. Heating the buildings is usually not
required in regions with warm climatic conditions; in fact, it is often necessary to
provide cooling systems since the peroxide begins to boil and liberate gases at a
temperature of roughly +28°C, which adversely affects their activity.

Some storage buildings for activators should be placed in such a way that the
containers required in the process, i.e., those used while operating the casting
machines, can also be located in them. Then, there will not be a single container with
peroxide outside the storage house (with the exception of small amounts of

34
peroxide in the pipe lines connected to the casting machine).

2.4.3.2. Fillers

Fillers such as ground calcium carbonate, silica flour, and fly ash are used to extend
polymeric binders and fill the very fine particles for aggregates. Ground calcium
carbonate, which is the most common filler, cannot be employed in applications
requiring acid resistance of the polymer mortar and concrete. The requirements for
the fillers for the polymer mortar and concrete are as follows:

• Very low moisture content of less than 0.5% (because the moisture causes a
reduction in the bond between most polymeric binders und aggregates)

• No impurities, which have a bad influence on the hardening reactions of

polymeric binders

• Low absorption of polymeric binders

• Good rheological characteristic-improving effect as well as expectable

extending and reinforcing effects on polymeric binders

2.4.3.3. Aggregates

Fine and coarse aggregates, such as river sands and gravels, crushed sands
and stones such as andesite, limestone (or marble), and granite, silica sands, and
sometimes artificial lightweight aggregates recommended for ordinary cement
mortar and concrete, are dried to a suitable moisture content and ilscd for polymer
mortar and concrete. The dried aggregates may be available at asphalt concrete
plants. The requirements for aggregates for the polymeric mortar and concrete are as
follows:

• Desirable partide shape and gradation to provide the highest possible absolute
volume or the lowest possible void volume that will require the lowest
content of polymeric binders to coat the aggregates and to fill the voids

• Soundness and high strength

• Very low moisture content of less than 0,5 or 1.0% (because the moisture
reduces the bond between most polymeric binders and aggregates

• No impurities, which have a bad influence on the hardening reactions of

35
 polymeric binders

• Low absorption of polymeric binders

In general, the size and gradation of the aggregates are selected depending on the
thickness of cover mortar or concrete or the depth of mortar or concrete to be placed,
the type of applications, and the type of polymeric binders.

2.4.4. Mixing

To avoid heterogeneous mixing due to the rapid-hardening reaction and high-

viscosity binder formulations (except for vinyl monomer-based binders), polymer
mortar and concrete must be mechanically mixed using mixing equipment; mixing
should never be done by hand.

Mixing equipment is classified into two types: discontinuous or batch mixers such as
forced mixing-type mixers used for conventional cement mortar and concrete, and
continuous mixers. The former are widely used in the world.

Mixer selection is generally dependent on the viscosity of the binder formulations

and the applications of polymer mortar and concrete. As the polymeric binders are
volatile and potentially explosive, no sparking and explosion proof mixers should be
selected. Before the actual mixing of the polymer mortar or concrete, trial mixing
should always be performed to determine the proper mix proportions. The standard
mixing procedures using a forced mixing-type batch mixer for the polymer mortar or
concrete are as follows:

• Aggregates and filler are sufficiently dry-mixed in a batch mixer.

• A polymeric binder is mixed with an initiator, promoter, or hardener at

the required content in a proper vessel for 1 to 3 min, added to the dry
mixed aggregate-filler mixture in the batch mixer, and mixed by the
mixer for 3 to 5 min. Special care should be taken to prevent metering
mistakes for the binder formulations.

• After mixing, the polymer mortar or concrete should be taken out of the
mixer as soon as possible to prevent accumulated heat of the hardening
reaction of the polymeric binder. The mortar or concrete adhering to the
mixer should be cleaned out immediately.

36
2.4.4.1. Mix Proportioning

In principle, the mix design of polymer mortar and concrete is conducted by

arranging aggregate gradation to provide the lowest possible void volume that will
require the minimum polymeric binder contents necessary to coat the aggregates and
to fill the voids, optimizing the properties of the polymer mortar and concrete. The
polymeric binder contents are normally 9 to 25 wt%. The properties of the polymer
mortar and concrete depend on largely the types and properties of the polymeric
binders and the properties of the aggregates. The common procedures for the mix
proportioning of the polymer mortar and concrete are as follows:

• Arrange aggregate gradation to give the lowest possible void volume or

close-packed state by mixing the aggregates with different size distributions
on the basis of continuous or gap grading.

• Mix aggregates that have the lowest possible void volume with a polymeric
binder to make polymer mortar or concrete.

• Check up on the basic properties such as workability, bleeding or segregation,

and strength of the polymer mortar or concrete, and decide the optimum mix
proportions. Regardless of the polymeric binder types, the typical mix
proportions (by weight) of the polymer mortar and concrete widely used are
as follows:

• Binders to fillers to fine aggregates = 1 (0 to 1.5) : (3 to 7) for the polymer

monar; binders to fillers to fine and coarse aggregates mixtures = 1 (1 to 1.5)
: (8 to 8.5) for the polymer concrete.

2.4.5. Placing and Curing

Fresh polymer mortar and concrete are placed and finished in a similar to
conventional cement mortar and concrete. Depending on their applications, the
polymer mortar and concrete are cast into molds or forms, and the polymer mortar is
often troweled as surface coatings or linings.

In the cast-in-place applications of polymer mortar and concrete, it is very important

to do elaborate surface preparation of various substrates as is done with polymer-

37
modified mortar and concrete. The most important point about the surface
preparation is the control of the moisture content of the cement mortar and concrete
substrates. Moisture on the mortar and concrete surfaces should be removed unless
no influence of the moisture on the adhesion of the polymer mortar and concrete is
known. The moisture content of such substrates should commonly be controlled to
less than 8 to 10%. A high-frequency moisture meter is often used to determine the
moisture content. The cement mortar and concrete substrates are naturally dried
under ambient conditions or forcibly dried using gas-fired torches, etc. Furthermore,
suitable primers are usually applied on the dried surfaces by brushes, rollers, or
sprays. It is advisable to apply the coating or lining to thicknesses of about 5 to 10
mm. If a greater thickness is required, the same troweling work is repeated until the
required thickness is achieved. Usually placed or lined surfaces in polymer mortar
and concrete are more difficult to finish by troweling than in conventional cement
mortar and concrete because of wet drag. When forms are required in the placement
of the polymer concrete, conventional wooden or steel forms treated with effective
mold-release agents such as silicone wax, oils or greases, paraffin wax, vegetable
oils, or polyethylene sheets can be employed. The mold-release agents should be
selected corresponding to the type of the polymeric binders. The thickness of the
polymer concrete to be placed once depends on the type of the polymeric binders, the
amount of heat developed during the hardening process, ambient temperature, etc.
The desirable thickness is generally about 5 to 10 cm, and the maximum thickness is
30 cm. The placement at thicknesses exceeding 30 cm may cause defects such as
cracks due to the accumulation of the heat. The polymer concrete should be placed as
speedily as possible and sufficiently consolidated by using suitable vibrators for
conventional cement concrete. Then the placed polymer concrete surfaces are
smoothly finished by use of trowels.

In the cast-in-place applications of the polymer mortar and concrete, prepacked-type

(in which a liquid resin as a polymeric binder is poured into prepacked aggregates)
and prepackaged-type (in which two packages are supplied, and their contents are
mixed in the field) products tend to be widely used. In the precast applications of the
polymer mortar and concrete, various molding processes such as casting, centrifugal
molding, compression molding, and extrusion molding are applicable. Molding
process selection depends on the type of polymeric binders used, the shape, size, and

38
output of products. In general, the casting or centrifugal molding process is applied
to produce large structural members.

Because polymer mortar and concrete generally have an excellent adhesion to

various materials, all the equipment and tools such as mixers, trowels, shovels, and
vibrators should be cleaned immediately after use or at least within their working
life. The cleanup of such equipment and tools can be done by rinsing with a suitable
solvent such as methyl chloride, xylene, or methyl ethyl ketone, or by wiping with a
rag saturated with such a solvent. In particular, the mixers are effectively cleaned by
rinsing with the solvent, followed by operating them with a load of coarse aggregate.

