Laboratory Manual

B.Tech, 1st Year, 1st Semester

EPHY105L
Department of Physics

Table of Contents

1. Verification of Biot-Savart law………………………………….………………….2

2. To draw the equipotential lines of given electrodes…………………….………….6
3. To study the principle of superposition of magnetic field using Helmholtz
coil…………………………………………………………………………………....8
4. To study the hysteresis loop for a given ferromagnetic material on a CRO using a
solenoid and calculate coercivity, retentivity and saturation magnetization of the given
material …..………………………………………………………………………....11
5. Study of Hall effect ………………...…………….…………………………………17
6. Determination of the refractive index of glass with the help of a prism……....….... 22
7. Determination of the wavelength of light with the help of a diffraction grating
……………………………………………………………………………..…… 27
8. Determination of the wavelength of He-Ne laser from single and double slit
experiments ……………………………………………………………....……..…. 30
9. Determination of the wavelength of light using Newton's rings …………....…...… 36
10. Determination of the specific rotation of sugar molecules using polarimeter
…………………………………………………………………………………….... 42
Appendix 1: Description of the Spectrometer and the Procedure for its Adjustment
…………………………………………………………………………………………. 46

1
 Experiment 1
Objective: Verification of Biot-Savart law

Apparatus: Tangent Galvanometer, Current carrying coil measurement unit, Magnetometer,

Patch cords, Main cord, Storage cell, Ammeter, Commutator

Theory: When a current carrying coil is placed with its vertical plane in the magnetic
meridian the direction of the magnetic field, B produced along the axis of the coil is
perpendicular to the magnetic meridian. Hence on placing a deflection magnetometer at any
point on the axial line of the coil, the field B due to the current and the horizontal component
of the earth magnetic field (𝐵𝐸 = 3.5 ∗ 10−5 T) act in perpendicular directions on the
magnetic needle of the magnetometer and deflects it through an angle 𝜃 with respect to the
axis (See Fig. 1).

𝑩𝒙

𝑩𝟎
Coil
Compass Needle
Figure 1: Deflection of Magnetic Needle

The magnetic field at any point along the axis is given by,
𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼𝑎2
𝐵= 3 T (1)
2(𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )2
Here, a= radius of the coil (m)
n= number of turns in the coil
I= current passing through the coil (A)
x= distance of the point (magnetometer) from the center of the coil along its axis (m)
The tangent law of magnetism compares the strength of two magnetic fields that are
perpendicular to each other. If a compass is subjected to a magnetic field 𝐵 that is
perpendicular to the horizontal magnetic field of the earth 𝐵𝐸 , it will rest at an angle 𝜃 to the
earth’s magnetic field. The relationship between the two magnetic fields is:
𝐵 = 𝐵𝐸 tan 𝜃 (2)

2
Apparatus Figure:

Figure 2: Typical setup (Figure taken from Amrita University Virtual Lab)

Procedure:
1. Place the tangent galvanometer on the table such that the arm of magnetometer lies
roughly in east-west direction.
2. Place the magnetometer at the center of the coil in such a manner that magnetic
needle lies at the center of the vertical coil in same direction.
3. Place the eye a little above the coil and rotate the Tangent Galvanometer in the
horizontal plane till the coil, the needle and its image in the mirror of magnetometer
all lie in the same vertical plane.
4. In this manner the coil will be set roughly in the magnetic meridian.
5. Now rotate the Magnetometer so that the pointer reads the position of 0-0 (see Fig. 3).

Figure 3: 0-0 Position of the needle (Figure taken from Amrita University Virtual Lab)
6. Now take the current carrying coil measurement unit and place it near the instrument.
7. Connect C and 5 (corresponds to no. of turns) terminals of the coil to the 6 and 7
terminals of the board with same polarity.
8. Connect the DC power supply between the points 2 and 3 with same polarity.