Polymer mortar and concrete can generally be placed in a temperature range of 0 to

50°C. Polymer mortar and concrete using methyl methacrylate-based binders can
exceptionally be placed at temperatures of -20 to -25°C. In the applications of
polymer mortar and concrete, polymerization and curing processes are usually
accomplished through an initiator-promoter system. The polymer mortar and
concrete are subjected to ambient temperature cure, heat cure, or combined ambient
temperature and heat cure. It is most important that the developments of mass
production system s for precast polymer concrete and of automated application
systems for cast-in-place polymer concrete should aim at cost reduction and that a
good balance between economy and performance should be achieved.

2.4.6. Production and Use of Moulds

Finished polymer products are usually produced by casting, which requires the use of
moulds in which the liquid or paste-like polymer concrete slurry is cast and
hardened. In designing the moulds for polymer concrete products, the same aspects
as in other casting processes should be taken into consideration.

2.4.6.1. Mould Section

Moulds should have openings through which the polymer concrete slurry can be
quickly filled. Further, the shape of the mould and the surface properties of the
mould material should ensure rapid flow of the solution within the mould. Only by
fulfilling these conditions is it possible to ensure an economic production regime of
polymer concrete products. Too many narrow inlets in the mould lead to clogging of
the mould inlet and adherence of the polymer concrete to the edges of the mould

39
during continuous operation of the casting machines. This causes not only loss of
material but also much contamination of the production areas. Very narrow mould
sections may disturb the uniform distribution of the polymer concrete mass
throughout the mould and result in poor-quality sections in the finished products.

Single sections of moulds prevent temperature differences during the exothermal

process of hardening and hence differences in thermal and shrinkage stresses which
may lead to the deformation of finished polymer concrete products.

When making moulds, special attention should be paid to complete removal of air
from the mould and polymer concrete mass during the process of filling and during
compaction of the polymer concrete mass. Depending on the shape of the product
and the section of the outlet, it might be useful to provide a few openings in the
moulds for air release as in the case of moulds used for metal casting.

2.4.6.2. Striking (Demoulding)

For efficient production of polymer concrete and also in view of the rapid reactivity
of polymer concrete mass, the process of striking should be automated or (when
working manually) the proportion of manual work reduced to a minimum. The use of
fasteners in the form of spring tension members, clamps or holders is recommended
as their operation is very simple and quick compared with screwed joints. There is no
doubt that the basic requirement is to ensure stable and firm adhesion of the
constituent parts of the mould.

Striking is also simplified and improved by slanting the sides of the mould slightly
inwards. This is particularly important when using monolithic and three-dimensional
moulds into which the polymer concrete mass can be pressed in a hot state during
hardening. The slope of the mould should be not less than 3°. A higher conicity helps
obtain even more effective results.

When the moulds consist of several parts, there is no danger from hot pressing but, in
this case, striking should be carried out in stages.

Whenever possible, the mould should be designed in such a way that striking of the
inner mould can be carried out first followed by the outer mould. Thus, the outer
mould performs an additional function of protecting and strengthening the product
which so far (by the time of striking) has not yet totally hardened. However, the inner

40
mould withstanding free shrinkage has already been removed. At the commencement
of shrinkage, the outer mould is very easily removed since the finished product
comes out spontaneously from the outer mould due to shrinkage.

When producing products without an inner mould, for example, plates, panels, or
other homogeneous massive products, no special problems arise during striking. It is
best to wait for the moment when the product detaches itself from the mould and can
be removed freely. The casting mass in no case should flow from the mould onto the
outer surface. This phenomenon leads to the formation of 'hooks' during striking that
have to be chipped away from the finished product or striking becomes impossible.

2.4.6.3. Compaction and Transport

To ensure the maximum homogeneity and density of the finished product, high-
quality compaction is necessary. However, the effect of even the most productive
compaction units will be restricted if the moulds are not designed for the appropriate
compaction processes or cannot support loads during compaction, it is especially
important to achieve a situation wherein, during vibration compaction, forces acting
on the mould will also act on the polymer concrete mass. This becomes possible only
when the moulds can effectively transmit the vibration forces to the polymer
concrete mass. The moulds should therefore be placed correctly on the vibrator and
fixed if necessary. When using vibration tables for compaction, the mould should
have a smooth bottom surface and, when using vibration pedestals, the mould surface
should be uniform at places which rest on supports.

Insufficient rigidity of mould walls may lead to shake up of the mould during
compaction by vibration and cause leakage of air into the mould and into the
polymer concrete mass. Quite often, this problem arises not when using vibrators but
when using suspended vibration compacting devices. Under compacted masses at the
corners and edges of the mould also lead to the penetration of air into the polymer
concrete mass and to the leakage of the liquid binder. Both these phenomena lead to
edge defects in the finished products and give rise to serious problems during
striking, necessitating additional work at the finished stage.

2.4.6.4. Material for Preparing Moulds

For preparing moulds, extremely diverse materials are used, such as wood, steel,
alloy steel, aluminium, glass-reinforced plastics, synthetic rubber based on

41
silicone, polyethylene, Teflon, etc.

For producing special products, prototypes, or a small number of articles, wood is the
most optimum material for making the moulds. Wood is a very cheap material
compared to metal or plastics but is inferior to them in its durability and hence is less
suitable for large-scale production of polymer concrete products. For producing
decorative finishing plates and panels, splint-slabs are well recommended for making
the moulds (melamine resins are used for coating) since moulds made of these
materials are not damaged in the course of use or during striking. The alternative
materials, for example corrosion-resistant steel or plastics, are not only more
expensive, but also generally very heavy. They should either be relatively thick or
have stiffeners to avoid warping.

The surfaces of the finished polymer concrete products produced represent an

accurate copy of the mould surface. Products with a lustrous surface are produced in
moulds whose surfaces have been polished by an appropriate method. The polishing
of wood is practically impossible while polishing of steel is expensive. Decorative
articles with lustrous polished surfaces are produced in moulds made of plastic
material reinforced with fibreglass which maintains the surface lustre for a long lime
and. when required, can be additionally polished. Such moulds possess an additional
advantage in that they can be copied from any finished product or from a model.
Thus moulds of practically any shape, without joints that would leave a mark on the
finished product, can be produced.

Aluminium moulds are used for producing a large series of polymer concrete articles,
primarily in such cases when the moulds themselves are produced by casting.
Considerable expenses are involved only for making the model. From this model any
number of moulds can be produced later without much expense. The use of
aluminium moulds has yet another advantage, namely, the casting skin is not
completely removed from the mould and supports the action of the separating layer
(lubricant) and facilitates striking. It is well known that the hardening of polymer
concrete is an exothermal process. This fact should invariably be taken into
consideration when preparing the moulds. The greater the wall thickness of the
product, the greater the proportion of binder in the polymer concrete mass and thus
the greater the amount of heat liberated during hardening. The temperature can go up

42
to 50-60°C (which is wholly permissible) and hence the mould should be heat-
resistant.

Defects and some problems arise also when the moulds are made by gluing several
components together in spite of using glues of appropriate thermal resistance.

For commercial production, the most suitable moulds are those produced in such a
way that the polymer concrete products are obtained in a single operation. This
involves a certain amount of complexity and expense in mould preparation but these
are compensated by eliminating the additional processing of moulds as, for example,
for producing products of complicated shapes. However, during the production of
prototypes or a small number of products as, for example, when producing large-
sized members and structures, it may be technically and economically effective if
such structures are produced not in one single operation in the form of monolithic
castings, but are divided into constituent members and made in small or less
expensive moulds and later assembled into the finished structure. The most optimum
technology of joining the constituent members into the finished structure is screwing
or gluing. Holes can be made or if necessary provision for screwing in the threads
can be made in the body of the mould and cast with no special problem.