3
 9. Connect DC Ammeter between the points 10 and 11 with same polarity.
10. Now short the terminals 4 and 5, 8 and 9, 12 and 13, 1 and 14 respectively.
11. Connect the mains cord switch on the power supply.
12. Select reversing key in one direction and switch on the DC power supply.
13. Now note down the deflection of the needle of magnetometer.
14. Set the deflection of magnetometer pointer between 60∘ and 70∘ by adjusting the
variable resistance.
15. Now change the direction of current by reversing key and note down the deflection
again. If the both deflections are nearly equal that means the coil is in magnetic
meridian.
16. If the mean deflection of both cases is not nearly equal, then slightly turn tangent
galvanometer till the deflection for the direct and reverse current become nearly
equal.
17. Now slide the magnetometer along the axis of the coil and find the position where the
maximum deflection is obtained. In this position the center of the needle coincides the
center of the vertical coil.
18. Note the position of the arms against the reference point A.
19. Now note the value of the current shown by the ammeter.
20. Keeping the current constant, shift the magnetometer by 1 cm in any one side of the
coil and note down the deflections 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 in the observation table. 1 and 2 are the
deflections of the two ends of the pointer of the magnetometer.
21. Now reverse the current and note the deflection of pointer for both ends and say they
are 𝜃3 and 𝜃4 .
22. Take the number of observations by shifting the magnetometer by 1 cm at a time for
both forward and reverse current.
23. Similarly repeat steps 20, 21, and 22 by shifting the magnetometer in the opposite
direction of the coil keeping the constant current.
24. Repeat all steps for another number of turns of the coil (50, 100, 200 and 500) and
note down in the observation table given below.

Observation Table:
No. of turns (n)=……………… Current (I)=…………….A
Sl. Distanc Left Side Mea 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 Right Side Mea 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽
No e (x) Direct Reverse n𝜽 Direct Reverse n𝜽
. Curren d Curren d
t Current t Current
𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟑 𝜽𝟒 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟑 𝜽𝟒
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

4
25. Verify Biot-Savart Law by comparing the results obtained from Eq. (1) and Eq. (2)
for at least 2 points on each side of the.
26. Now make a 𝑥 𝑉𝑠 tan 𝜃 graph where 𝑥 is along X axis and tan 𝜃 is along Y-axis. It
will be similar to the graph shown in the figure below.

27. Find out the maximum height of the curve (PO). The radius of the coil will be 𝑎 =
𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
.
2×𝑃𝑂×𝐵𝐸
28. Calculate the % error in radius of the coil comparing the value obtained from 26 and
measuring the radius by scale.

5
 Experiment 2
Objective: To draw the equipotential lines of given electrodes

Theory: If an electrically charged object is brought close to another electrically charged object, both
feel a force. The physical force field that surrounds an electrically charged particle is called electric
field. The electric field created by one charge exerts a force on other charges. The electric field is
defined as the electric force per unit charge. The potential at a point in the electric field is defined as
the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to the given point. An equipotential line
is a curve in 2D on which the electric potential is same everywhere. The displacement of a charge
over such a curve would require no work. Since any two points on the curve have the same potential,
there is zero potential difference along the curve. The electric field has no tangential component along
the equipotential curve, and it is always perpendicular to the curve. The electric field is a vector field
and follows superposition principle, i.e., if there are multiple electric charges placed close by, then the
electric field at a point will be vector sum of the electric fields of each of the charges. If we consider
two-point charges separated by some distance, then we can find a series of points on which the
potentials are same. When these points are joined, forms an equipotential curve for the dipole
geometry. In three dimensions, the equipotential curves form the equipotential surfaces. For a point
charge, the equipotential surfaces are concentric spheres and for a uniform electric field they are
planes normal to the direction of the electric field.

In this experiment to plot the equipotential lines, a tray half-filled with an electrolyte is used as an
electrolytic tank. Metallic electrodes of desired shapes are kept in the tank. A potential difference is
maintained between the electrodes, which causes a distribution of potential in the electrolyte. By
measuring the potentials (using a digital multimeter) at different points, one can identify the coordinates
of equipotential points and plot the equipotential lines on the graph sheet. By taking a combination of
electrodes of desired shapes, one can plot the equipotential curves for various geometries.

Apparatus: Power source, Sets of metallic electrodes, Multimeter, Tray and H2O

Experimental Setup:

Procedure:
1. Fix the graph paper with tape below the tray with marked side facing the bottom of
the tray. Keep another graph paper at the side on which you will mark the
equipotential points.
2. Cover the tray with 1-2cm of the tap water.
3. Keep the electrodes E1 and E2 in the tray along the longer side of the tray. There
should be some distance in between the electrodes.
4. Connect the electrodes with the power supply.