2.4.6.5. Separating Layer for Mould

Depending on the material used for making the moulds and also the required surface
quality of the products, it is necessary to apply a separating lubricant to prevent the
sticking of the binder to the mould and thus ensure rapid striking. The separating
material is selected after suitable investigations before producing the polymer
concrete product. Many companies producing polymer concrete once underestimated
the importance of the separating layer and only adverse experience compelled them
to recognize in full measure the importance of this material. The presence of cracks
and breakage of bits from the finished articles are not merely the adverse
consequences arising from the absence of separating layers when producing polymer
concrete products, but also result from incorrect selection of this material. An
incorrectly selected separating material (or ineffective separating layer) may break
the mould right in the first attempt at moulding the product.

The separating layer is intended not only to prevent the sticking of the binder to the
mould surface, but also to cover up any possible pores on the surface of the product,

43
cavities in the moulds, slits at the joints, and also to prevent the penetration of the
hinder or the polymer concrete mass into these cavities. The coarser and more porous
the material from which the mould has been made, the greater should be the viscosity
of the separating layer and the thicker the separating material layer applied on the
mould. Thus, moulds made of wood are treated with wax before filling with the
polymer concrete mass; wax also functions as a separating layer. But the surface of
the casting cannot be expected to be lustrous in this case.

A lustrous surface in moulds calls for the use of very thin separating layers. For this
purpose, polishing wax or pastes are used (after applying, they are almost completely
rubbed in): liquid separating materials are also capable of imparting some lustre to
the mould surface. There are also some so-called 'internal separating materials', i.e.,
material is added to the binder itself which prevents its adherence to the mould
surfaces and eliminates having to process the mould surface directly with a
separating material. However, such materials are not well recommended in practice.
A definite separating effect is possible only when an extremely thin layer of the
internal separating material (gel coat, a gel-forming layer) is deposited. Whether such
a separating layer is adequate for ensuring a high-quality article and whether it has a
positive effect on the mould, it is difficult to predict. In any case, there is real danger
of insufficiently effective separation and hence the breakage of finished articles
during striking cannot be eliminated.

Other criteria for selecting the separating material are thermal stability and rapid
drying, for example, by the action of air. The entry of the solvent present in almost
all the separating layers onto the upper layer of the polymer concrete or deep into the
mass should be prevented, as it may cause difficulty during hardening and also visual
defects on the surface of the polymer concrete. Moreover, the separating material
should be firm enough not to be dislodged from the mould surface under the action
of the polymer concrete mass; otherwise it will be practically ineffective during
striking. This danger is particularly imminent when coarse fillers are present.

The desire to develop a universal separating material that could be used for all mould
materials and for all binder systems, functioning effectively and uninterruptedly, is
quite understandable, but such a material is hardly possible. A separating material
which is closest to all these objectives is polyvinyl alcohol, a watery liquid forming a

44
film on the mould surface which acts as a genuine separating layer. The main
advantages of polyvinyl alcohol are: it can be used on almost all the materials from
which moulds are produced; even while applying the material on the mould surface,
the quality of the separating layer can be visually judged since, for example, on
surfaces containing fats it is generally impossible to produce a good and compact
separating layer and the polyvinyl alcohol will actually flow off the mould surface;
the application of a uniform separating layer makes for ease in striking; polyvinyl
alcohol is available in various shades and hence a grade of alcohol matching with the
colour of the mould surface can be selected and, finally, the phenomenon of binders
sticking to the mould can be avoided.

The main difficulty in handling polyvinyl alcohol arises when it is applied in an

excessively thick layer that requires a very long period of drying. Polyvinyl alcohol
contains a significant amount of water and its hardening takes considerable time
(only a hard layer can withstand the action of a polymer concrete mass cast in the
mould). The thicker the layer of polyvinyl alcohol, the longer the period required for
drying. It would be incorrect to assume that because the surface layer of the
polyvinyl alcohol hardens rapidly, the underlying layers too have dried; in fact, the
deeper layers take a relatively longer time for drying. The hardness of the layer can
be felt with the fingers, giving an idea of the state of the surface layer. Therefore, it is
very important to apply polyvinyl alcohol in an extremely thin layer (to the extent
possible) so that it dries well under the action of air and hardens.

Moulds of polyethylene, Teflon, and similar materials can be used entirely

satisfactorily with no separating layer. The use of such materials is limited, however,
because of their high cost.

2.4.6.6. Compaction of Polymer Concrete

When compacting a polymer concrete mass, the very same principles as in other
similar fields, for example, in cement concrete production, are applicable. Polymer
concrete can be compacted by compression, vibration or centrifugal force (as done
when producing products having a circular section, for example, pipes), or also by
centrifuging or compression by rollers. It is important that the viscosity of the
polymer concrete mass matches totally with the selected compacting technology.
Only then are positive results possible.

45
However, in practice, preference is given to vibration compaction since this is a
universal technology well recommended for materials ordinarily used for producing
polymer concrete. The criteria which should invariably be taken into consideration
during vibration compaction of polymer concrete are given below.

In the process of compaction, the following principle is not applicable: 'The longer
the vibrations, the better the compaction of the mass and hence the better the quality
of the finished product.' It is essential to recognize and keep in mind that vibrations
over a prolonged period are fraught with adverse consequences for the end product.
Very heavy and coarse fractions of the filler descend more rapidly than the much
finer and lighter fractions and hence there is danger of stratification throughout the
section and, since the much smaller fractions of the filler have a greater specific
surface, the upper layer of the mass is bound with a greater amount of the resin than
the lower portion consisting of coarse fractions of the filler. The uneven distribution
of the binder throughout the mass makes for uneven shrinkage, which might lead to
warping and bending of the finished product. This danger is particularly high when
producing large-sized products, for example, plates (slabs) or panels.

Compaction may also have an adverse consequence if vibrations are prolonged after
gel formation of the polymer concrete mass has begun, i.e., at the commencement of
the hardening reaction. If in this case, vibration compaction is continued, there is
danger of decompaction of the mass, leading to a heterogeneous polymer concrete
mass.

In polymer concrete production, vibrating motors with pneumatic or electric drives

are used. The advantage of vibrating systems with pneumatic drives is the fairly
simple control of the frequency of vibrations by reducing or increasing the air
supply. The drawbacks of these systems are the extremely insignificant oscillating
forces (amplitudes), high level of noise during operation and the large consumption
of air. Therefore, a large number of consumers are more favourably inclined to use
electric drives, usually without a frequency control system since the latter is
expensive. The consumer generally produces compaction at normal (about 3000 rpm)
or at maximum frequencies (about 6000 rpm). Further, several cases are known in
which the vibration tables, used for compaction, were operated alternately on normal
or high frequencies. Which level of frequency is most optimal is a question to be

46
examined for each individual case.

The vibration force should be adapted in each case to the mass of the casting and the
mould. When using vibration systems with an electric drive, this poses no
complexity and requires only the control of the eccentric discs.

The most popular method of transferring the compacting force to the polymer
concrete mass is to place the mould in the process of filling it with the polymer
concrete on the vibration table in such a way that the force applied acts downward.
Vibration tables are universal; in other words, using vibration tables, the mass can be
compacted in almost any mould. Instead of vibration tables, vibration pedestals or
vibration frames could also be used but the latter should be adjusted more accurately
to the dimensions of the finished moulds. In a continuous production regime, two
moulds are generally placed on the vibration table at the same time, one each at the
beginning of filling and at its completion (i.e., after filling the second mould), and
thus two moulds can be compacted simultaneously.

Instead of vibration tables, suspended vibration systems may also be used. These are
directly connected to the mould with screws or clamps, for example. This method is
well recommended only when producing large-sized products wherein filling the
mould is protracted, when working with one or several moulds, and also when
working with vibration systems with a pneumatic drive that does not involve much
expense, and for producing large numbers of products. The main working conditions
required for the latter is the availability of rigid moulds which do not bend inward.

There is also a third method of compacting the polymer concrete mass in moulds,
i.e., by using manually operated internal vibrators which are inserted directly in the
polymer concrete mass and are withdrawn from the mass in good time just before the
commencement of hardening. This method is suitable mainly for those consumers
who use manual vibrators for other purposes, i.e., these are already available.
Implementation of this method requires an additional power source since these
vibrators are controlled only manually. The use of vibrators is also limited to the
section of the mould inlet. Manual vibrators are also appropriate when used as
ancillary vibrators whenever the main process of compaction is done on a frame,
pedestal or table. Later, sections of the mould in which the polymer concrete mass
requires special compaction, can be compacted using a manual vibrator.