6
5. Switch on the multimeter to measure the voltage.
6. Dip the multimeter probe (red) at any point of the tray. The multimeter will show
some reading. Now you should start from one end of the tray and follow the path
along which the multimeter reading for the voltage would remain same.
7. To mark the equipotential points, start from one point. Note the point on the graph
paper which is attached below the tray. Mark the same point on the other graph paper.
Move the probe a little bit and find another point with same voltage reading. Note and
mark the point on the graph paper. Keep doing this process for a single voltage value
to note several points. Connect all these points. This will give you a single
equipotential line.
8. Repeat the process for another value of voltage moving away from E1 and getting
near to E2. Thus you will get different equipotential lines on the graph paper.
9. Obtain the equipotential lines for electrodes with other geometric shapes.

Correct only for isolated charges and not if

Equipotential lines for plate electrode. the two charges are kept close by

7
 Experiment 3
Objective: To study the principle of superposition of magnetic field and importance of Helmholtz
coil.

Apparatus: Helmholtz coil setup, Constant current source and digital gaussmeter setup

Theory:
A Helmholtz coil consists of two identical current carrying circular coils placed symmetrically along a
common axis in such a way that separation between them is equal to the radius of these coils. When
the flow of current is same (magnitude and direction) in both the coils, a nearly uniform magnetic
field is produced in a small region between two coils. Helmholtz coils are often used in scientific
instruments to cancel external magnetic field, such as Earth magnetic field.

The magnetic field at a distance x on the axis of a current carrying circular coil is given as
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎2
𝐵(𝑥) = 3 T,
2(𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 )2
where I is the current flowing through the coil, N is the number of turns in the coil, 𝑎 is the radius of
the coil, and 𝜇0 is permeability of free space, which is equal to 4π × 10−7 H/m.

The magnetic field on the axis of two identical current carrying circular coils (carrying current along
the same direction) separated by a distance h is given by
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎2 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎2
𝐵(𝑥) = 3 + 3.
2 2 2 2
ℎ ℎ
2 [𝑎2 + (𝑥 − 2) ] 2 [𝑎2 + (𝑥 + 2) ]

In the Helmholtz coil setup, the separation between the two coils is equal to the radius of coils (ℎ =
𝑎), therefore the magnetic field variation along the axis of the coils is

𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎2 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎2
𝐵(𝑥) = 3+ 3 .
𝑎 2 2 𝑎 2 2
2 [𝑎2 + (𝑥 − 2) ] 2 [𝑎2 + (𝑥 + 2) ]

The magnetic field at the midpoint between two coils (i.e., x = 0) is

3
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎2 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎2 4 2 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵(𝑥) = 3 + 3 =( ) .
5 𝑎
𝑎2 2 𝑎2 2
2 [𝑎2 + 4] 2 [𝑎2 + 4]

8
 Figure: Helmholtz coil and magnetic field variation

Laboratory setup specifications:

Radius of the coils: 112 mm
Number of turns on each coil: 500
Length of the sensor rod: 265mm

Procedure:
1. Connect the Sensor cable (3-pin) to the sensor socket and Coil Cable (4-pin) to the
coils socket.
2. Switch on the main’s power.
3. Turn the current adjusting knob anti-clockwise to minimum position; so that the
current is reduced to zero
4. Keep the sensor position to the extreme left of the coil and adjust the zero of the
Gaussmeter with ‘ZERO ADJ.’ knob.
5. Put the ‘COIL’ knob to Position 1 so that the COIL 1 is connected to current source.
Adjust the current in the range of 300-500 mA.
6. Note down the magnetic field from extreme left to extreme right position of the
Gaussmeter along the axis of the coils in the interval of 3-5 mm.
7. Put the ‘COIL’ knob to Position 2 so that the COIL 2 is connected to current source.
Adjust the current in the range of 300-500 mA.
8. Note down the magnetic field from extreme left to extreme right position of the
Gaussmeter along the axis of the coils in the interval of 3-5 mm.
9. Fix the position of the COIL 2 so that the separation between COIL 1 and COIL 2 is
equal to the radius of the coils (h = a = 112 mm)
10. Put the ‘COIL’ knob to Position 3 so that both COIL 1 and COIL 2 are connected to
current source. Adjust the current in the range of 300-500 mA.
11. Note down the magnetic field from extreme left to extreme right position of the
Gaussmeter along the axis of the coils in the interval of 3-5 mm.
12. Repeat steps 9-11 by changing the distance between COIL 1 and COIL 2 (say h =
0.75a and h = 1.25 a)

Plot graph between magnetic field and distance along the axis of the coil.

9
Observation Table:

Sensor position = Sensor stand position – length of the sensor rod (265 mm)

Coil 1:

S. No. Sensor Sensor Magnetic field of

stand Position Coil 1 (Gauss)
Position (mm)
(mm)
1
2
3
4
5
.
.
.

Coil 2:

S. No. Sensor Sensor Magnetic field of

stand Position Coil 2 (Gauss)
Position (mm)
(mm)
1
2
3
4
5
.
.
.

Coils 1 and 2:

S. No. Sensor Sensor Magnetic field Magnetic Magnetic

stand Position (Gauss) field (Gauss) field (Gauss)
Position (mm) (h =0.75a) (h = a) (h =1.25a)
(mm)
1
2
3
4
5
.
.
.

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 Experiment 4
Objective: To study the hysteresis loop for a given ferromagnetic material on a CRO using
a solenoid and calculate coercivity, retentivity and saturation magnetization of the given
material.

Theory:

Ferromagnetism: Iron, nickel, cobalt and some of the rare earths (gadolinium, dysprosium)
exhibit a unique magnetic behavior which is called ferromagnetism. Ferromagnetic materials
exhibit a long-range ordering phenomenon at the atomic level which causes the atomic
magnetic moments to line up parallel with each other in a region called a domain. Within the
domain, the magnetization is intense, but in a bulk sample the material will usually be
demagnetized because of random orientation of domains with respect to one another. A small
externally imposed magnetic field, say from a solenoid, can cause the magnetic domains to line
up with each other. All ferromagnets have a critical temperature called the Curie temperature
beyond which the ferromagnetic property disappears because of thermal agitation and the
material behaves as a paramagnetic material.

Magnetic Hysteresis Loop:

Figure 1: Typical hysteresis loop of a ferromagnetic material

The Magnetic Hysteresis loop depicts a graphical representation of the variation of the
magnetization “M” with magnetic field strength “H” for a complete cycle of magnetization of
an unmagnetized core (see figure 1). For an unmagnetized core, when H is zero, the value of
M is also zero which is shown as point “O” in figure 1. With an increase in field strength H,
the magnetization M will also increase from point “O” to a saturation point shown as ‘a’. From
this point onwards when the field H reduces, the magnetization M also reduces but the curve
does not retrace its path but follows a different path “ab” as shown in figure 1. It is noticeable
that the magnetization of the material is not zero even after reducing the applied field to zero,
this is called residual magnetism or remanence or retentivity. In figure 1, ‘Ob” depicts the
retentivity. To reduce the magnetization to zero we need to reverse the direction of the applied
field. The magnetic field required to null the retentivity is called the coercivity or coercive
force. ‘Oc’ in figure 1 depicts coercivity. Further increase in applied field in reverse direction

11
causes the material to be magnetized in the opposite direction and reaches negative saturation
point ‘d’ on the M-H curve shown in figure 1. If the applied field is increased from negative to
positive direction, the curve follows the path along the point d, e and f. The path of a-b-c-d-e-
f-a is called the magnetic hysteresis loop.