47
The compaction of a polymer concrete mass upward, i.e., with the help of vibrators
placed under the mould, is not recommended. The work of the vibrators in this case
is less effective since they cannot produce sufficiently intense compaction. However,
such methods can be used as ancillary operations, for example, to obtain a smooth
and even surface on the backside of the casting.

Some vital errors that creep in during the compaction of a polymer concrete mass are
given below:

• Vibration tables or frames are not sufficiently rigid and hence the vibration
forces arc non-directional; with insufficiently rigid structures, the vibration
energy does not enter the polymer concrete but is converted into kinetic en-
ergy of the supporting structure of the vibration table or frame; after
prolonged working, this causes fatigue of the material constituting the
support;

• Intense noise is produced if the moulds are not properly secured on the table
(especially when the moulds or the table are made of metal); with the help of
a simple mechanism (pneumatic or hydraulic) controlled by a switch, the
mould can be fixed to the table or to any other support surface; thus not only
the noise level is reduced but the application of force to the polymer concrete
mass can be directed as required and compaction improved;

• Several components subjected to vibration simultaneously also increase noise

and wear; this is relevant when guide rolls on which the moulds are
transported are also involved in vibration; this can easily be corrected by
using vibration pedestals which in the course of vibration are shifted between
the rolls with the help of a pneumatic or hydraulic mechanism; the roller
conveyor can be placed below the vibrating pedestal;

• When using several vibrating motors simultaneously on a single mould or on

frames of a single vibrating system, special attention must be paid to ensure
that the vibrators rotate in the same direction; the different vibrators should
supplement each other as otherwise simple mixing of the polymer concrete
mass will result without compaction.

48
2.5. Properties of Polymer Mortar and Concrete

Polymer mortar and concrete have a microstructure in which the cement hydrate
binders of conventional cement mortar and concrete are completely replaced with
polymeric binders, and therefore, they develop characteristics that are very different
from those of the cement mortar and concrete. The properties of the fresh and
hardened polymer mortar and concrete are affected by factors such as polymeric
binder types, binder formulations and mix proportions, and curing conditions.

2.5.1. Properties of Fresh Mortar and Concrete

2.5.1.1. Workability

In general, polymer mortar and concrete provide a worse workability than

conventional cement mortar and concrete because of the high viscosity of their
polymeric binders. As an exception, the workability of polymethyl methacryIate
(PMMA) or acrylic mortar and concrete using a low-viscosity methyl methacrylate
monomer is similar to that of the cement mortar and concrete. As the working life (or
pot life) of the polymer mortar and concrete is commonly short, their workability is
apt to change in a short time.

2.5.1.2. Working Life and Hardening Time

The working life (or pot life) and hardening time of polymer mortar and concrete at
ambient temperature can be widely controlled by selecting suitable initiators,
promoters, or hardeners, which are added to polymeric binders. Generally, the
polymer mortar and concrete harden rapidly compared to ordinary cement mortar and
concrete. Rapid hardening is one of their great advantages. When forms or molds are
used, they can be removed within about 1 to 3 h after the placement. Accordingly,
molds can be reused easily in factories that manufacture precast products, and labor-
saving placement is possible in field applications.

2.5.1.3. Bleeding and Segregation

Generally, polymer mortar and concrete have a good resistance to bleeding or

segregation because of the high viscosity of polymeric binders. As an exception,
PMMA mortar and concrete, similar to conventional cement mortar and concrete,
have the potential to bleed or segregate because of the low viscosity of their

49
polymeric binders.

2.5.1.4. Setting or Hardening Shrinkage

Like the large drying shrinkage of ordinary cement mortar and concrete, the large
setting or hardening shrinkage of polymer mortar and concrete is a problem to be
considered in their practical applications. Their setting shrinkage reaches about five
to ten times the drying shrinkage of the cement mortar and concrete. The large
setting shrinkage may affect the accuracy of molding or placing, the design of forms
or molds, and the adhesion or bond to reinforcements or substrates. if necessary, the
use of effective shrinkage-reducing agents is recommended, depending on the
polymeric binder type, molding, or placing process and application.

2.5.2. Properties of Hardened Mortar and Concrete

2.5.2.1. Strength

Polymer mortar and concrete develop very early high strength compared to
conventional cement mortar and concrete. Such a high strength development makes
possible the weight reduction of precast products due to their reduced cross-sections.
Table 2.7 gives the physical properties of typical polymer concretes. Since the
polymeric binders have high strength and superior bond or adhesion to the
aggregates, the strength of the polymer mortar and concrete are apt to depend on the
strength of the aggregates. Regardless of the type of the polymeric binders, moisture
contents exceeding 0.5 to 1.0% of the aggregates cause a marked reduction in the
strength of the polymer mortar and concrete. Therefore, special care should be taken
to control the moisture content of the aggregates. Since the polymer mortar and
concrete contain the polymeric binders with poor thermal resistance, the temperature
dependence of their strength is high at temperatures of 50°C or higher, as seen in
Figure 2.2. This trend is remarkable in PMMA or acrylic mortar and concrete using a
thermoplastic resin as a polymeric binder. The maximum temperature limit for the
retention of useful strength properties of the polymer mortar and concrete is
primarily governed by the glass transition point of the polymeric binders, and
ultimately by their thermal degradation. Consequently, irrespective of the type of the
polymeric binders, the maximum temperature limit is found to be approximately
50°C in their structural applications. The polymer mortar and concrete using

50
common polymeric binders are difficult to set or harden below 0°C. As shown in
Figure2.3 however, PMMA mortar and concrete using methyl methacrylate-based
binders with excellent low-temperature curability develop a compressive strength of
about 500 kgf/cm2 within 1 h after placing at -20°C.

Table 2.7 Physical properties of polymer concretes (Chandra, S., Ohama, Y.,
1994).

2.5.2.2. Deformability, Elastic Modulus and Creep

Like conventional cement mortar and concrete, polymer mortar and concrete
generally exhibit a nearly linear stress-strain relationship up to almost maximum
stresses, as shown in Figure 2.2, and show a large temperature dependence of the
relationship. As seen in Table 2.7, the modulus of elasticity of the polymer mortar
and concrete is much the same as or slightly less than that of the cement mortar and
concrete. The creep of the polymer mortar and concrete depends on the type and
content of the polymeric binders, and is considerably temperature-dependent as are
their other properties. However, their creep is about the same as that of the cement
mortar and concrete at room temperature. Figure 2.4 shows the creep behavior of
polyester and epoxy concretes. Except for the polymer mortar and concrete with the
extremely high content of polymeric binders, the thermal expansion coefficient of the
polymer mortar and .concrete is approximately 10x10-6 /°C and almost the same as
that of the cement mortar and concrete. As mentioned above, it appears that the
deformation characteristics of the polymer mortar and concrete are essentially
influenced to some extent by the viscoelastic behavior of the polymeric binders used.

51
Figure 2.2 Effects of test temperature on compression stress-starin curves for
polyester concrete (Chandra, S., Ohama, Y., 1994).

Figure 2.3 Curing period vs. compressive strength and exotherm temperature of
polymethyl methacrylate (Chandra, S., Ohama, Y., 1994).

52
Figure 2.4 Creep of polyester and epoxy concretes (Chandra, S., Ohama, Y.,
1994).

2.5.2.3. Water-tightness, Gas- Tightness, Freeze- Thaw Durability, and Water

Resistance

Most polymer mortar and concrete have an almost completely impermeable

microstructure, and they exhibit excellent resistance to water or moisture absorption,
moisture, and air or gas permeation. Since the polymer mortar and concrete hardly

53
contain water or moisture and water penetration to the inside does not take place,
their freeze-thaw durability is superior, as shown in Table 2.8. The water absorption
of the polymer concrete is indicated in Table 2.7 in general, the polymer mortar and
concrete have good water resistance. It is sometimes feared that polyester mortar and
concrete are not sufficiently water resistant; the concern is potential degradation due
to the hydrolysis of unsaturated polyester resin as a polymeric binder. However, the
water resistance of polymer mortar and concrete is found to be good unless they are
exposed to boiling water.