A precise knowledge of various magnetic parameters of ferromagnetic substances and the

ability to determine them accurately are important aspects of magnetic studies. The
characteristics which are usually used to define the quality of the substance are coercivity,
retentivity, saturation magnetization and hysteresis loss. Furthermore, the understanding of the
behavior of these substances and improvement in their quality demand that the number of
magnetic phases present in a system is also known. The information about the properties can
be obtained from a magnetization hysteresis loop which can be traced by a number of methods
in addition to the slow and laborious ballistic galvanometer method. Among the typical
representatives of AC hysteresis loop tracers some require the ring form of samples, while
others can be used with thin films, wires or even rock and mineral samples. Toroidal or ring
form samples are more convenient because of the absence of demagnetizing effect due to
closed magnetic circuits but are not practicable to make all test samples in toroidal form with
no free ends. Further every time the pickup and magnetizing coils have to be wound on them
and hence are quite inconvenient and time consuming. In the case of open circuit samples, the
free end polarities give rise to demagnetizing field which reduces the local field acting in the
specimen and makes the surrounding field non-uniform. Therefore, it becomes necessary to
account for this effect lest the hysteresis loop is sheared. In case of conducting ferromagnetism,
several additional problems arise due to eddy currents originating from the periodic changes in
applied magnetic field. These currents give rise to a magnetic field in the sample which
counteracts the variation of the external field and, in turn, renders the field acting in it non-
uniform and different from the applied field, both in magnitude and phase. Thus, apart from
resistive heating of the samples, because of the eddy currents the forward and backward paths
traced near saturation will be different, which will lead to a small loop instead of a horizontal
line as shown in figure 2.

The intercept of the magnetization axis, which corresponds to retentivity, and saturation will
continue to increase with applied field. Accordingly, retentivity (Mr) and saturation (Ms) will
be asymptotic values of the M-intercept and tip height respectively. Furthermore, the width of
the loop along the direction of the applied field will depend on its magnitude and will continue
to increase because shielding due to eddy currents is proportional to the external field.
Therefore, the true value of coercivity (Hc) corresponding to no eddy currents situation, will
be obtained by extrapolating the half loop width against field line to the H=0 axis. Obviously,
the effect of eddy currents will be more pronounced in thicker samples than in thin ones.

12
 (b) Scaling factors
(a)

Figure 2: (a) Hysteresis loop showing the quantities to be measured. (b) Picture showing the
hysteresis loop as displayed on the CRO screen. The scaling factors corresponding to X and
Y axes are displayed on the small digital screen of CRO. One has to multiply the
corresponding scaling factors to the values measured along X and Y axes from the main
screen of the CRO.

Equipment required: CRO, Ferromagnetic Sample, Solenoid, Hysteresis Loop Tracer

Procedure:
Before we conduct the experiment, we need to perform calibration of the instrument. This is to
relate the measurements carried out in the cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) with the values of
magnetic fields, how much magnetic field is associated with a measured value of width in the
CRO.
For the calibration, follow the following steps:
1. Connect the Mains cord to the instrument (Hysteresis Loop Tracer) on the back side.
2. Before switching on the instrument, connect the din connector cable of the sample
holder to the input of the Hysteresis loop tracer.
3. Connect the solenoid socket of the hysteresis loop tracer using three pin connector
cable.
4. Connect Y and E terminals of the loop tracer to the Y and E terminals of the CRO using
a BNC connector.
5. Similarly connect the X and E terminals of the loop tracer to the X and E terminals of
the CRO using a BNC connector.
6. Keep the CRO in the X-Y mode of operation.
7. After completing the above operations, switch on the Hysteresis loop tracer and the
CRO.
8. The calibration process needs to be completed without inserting the sample in the
sample holder of the loop tracer.
9. First set the demagnetization knob in the loop tracer to zero value and the Area Ratio
to 1.0.

13
 10. Set the magnetic field Ha to ~ around 200 Gauss and measure the corresponding signal
value appearing along the X-axis of the CRO. Remember to multiply the scaling factor
corresponding to X axis (see figure 2(b) for guidance). Let us indicate this quantity by
𝑉𝑥 Volts.
11. Now disconnect the X-terminal of the loop tracer and connect it to the Y-terminal of
the CRO and measure the signal value appearing along the Y axis of the CRO. Multiply
the scaling factor corresponding to Y axis (see figure 2(b) for guidance). Let us indicate
this quantity by 𝑉𝑦 Volts.
12. We now calculate the calibration factors Gx and Gy from the following formulas:
𝐻𝑎
𝐺𝑥 = Gauss/V
𝑉𝑥
𝐻𝑎
𝐺𝑦 = Gauss/V
𝑉𝑦
13. The above procedure completes the calibration process.