Table 2.8 Freeze- Thaw Durability of polymer concretes (Chandra, S., Ohama, Y.,
1994)

Freeze- Thaw Durability of Polymer Concretes

Dynamic modulus Flexural

Number cycles of
Type of Weight change
freezing and of elasticity Strength
polymer concrete (%)
thawing
(x104 kgf/cm2) (kgf/cm2)

Epoxy concrete 0 - 28.3 173

100 0.04 28.1 170

300 0.07 25.6 170

Polyester concrete 0 - 33.6 227

100 0.06 33.6 224

200 0.14 33.6 -

300 0.15 33.1 -

400 0.18 32.7 217

Polyurethane concrete 0 - 18.3 193

100 0.09 17.4 184

300 0.18 16.9 179

2.5.2.4. Chemical Resistance

Since polymer mortar and concrete have a watertight or impermeable microstructure

54
without low chemical-resistant ingredients like cement hydrates, they generally have
a high chemical resistance compared to cement mortar and concrete, as indicated in
Table 2.9 Such a high resistance is dependent on the nature and amount of the
polymeric binders, the properties of the aggregates, and the nature of chemicals used.
Their resistance to oxidizing agents is inferior.

Table 2.9 Chemical resistance of polymer concretes (Chandra, S., Ohama, Y.,
1994)
*10 poins for excellence, 1 point for failed

2.5.2.5. Abrasion Resistance, Impact Resistance, and Electrical Insulating

Properties

Most polymer mortar and concrete exhibit good abrasion resistance, impact
resistance, and electrical insulating properties compared to conventional cement
mortar and concrete, though such properties are affected by the type and properties
of the polymeric binders used.

2.5.2.6. Incombustibility and Fire Resistance

Polymer mortar and concrete containing combustible polymeric binders generally

provide poor incombustibility and fire resistance, depending on the type and amount
of the polymeric binders. For the purpose of improving such essential disadvantages,
the necessary content of the polymeric binders is controlled to a minimum by
volume, and effective flame retardants are added to them.

2.5.2.7 Weatherability, Weather Resistance

In general, polymer mortar and concrete are found to have poor weatherability or
weather resistance like polymer-modified mortar and concrete, since they contain
polymeric binders, which seem to give a poorer weatherability than inorganic

55
materials such as cement mortar and concrete. However, this is not necessarily true.
Figure 2.5 demonstrates the weatherability of polymer mortar and concrete through
eight years of outdoor exposure. The compressive strength of most polymer mortars
and polyester concrete under outdoor exposure conditions tends to become nearly
constant at one year or more. From these test results, it seems reasonable to discount
the general view that their weatherability may be limited because of the poor
weatherability of their polymeric binders. Consequently, most polymer mortar and
concrete are considered to have service lives of 20 years or longer under moderate
outdoor exposure conditions.

Figure 2.5 Weatherability of polymer mortars and polyester concretes (Chandra, S.,
Ohama, Y., 1994)

2.5.2.8. Heat and Fire Resistance

The polymer binders of PC products are organic substances, which are known to
have much lower heat resistance than inorganic materials such as stone, cement and
metals. Thus, prolonged exposure to elevated temperatures is not recommended, as it
causes degradation of the resin and eventual loss of strength. The heat resistance of
PC products depends on the type of polymer binder. For polyester and epoxy PC, the
safe working temperature limit is about 60°C for continuous exposure.

Behaviour under fire is very important in applications in which PC materials are used
as facing elements or for interior decoration. PC materials do not burn easily because
they have high mineral filler content. Their behaviour under fire can be further
improved at relatively small cost by incorporating fire-retardant additives.

56
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

3.1. Selection of the Resin

Thermosetting Polyester resin is selected as a result of being more economical and

widely available. The principal advantage of polyester resins is the ease in which
they may be fabricated, a consequence of polymerization via a free radical reaction.
Such reactions are rapid and easily controllable, thus production cost is relatively
low.

The data sheet of the polyester used in the experimental work “Şişecam CE 92 N8” is
given in Appendix A-1.

3.1.1. Properties of Unsaturated Polyester (UP)

UP Resins are most commonly used as composite materials. These polymers are
made up of at least two separate components; reinforced fibre and embedding
matrix. Other additives may be used to improve properties or characteristics.
Carbon, aramide or most commonly glass fibres may be used yielding FRP (Fibre
Reinforced Plastic) or specifically GRP (Glass Reinforced Plastics) in the case of
glass. Materials basically bridge the gap between conventional, commodity plastics
and specialist engineering plastics. Production takes place by introducing
reinforcement while the resin is in an uncured, liquid state.

The unsaturated polyester resins used in thermosetting alkyd and polyester molding
compounds are made by the reaction of polyols with dibasic organic acids.
Unsaturated acids (maleic anhydride or fumaric acid) and saturated acids (phthalic
anhydride, isophthalic acid, adipic acid) are both used. Commonly used polyols
include propylene glycol, ethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, and neopentyl glycol.
Thus, a wide range of polymers can be made by this reaction. The most important
cross-linking monomer is styrene. Monomers other than styrene used in unsaturated
polyesters include methyl methacrylate (enhanced weather resistance), butyl
methacrylate (enhanced weather resistance), vinyl toluene (less volatility), diallyl

57
phthalate (very low volatility, prepregs), diallyl isophthalate (very low volatility,
prepregs), octyl acrylamide (solid monomer, molding compound), trimethylol
propane triacrylate (ultraviolet and electron beam cure), and triallyl cyanurate (high
heat deflection).

Alkyd and polyester molding compounds also include bulk molding compound and
sheet molding compound. The form of the material is dependent on end-use require-
ments and is supplied as free-flowing pellets, extruded logs, continuous rope, or in
bulk form.

Alkyd polyesters have excellent electrical properties and show outstanding retention
of dielectric strength at elevated temperatures. The physical properties can be signif-
icantly varied by the formulation and molding method. Molding compounds have
flexural strength in the range of 55 to 165 MPa (8 to 24 ksi), while tensile strength is
in the range of 35 to 105 MPa (5 to 15 ksi). Impact strength depends on fiber loading
and length in the range of 20 to 37 J/m (0.4 to 0.7 ft . lbf/in.) for granular products.
The Izod impact strength for pelletized polyester can be as high as 55 J/m (1 ft .
lbf/in.). The impact strength of bulk molding compound ranges from 55 to 430 J/m
(1 to 8 ft . lbf/in.).

Alkyd and polyester compounds are molded by compression, transfer, injection, and
runnerless injection/compression molding processes. Molding temperatures depend
on the choice of the catalyst and range from 165 to 180 C° (330 to 360 F°). Without
sufficient heat, the system will not cure; therefore, high heating capability is needed
in the mold.

Alkyd and polyester molding compounds must have a combination of good

electrical, mechanical, and dimensional stability).

Molding techniques include press molding, for example, compression, injection,

pultrusion, and transfer. Contact molding processes include hand lay-up, spray-up,
filament winding, and centrifugal casting.

In compression and injection moldings, sheet molding compound and bulk molding
compound are used. The curing is done at an elevated temperature and at a relatively
high pressure. The metal die processes give rapid curing, which results in high-
volume production. The reinforcer is pulled through an unsaturated resin bath and

58
then through a heated metal die in the pultrusion process. This process can be
adapted for the manufacture of parts with uniform cross sections.

The use of dicyclopentadiene in the polyester backbone improves surfaces and high
temperature performance. Thermoplastic unsaturated polyester and unsaturated
polyester / polyurethane interpenetrating polymer networks are some recent develop-
ments that have led to improved properties.

Unsaturated polyester resins are finding competition from vinyl esters, which are
primarily addition products of methacrylic acid and an epoxy resin, diluted with sty-
rene monomer. Vinyl esters have excellent corrosion resistance, and grades with im-
proved flammability resistance and solvent resistance are available.

UP Resins can be made very flame retardant and chemically resistant they also give
excellent weatherability. Dimensional stability and rigidity is very good. Moreover,
they can be easily reinforced with fibres of various types as part of the moulding
stage rather than having to use pre-blended reinforcing agents.

These materials lend themselves to low volume applications with simple tooling, by
use of hand lay-up methods of fabrication, or for mass production using injection
moulding.

3.2. Selection of the Curing Agent

Unsaturated polyester resins are very versatile materials. At room temperature, the
liquid resins are stable for months or even years but can be triggered to cure by a
peroxide catalyst.

Figure 3.1 Chemical composition of MEKP (Unsaturated Polyester Promoters

Web Site)

In unsaturated polyester resin manufacture, the molten polyester is thinned by the

cross linking monomer and inhibitor after a condensation reaction to a suitable end-
point. This is followed by blending with suitable additives. Unsaturated polyesters
can be cross-linked at room or elevated temperatures. For room-temperature curing, a

59
combination of peroxide and promoter is used; the most common system is a cobalt
naphthenate promoter and methyl ethyl ketone peroxide. Cumene hydroperoxide, t-
butyl perbenzoate, and t-butyl peroctoate are some of the catalysts used at elevated
temperatures. Unsaturated polyesters are used with reinforcers, most notably, glass
fiber, but are also used without reinforcers.

Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide (MEKP) named as Luperox K10 is selected and the
chemical structure of MEKP is given in Figure3.1. In addition, properties of MEKP
are summarized in Appendix A-2.

Figure 3.2 Cure performance measurement system (Unsaturated Polyester

Promoters Web Site)
Luperox K10
Selected

Figure 3.3 Exotherm curves of various ketone peroxides (Unsaturated Polyester

Promoters Web Site)

60
Figure 3.4 Gel and cure time of various ketone peroxides (Unsaturated Polyester
Promoters Web Site)

3.3. Selection of the Filler

In order to perform the mechanical tests in variety of different fillers and

mixing ratios (filler-resin ratio) three different filler is defined:

• Used die sand

• Unused die sand

• BaSO4

While die sand is more economical, BaSO4 has the ability to reach higher density
values. Chemical composition of the both used and unused die sands are given in
Figure 3.5.

61
 Unused Die Sand

Used Die Sand

Figure 3.5 Chemical Composition of the die sand

3.4. Selection of the Mould

St 35 is used as the mould material; opening through the diagonal, which makes
getting the specimen out of the mould easier shown in Figure 3.6. Cube model with
50x50x50 dimesions is selected as a result of being an appropriate geometric model
of the upper counter-weight.

62
 Cover

Right half of the mould

Left half of the mould

Test specimen
With dimensions Centering holes
50x50x50 (mm)

Figure 3.6 Mould layout

3.5. Selection of the Working Area

Working area is made narrower after preparing samples of the whole mixing volume
ratios rating as 0:100, 10:90, 20:80, 30:70, 40:60, 50:50, 60:40, 70:30, 80:20, 90:10,
100:0.

3.6. Determination of Physical and Mechanical Properties

3.6.1. Density Measurement Tests:

Theoretical Density of each mixture is calculated given below

Density = (Total volume) / (Total mass) [1]

A, B are the percentages of the filler and the resin in the total mass of the mixture

63
Total volume = A / d1 + B / d2 [2]

Total mass = A + B = 100 [3]

A / B = Mixing Ratio [4]

Activators, named Cobalt Naphthenate and Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide are
neglected according to their consumption ratios. Theoretical density calculations of
the different mixing ratio are given in Appendix B.

Besides, experimental density values are measured and given in Appendix C.

Polyester filled with BaSO4 has the greatest density values, which brings the
advantage of volume reduction in the component. On the other hand, polyester filled
with used die sand has the lowest values.

According to the voids in the specimen, experimental density values are less than the
theoretically calculated values.

3.6.2. Compression Tests:

Specimens are prepared in the dimensions 15x15x30 mm and compressed in the test
unit shown in Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7 Compression test unit

64
Compression test specimen geometry and size for cement is explained as a cylinder
with 6 mm diameter and 12 mm height by ISO 5833 testing standard. As it is
mentioned above in mould selection section, cube model with 50x50x50 dimesions is
selected as a result of being an appropriate geometric model of the upper counter-
weight. As a consequence of the problems occured according to the capasity of the
compression test unit, dimensions of the specimen is decreased. In Appendix D,
mixing values for all components includue are given by weight for all test specimens.

Figure 3.8 Compression test results

Force and displacement values of compression test specimens shown in Appendix E-

1, and graphed in Appendix E-2.

Standart deviation in each sub-group and for overall values are calculated discussed
by One Way Anova Analysis in Minitab programme (Figure 3.9) and the results are
plotted by Box Plot (Figure 3.10).

65
One-way ANOVA: 20P_80EK; 25P_75EK; 30P_70EK; 20P_80YK; 25P_75YK; 30P_70YK;
...

Source DF SS MS F P
Factor 8 17613 2202 18,44 0,000
Error 28 3343 119
Total 36 20956

S = 10,93 R-Sq = 84,05% R-Sq(adj) = 79,49%

Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on

Pooled StDev
Level N Mean StDev --------+---------+---------+---------+-
20P_80EK 3 18,31 4,96 (---*---)
25P_75EK 4 60,56 13,27 (---*---)
30P_70EK 5 61,20 12,93 (--*---)
20P_80YK 6 58,66 6,70 (--*--)
25P_75YK 5 60,35 5,29 (--*--)
30P_70YK 4 82,00 3,18 (--*---)
20P_80Ba 3 70,45 4,80 (---*----)
25P_75Ba 3 94,56 24,95 (----*---)
30P_70Ba 4 106,80 12,11 (---*--)
--------+---------+---------+---------+-
30 60 90 120

Pooled StDev = 10,93

Figure 3.9 One way anova analysis

EK; 25P_75EK; 30P_70EK; 20P_80YK; 25P_75YK; 30P_70YK; 20P_80Ba; 25P

120

100

80
Data

60

40

20

0
20P_80EK 25P_75EK 30P_70EK 20P_80YK 25P_75YK 30P_70YK 20P_80Ba 25P_75Ba 30P_70Ba

Figure 3.10 Box plot analysis

66
Reliability of the compression test results are also. The test results have the power of
90%.

Alpha = 0,05

Assumed standard deviation = 10,98

Number of Levels = 9

Table 3.1. Confidence level of compression test results

Sample Size Power SS Means Maximum Difference

37 0,80 49,6710 9,9670

37 0,85 55,4500 10,5309

37 0,90 63,0988 11,2338

67
4. CONCLUSION

In this study, physical and mechanical properties of the possible polyester and
promoting agents and three different types of filler mixture were investigated.

Better results were obtained with the formulations consisting of both 25% resin and
75% filler. Among these formulations the best performance was observed in the
formulation containing 25% Polyester and 75% BaSO4. This formulation was
recorded to give outstanding results in both in density measurements and
compression tests. Density test results may be explained by the higher density of
BaSO4 comparing with both used and unused die sand.

Results of the mechanical tests showed that the compression properties of the
formulations improve according to the polyester content. Moreover, compression test
results of BaSO4 may be explained by the powerful cross-links between the BaSO4
and Polyester.

Therefore, after the evaluation of mechanical tests and density measurement results,
the formulation 25% Polyester and 75% BaSO4 seemed to be promising to be used in
a composite counter-weight design.

68
REFERENCES

Blaga, A., Beaudoin, J. J., 1985. Polymer Modified Concrete, Journal of Canadian
Building Digest. Retrieved on 24.12.2006 from Web Site:
http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml
Chandra, S., Ohama, Y., 1994. Polymer Mortar and Concrete, Polymers in
Concrete, 94-102
Curing Performance Measurement. Retrieved on 18.03.2006 from Web Site:
http://www.specialchem4polymers.com/tc/Organic-Peroxides-Curing-
Agents/index
Chandra, S., Ohama, Y., 1994. Properties of Polymer Mortar and Concrete,
Polymers in Concrete, 135-143

DeBoest, J.F., 1988. Termoset Resins, in Engineered Materials Handbook, Volume

2: Engineering Plastics, pp. 626-631, Eds. Epel J.N., Margolis J.M.,
Newman S., Seymour R.B., ASM International,
Doğu, E., 1993. Polimer Katkılı Çimento Betonları, MsS Thesis, Istanbul Technical
University, İstanbul.