Measurement with the sample

14. Connect Y and E terminals of the loop tracer to the Y and E terminals of the CRO using
a BNC connector. Similarly connect the X and E terminals of the loop tracer to the X
and E terminals of the CRO using a BNC connector
15. First set the Area ratio to 0.4 and demagnetization factor to 0.1 in the loop tracer.
16. Insert the given ferromagnetic sample into the sample holder.
17. The CRO will now display the hysteresis loop. You may adjust the X and Y knobs on
the CRO to get an enlarged complete hysteresis loop in the CRO.
18. The value of magnetic field (Ha) in Gauss will be displayed in the DPM on the loop
tracer.
19. For a given magnetic field, measure the loop width (2ex) of the hysteresis loop along
the X-direction, loop height (2eyh), and tip to tip height (2eyt) along the Y-axis of the
hysteresis loop. Refer Figure 2 for guidance.
20. Vary the magnetic field (Ha) and for each value of the magnetic field measure the
corresponding values of ex, eyh and eyt, respectively.

Observation Table:

S. No. Mag. Field (Ha) Loop width; Loop height; Tip to tip height;
(rms)(Gauss) 2𝑒𝑥 (V) 2𝑒𝑦ℎ (V) 2𝑒𝑦𝑡 (V)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

14
Calculation:

(i) Coercivity:

1
𝐻𝐶 = 20.39 𝐺𝑥 𝑒𝑥 Gauss; 𝑒𝑥 = × 𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
2
To find loop width ( 2𝑒𝑥 ) corresponding to the coercivity of the sample, plot a graph between
observed loop width (Y-axis) vs applied magnetic field (X-axis). The intercept of straight line-
fit on Y-axis gives loop width corresponds to the coercivity of the sample. Refer figure 3 for
guidance.

(ii) Retentivity:
1
𝑀𝑅 = 173.11 𝐺𝑦 𝑒𝑦ℎ Gauss; 𝑒𝑦ℎ =
× (𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 )
2
Loop height (2eyh) = Height of the hysteresis loop along the Y-axis at the center of the loop,
once saturation is observed.

(iii) Saturation:
1
𝑀𝑆 = 173.11 𝐺𝑦 𝑒𝑦𝑡 Gauss; 𝑒𝑦𝑡 = × 𝑇𝑖𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑖𝑝 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2
Tip to tip height (2eyt): This is the tip-to-tip height along the Y-axis of the hysteresis loop once
the saturation is observed.

Note: Numerical values used in the above equations are instrumental factors that account for:
(i) Area ratio: ratio of the area of pickup coil that measures magnetization with the area
of the sample.
(ii) Demagnetization due to end effects of the magnetized sample.
(iii) Amplification of the signal from pickup coil.

15
 2ex
Loop width (V)

Magnetic Field (Gauss)

Figure 3: Sample plot of Loop width Vs Magnetic field strength

16
 Experiment 5
Aim:
To study Hall effect in extrinsic semiconductor sample and determine the Hall coefficient and
density of majority charge carriers.

Apparatus:
Electromagnet with power supply
Hall probe with semiconductor sample
Constant current supply with ammeter and voltmeter.
Gauss Meter with a probe

Power supply, Gauss meter, and Current supply

for the sample

Stand

Hall probe with sample

Magnetic poles

Electromagnet
Gauss Meter probe

Figure 1. Typical set-up for studying Hall effect

Energy band structure of Semiconductors:

Atom has specific/discrete energy levels/states. When atoms are put in a periodic
arrangement in a solid, the energy levels of outer shell electrons start to overlap each other.
These overlapping states together is known as energy bands.
In case of semiconductor and insulator, at temperature 0K all the energy levels up to a certain
energy band, called valence band (VB), are completely filled with electrons, while next
higher energy band (called conduction band (CB)) remains completely empty. The gap
between bottom of the conduction band and top of the valence band is called fundamental
energy band gap (Eg). It is a forbidden gap, i.e. the energy states in the gap cannot be
occupied by the electrons. In case of metals, valence band is either partially occupied by
electrons or valence band has an overlap with conduction band.