Mikhailov, K.V., Paturoev, V.V., 1992. Genaral information and classification of

polymer concretes, Polymer Concretes and Their Structural Uses, 1-12

Mikhailov, K.V., Paturoev, V.V., 1992. Technology of producing polymer concrete

products, Polymer Concretes and Their Structural Uses, 146-154
Ortoftalik Polyester Genel Amaçlı CTP Uygulamaları. Retrieved on 09.03.2006 from
Web Site: http://www.camelyaf.com.tr/turkce /ce92n8.php

Saylan, S., 2000. Polimer Betonun Yapısı ve Kullanım Alanları, Journal of

Mühendis ve Makina, 40, 36-40
Unsaturated Polyester Promoters. Retrieved on 09.03.2006 from Web Site:
http://www.omgi.com/buprod/metal_organics/products/unsaturated_polyester
_promoters/default.asp

69
APPENDIX A-1

Figure A-1.1 Datasheet of the Polyester resin CE 92 N8 (Ortoftalik Polyester

Genel Amaçlı CTP Uygulamaları, Şişecam Web Site)

70
Figure A-1.1 Datasheet of the Polyester resin CE 92 N8 (Ortoftalik Polyester
Genel Amaçlı CTP Uygulamaları, Şişecam Web Site)

71
APPENDIX A-2

Table A-2.1 Properties of MEKP (Unsaturated Polyester Promoters Web Site)

Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP)

Hand Lay-up
Spray-up
Medium activity MEKP a standard Resin Tranfer moulding
general purpose hardener for a wide Vacuum moulding
variety of ambient temperature Centrifugal casting
Luperox application. Low hydrogen peroxide Filament winding
Phthalate 9.2
K1 content makes K1 ideal for use in gel Panels & sheets
coats Casting
Luperox K1 is the Luperox Varnishes
recommended for gel coats. Gel coats
Concrete & marble
Putties

Hand Lay-up
High activity MEKP - gives fast gel Spray-up
Luperox
and cure time for a wide variety of Phthalate 9.9 Centrifugal casting
K10
ortho and isophtalic resin sytems. Panels & sheets
Varnishes

Ultra high activity MEKP -

extremely short gel time.
Luperox Varnishes
Recommended for button sheets, Phthalate 9.9
K18 Buttons
continuous sheet production and
varnishes.

1. Low activity MEKP which gives

long gel time in a wide variety of
Hand Lay-up
ortho-and isophthalic resin systems.
Centrifugal casting
Particularly suitable during the warm
Luperox Filament winding
season and for very large moulded Phthalate 8.5
K12 Casting
pieces.
Vinyl ester & bisphenol
2. High activity MEKP for use in a
resins
wide variety of vinyl ester resins to
get no foaming effect.

72
 APPENDIX B

Table B.1 Theoretical Density Values

Density(gr/cm3) Material
2,66 Unused Die Sand
2,2 Polyester

Components Unused Die Sand-Polyester Mixing Ratios

Polyester 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 25 20 10 0
Unused Die Sand 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 75 80 90 100
73

45,45 40,91 36,36 31,82 27,27 22,73 18,18 13,64 11,36 9,09 4,55 0,00
0,00 3,76 7,52 11,28 15,04 18,80 22,56 26,32 28,20 30,08 33,83 37,59

Total volume 45,45 44,67 43,88 43,10 42,31 41,52 40,74 39,95 39,56 39,17 38,38 37,59
Total mass 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00

Densitiy 2,20 2,24 2,28 2,32 2,36 2,41 2,45 2,50 2,53 2,55 2,61 2,66

73
 APPENDIX B

Table B.1 Theoretical Density Values (Continuing)

Density(gr/cm3) Material

4,5 BaSO4

2,2 Polyester

Components BaSO4-Polyester Mixing Ratios

74

Polyester 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 25 20 10 0
BaSO4 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 75 80 90 100

45,45 40,91 36,36 31,82 27,27 22,73 18,18 13,64 11,36 9,09 4,55 0,00
0,00 2,22 4,44 6,67 8,89 11,11 13,33 15,56 16,67 17,78 20,00 22,22

Total volume 45,45 43,13 40,81 38,48 36,16 33,84 31,52 29,19 28,03 26,87 24,55 22,22
Total mass 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00

Densitiy 2,20 2,32 2,45 2,60 2,77 2,96 3,17 3,43 3,57 3,72 4,07 4,50

74
 APPENDIX B

Table B.1 Theoretical Density Values (Continuing)

Density (gr/cm3) Material

2,63 Used Die Sand

2,2 Polyester

Components Used Die Sand-Polyester Mixing Ratios

75

Polyester 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 25 20 10 0
Used Die sand 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 75 80 90 100

45,45 40,91 36,36 31,82 27,27 22,73 18,18 13,64 11,36 9,09 4,55 0,00
0,00 3,80 7,60 11,41 15,21 19,01 22,81 26,62 28,52 30,42 34,22 38,02

Total volume 45,45 44,71 43,97 43,23 42,48 41,74 41,00 40,25 39,88 39,51 38,77 38,02
Total mass 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00

Densitiy 2,20 2,24 2,27 2,31 2,35 2,40 2,44 2,48 2,51 2,53 2,58 2,63

75
APPENDIX C

Table C.1 Experimental Density Values of the Specimens

Experimental
%20 Polyester+%80 Used Die
Theoretical Density (g/cm3) Density
Sand
(g/cm3)

Specimen: 1 2,23

Specimen: 2 2,53 2,21

Specimen: 3 2,30

Experimental
%20 Polyester+%80 Unused
Theoretical Density (g/cm3) Density
Die Sand
(g/cm3)

Specimen: 1 2,04

Specimen: 2 2,55 2,05

Specimen: 3 2,08

Experimental
%20 Polyester+%80 BaSO4 Theoretical Density (g/cm3) Density
(g/cm3)

Specimen: 1 2,77

Specimen: 2 2,76
3,72

Specimen: 3 2,83

76
Table C.1 Experimental Density Values of the Specimens (Continuing)

%25 Polyester+%75 Used Die Theoretical Density Experimental Density

Sand (g/cm3) (g/cm3)

Specimen: 1 1,89

Specimen: 2 1,95

Specimen: 3 2,51 1,99

%25 Polyester+%75 Unused Die Theoretical Density Experimental Density

Sand (g/cm3) (g/cm3)

Specimen: 1 1,99

Specimen: 2 1,96

Specimen: 3 2,53 1,93

Theoretical Density Experimental Density

%25 Polyester+%75 BaSO4 (g/cm3) (g/cm3)

Specimen: 1 2,65

Specimen: 2 2,70

Specimen: 3 3,57 2,57

77
Table C.1 Experimental Density Values of the Specimens (Continuing)

%30 Polyester+%70 Used Die Theoretical Density Experimental Density

Sand (g/cm3) (g/cm3)

Specimen: 1 1,78

Specimen: 2 2,48 1,79

Specimen: 3 1,81

%30 Polyester+%70 Unused Theoretical Density Experimental Density

Die Sand (g/cm3) (g/cm3)

Specimen: 1 1,89

Specimen: 2 2,5 1,88

Specimen: 3 1,90

Theoretical Density Experimental Density

%30 Polyester+%70 BaSO4
(g/cm3) (g/cm3)

Specimen: 1 2,38

Specimen: 2 3,43 2,28

Specimen: 3 2,40

78
APPENDIX D
Table D.1 Preparation of Compression Test Samples

Preparation of Test Specimen

%25+%75

%25 Weight of the components (g)

Polyester+%75 Methyl Ethyl Ketone Used Die
Used Die Sand Polyester Cobalt Naphthenate Peroxide Sand