In case of semiconductor, the band gap (0 − 4eV) is such that electrons can move from VB
to CB by absorbing thermal energy. When electron moves from VB to CB it leaves behind

17
a vacant state in VB, called hole, which can be considered as a positively charged particle
(Fig. 2). When electric field is applied, movement of large number of electrons in the VB
can be considered equivalent to the movement of hole in opposite direction. The Eg is a very
important characteristic property of semiconductor which dictates its electrical, optical and
optoelectrical properties.
There are two main types of semiconductor materials: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic
semiconductor does not contain any impurity, while extrinsic semiconductor does. The
process of adding impurities is called doping. Energy levels occupied by the impurity atoms
are discrete and lie in the forbidden gap. The impurities are of two types: acceptor, which
can accept an electron from the semiconductor and donor, which can donate an electron to
the semiconductor. Extrinsic semiconductors with acceptor impurity are known as p-type
semiconductors and they contain a discrete acceptor energy level just above the VB in the
band gap (Fig. 2). Extrinsic semiconductors with donor impurity are known as n-type
semiconductors and they contain a discrete donor energy level just below the CB in the band
gap.

Contributes to conduction
Electron

Hole

Intrinsic
Contributes to conduction
Figure 2: Energy band diagram of a semiconductor

Hall Effect:

Consider a rectangular/cuboid slab of semiconductor [see Fig. 3], to which an electric field is
applied in x-direction so that a current I flows through the sample in x-direction. If w is width
of the sample (dimension along Y-direction) and d is the thickness (dimension along Z-
direction), the current density is given by J=I/wd.

18
Figure 3: Schematic representation of Hall effect measurement with a rectangular
semiconductor sample.

Now a magnetic field B is applied along positive z axis. If the charge carriers are positive (or
negative) and are moving with velocity v along positive (or negative) x-axis then the direction
of Lorentz force experienced by the charge carriers in the presence of the magnetic field is
along negative y direction. This results in accumulation of charge carriers towards bottom edge
(fig. 3). This sets up a transverse electric field Ey in the sample that is perpendicular to both the
direction of initial current and the applied magnetic field. The potential, thus developed along
Y-axis is known as Hall voltage VH and this effect is called Hall effect. Assuming Ey to be
uniform, the Hall voltage is given by VH = Eyw and the hall coefficient RH is defined as:
𝐸𝑦 𝑉𝐻 𝑑
𝑅𝐻 = 𝐽𝐵 = (1)
𝐼𝐵
𝑅𝐻 𝐵𝐼
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑑
(2)

On varying the current I with a fixed B, the Hall voltage VH will change linearly, and the slope
(m) is given by:
m = RHB/d .

RH = md/B (3)

The majority carrier density in the semiconductor (n) is related to the Hall coefficient by the
relation
1
𝑅𝐻 = 𝑞𝑛, (4)
where q is the charge of the carrier (|𝑞| = 1.6 x 10−19 C).

From Equation (4), it is clear that the sign of the majority charge carrier and its density can be
obtained from the sign and value of Hall coefficient RH..

19
Experimental Set-up:

The Hall probe consists of sample mounted on a sunmica sheet with four spring type pressure
contacts. Separate pairs of leads are provided for current and voltage measurements. Note the
direction of current and voltage measurement carefully. Do not let current exceed beyond 10
mA. The Hall Effect Set-up consists of a constant current generator for supplying current to
the sample and a digital milli voltmeter to measure the Hall voltage. The unit has a digital
display used for both current and Hall voltage measurements.

For applying the magnetic field an electromagnet with a constant current supply is provided.
The set-ups are capable of generating magnetic field of up to 4 to 7.5 K Gauss between its pole
pieces. The magnetic field can be measured by a Gauss meter.

Procedure:

1. Switch on the Gaussmeter. It should show 0 magnetic field reading as the electromagnet
current is off and there is no magnetic field. If it shows any reading, adjust the zero-adjustment
knob to make it 0. If it cannot be made 0, then minimize its value and note it down as the zero
error. You should subtract this value from your future readings of magnetic field.