Theoretical
values (g) 75 0,187 1,5 225

Specimen: 1 75,07 0,18 1,5 225,07

Specimen: 2 75,23 0,19 1,52 225,02

Specimen: 3 74,99 0,18 1,54 225,07

Repeat of

Specimen: 3 75,09 0,21 1,5 225,04

%25 Weight of the components (g)

Polyester+%75
Unused Die Methyl Ethyl Ketone Unused

Sand Polyester Cobalt Naphthenate Peroxide Die Sand

Theoretical

values (g) 75 0,187 1,5 225

Specimen: 1 74,99 0,19 1,52 224,92

Specimen: 2 75,04 0,19 1,51 225,03

Specimen: 3 75,01 0,185 1,51 225,05

%25 Weight of the components (g)

Polyester+%75 Methyl Ethyl Ketone

BaSO4 Polyester Cobalt Naphthenate Peroxide BaSO4

Theoretical
values (g) 100 0,25 2 300

Specimen: 1 100,08 0,25 2,07 300,01

Specimen: 2 99,9 0,24 2 300,07

Specimen: 3 100,02 0,25 2 300,01

79
Table D.1 Preparation of Compression Test Samples (Continuing)

%20+%80

%20 Weight of the components (g)

Polyester+%80
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
Used Die Sand Polyester Cobalt Naphthenate Used Die Sand
Peroxide

Theoretical
60 0,15 1,2 240
values (g)

Specimen: 1 59,98 0,15 1,22 240,02

Specimen: 2 60,01 0,14 1,21 240,02

Specimen: 3 60,06 0,15 1,19 240,01

Repeat of
60,03 0,16 1,23 240,59
Specimen: 3

%20 Weight of the components (g)

Polyester+%80
Methyl Ethyl Ketone Unused Die
Unused Die Polyester Cobalt Naphthenate
Peroxide Sand
Sand

Theoretical
60 0,15 1,2 240
values (g)

Specimen: 1 60,07 0,14 1,22 240,09

Specimen: 2 59,9 0,16 1,19 240,03

Specimen: 3 60,01 0,16 1,19 240,05

%20 Weight of the components (g)

Polyester+%80 Methyl Ethyl Ketone
Polyester Cobalt Naphthenate BaSO4
BaSO4 Peroxide

Theoretical
80 0,2 1,6 320
values (g)

Specimen: 1 80,01 0,19 1,6 320,05

Specimen: 2 79,77 0,21 1,59 319,86

Specimen: 3 80,01 0,22 1,64 320,08

80
Table D.1 Preparation of Compression Test Samples (Continuing)

%30+%70

%30 Weight of the components (g)

Polyester+%70 Methyl Ethyl Ketone

Polyester Cobalt Naphthenate Used Die Sand
Used Die Sand Peroxide

Theoretical
90 0,225 1,8 210
values (g)

Specimen: 1 89,97 0,22 1,82 209,9

Specimen: 2 89,95 0,22 1,79 210,07

Repeat of
89,99 0,24 1,79 209,8
Specimen: 2

Specimen: 3 90,15 0,23 1,8 210,05

%30 Weight of the components (g)

Polyester+%70
Methyl Ethyl Ketone Unused Die
Unused Die Polyester Cobalt Naphthenate
Peroxide Sand
Sand

Theoretical
90 0,225 1,8 210
values (g)

Specimen: 1 89,97 0,22 1,79 209,94

Specimen: 2 90,02 0,23 1,81 210,03

Specimen: 3 90,02 0,23 1,8 210,01

%30 Weight of the components (g)

Polyester+%70 Methyl Ethyl Ketone

Polyester Cobalt Naphthenate BaSO4
BaSO4 Peroxide

Theoretical
120 0,3 2,4 280
values (g)

Specimen: 1 119,93 0,34 2,4 279,46

Specimen: 2 119,97 0,29 2,39 280,09

Specimen: 3 119,92 0,29 2,4 280

81
APPENDIX E-1

Table E-1.1 Compression Strenghts of Specimens

20% Polyester 80% Used Sand 25% Polyester 75% Used Sand 30% Polyester 70% Used Sand

21,17 71,69 64,09

21,18 72,39 57,84

12,59 48,44 40,93

49,73 68,13

74,99

20% Polyester 80% Unused 25% Polyester 75% Unused 30%Polyester 70% Unused
Sand Sand Sand

55,4 52,06 77,5

52,69 61,92 83,16

58,62 58,52 84,92

66,58 63,97 82,43

51,77 65,28

66,92

20% Polyester 80% BaSO4 25% Polyester 75% BaSO4 30% Polyester 70% BaSO4

65,85 122,08 122,33

70,09 73,43 94,19

75,42 88,18 101,13

109,54

82
APPENDIX E-2 Compression Test Graphs

Figure E-2.1 Event 1: 20% Polyester 80% Used Sand

Figure E-2.2 Event 2: 20% Polyester 80% Used Sand

83
Figure E-2.3 Event 3: 20% Polyester 80% Used Sand

Figure E-2.4 Event 4: 25% Polyester 75% Used Sand

84
Figure E-2.5 Event 5: 25% Polyester 75% Used Sand

Figure E-2.6 Event 6: 25% Polyester 75% Used Sand

85
Figure E-2.7 Event 7: 25% Polyester 75% Used Sand

Figure E-2.8 Event 8: 30% Polyester 70% Used Sand

86
 Figure E-2.9 Event 9: 30% Polyester 70% Used Sand

Figure E-2.10 Event 10: 30% Polyester 70% Used Sand

87
Figure E-2.11 Event 11: 30% Polyester 70% Used Sand

Figure E-2.12 Event 12: 30% Polyester 70% Used Sand

88
Figure E-2.13 Event 13: 20% Polyester 80% Unused Sand

Figure E-2.14 Event 14: 20% Polyester 80% Unused Sand

89
Figure E-2.15 Event 15: 20% Polyester 80% Unused Sand

Figure E-2.16 Event 16: 20% Polyester 80% Unused Sand

90
Figure E-2.17 Event 17: 20% Polyester 80% Unused Sand

Figure E-2.18 Event 18: 20% Polyester 80% Unused Sand

91
Figure E-2.19 Event 19: 25% Polyester 75% Unused Sand

Figure E-2.20 Event 20: 25% Polyester 75% Unused Sand

92
Figure E-2.21 Event 21: 25% Polyester 75% Unused Sand

Figure E-2.22 Event 22: 25% Polyester 75% Unused Sand

93
Figure E-2.23 Event 23: 25% Polyester 75% Unused Sand

Figure E-2.24 Event 24: 30%Polyester 70% Unused Sand

94
Figure E-2.25 Event 25: 30%Polyester 70% Unused Sand

Figure E-2.26 Event 26: 30%Polyester 70% Unused Sand

95
Figure E-2.27 Event 27: 30%Polyester 70% Unused Sand

Figure E-2.28 Event 28: 20% Polyester 80% BaSO4

96
Figure E-2.29 Event 29: 20% Polyester 80% BaSO4

Figure E-2.30 Event 30: 20% Polyester 80% BaSO4

97
Figure E-2.31 Event 31: 25% Polyester 75% BaSO4

Figure E-2.32 Event 32: 25% Polyester 75% BaSO4

98
Figure E-2.33 Event 33: 25% Polyester 75% BaSO4

Figure E-2.34 Event 34: 30% Polyester 70% BaSO4

99
Figure E-2.35 Event 35: 30% Polyester 70% BaSO4

Figure E-2.36 Event 36: 30% Polyester 70% BaSO4

100
Figure E-2.37 Event 37: 30% Polyester 70% BaSO4

101
BIOGRAPHY

Didem Tüysüz was born in Ankara in 1982. She was graduated from Kabataş High
School in 2000. She admitted to Istanbul Technical University, Mechanical
Engineering Department and graduated as a mechanical engineer in 2004.

She was registered as M.Sc. Student to Design and Manufacturing Programme of the
Institute of Science and Technology of Istanbul Technical University in 2004.

She started to work in ARCELIK Washing Machine Production Plant as production

engineer in 2004.

She maintained her thesis in ARCELİK Research and Technology Development

Center, Material Technologies Department.

102