2. Switch on the current supply to the electromagnet, adjust the knob to apply some current,
insert the Gauss meter probe between the pole pieces of the magnet such that it is approximately
halfway between the poles. Adjust its position slightly so that the Gauss meter shows the
maximum value of the magnetic field. If needed further adjust the current supply and set a
suitable value of magnetic field (around 2000 G). Note down this value in the observations as
the magnetic field at the start of the experiment (B1). Note only the maximum value shown by
the Gauss meter while adjusting the position of the Gauss meter probe. This maximum value
must also be repeatable, i.e., you should observe this value multiple times while you adjust
probe position. Do not change the supply current or magnetic field anymore during the
experiment.

3. Switch on the current supply of the Hall Effect set-up. This sends a current through the
semiconductor sample mounted at one end of the Hall probe. Keep the probe far away from
the magnet. Observe the voltmeter in the setup, it shows the voltage developed which is
perpendicular to the current direction as shown in Fig. 3. There will be some voltage even
without any magnetic field. This is due to misalignment of electrical contacts on the sample.
Adjust the current supply in the Hall effect set-up to approximately 1 mA. Turn the knob very
gently. Note down the current. (There will be minor variations in current, which you can
neglect)

4. Observe the voltage in the Hall effect set-up, it will be oscillating between a maximum and
a minimum value. Wait for around 30 s and note down both the maximum and minimum
voltage obtained without any magnetic field.

5. Insert the Hall probe between the poles of the magnet such that the sample lies approximately
halfway between the poles. Again, observe the voltage, wait for around 30 s and note down the
maximum and minimum voltage obtained with magnetic field.

6. Take out the Hall probe and put it away from the magnet. Increase the current supply in the
Hall probe to approximately 2 mA. Note down the value of the current.

20
7. Wait for around 30 s and note down the maximum and minimum voltage obtained without
any magnetic field.

8. Insert the Hall probe between the poles of the magnet, wait for around 30 s and note down
the maximum and minimum voltage obtained with magnetic field.

9. Take out the Hall probe and put it away from the magnet. Repeat the steps 3 to 8 for 6 more
values of current, up to approximately 8 mA.

10. Remove the Hall probe and insert the Gauss meter probe between the magnetic poles.
Repeat the procedure mentioned above in step 2 and note down the value of the magnetic field
as the field at the end of the experiment (B2). Take the mean value (B) = (B1 + B2)/2 and use it
for calculations.

Observations:

Thickness of the sample (d) = …….. mm

Zero error in Gaussmeter = ……. G

Magnetic field (after subtracting the Zero error):

At the start of the experiment (B1) = ................ G
At the end of the experiment (B2) = ................ G
Average value (B) = (B1 + B2)/2 = ................ G

Table I: Calculation of Hall Coefficient

Sl. Current, Voltage without magnetic field (mV) Voltage with magnetic field (mV) Hall voltage Hall Mean RH
No. I (mA) VH = V1−V0 Coefficient in Ω.m/T
Maximum Minimum Average, V0 Maximum Minimum Average, V1
(mV) RH in Ω.m/T
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Calculations and Results:

Calculate Hall Coefficient (RH) for each value of current in the semiconductor sample using
eqn. 1 and note it down in Table I. Finally calculate Mean RH

Plot a VH vs. I graph, with VH on Y axis and I on X axis. Find the slope of the best fit line and
calculate RH from the slope (use eqn. 3). Compare your result of Hall coefficient obtained from
the graph and from Table I.
Calculate the density of the majority charge carriers using eqn. 4 using the 𝑅𝐻 data obtained
from the graph. Keep units in SI system.

21
 Experiment 6

Aim:
Determination of the refractive index, μ of glass for different wavelengths λ with the help of a
prism. To find out the Cauchy’s constant a, b

Apparatus required:
• A white light source (Mercury vapor lamp)
• Prism
• Spectrometer
• Spirit level

Fig. 1: Different parts of the spectrometer used in the laboratory

22
Theory:
A prism is a refracting material bounded by three planes. The prisms we use in the lab are
equilateral prisms whose one face is etched or frosted so that light does not pass through it and
the other two faces are the refracting faces. The line at which two refracting faces meet is called
a refracting edge. Since there are only two refracting faces, there is only one refracting edge.
The angle between these two faces is known as refracting angle or angle of prism (A in Fig. 2).

A ray of light incident on one of the refracting faces gets refracted through the prism and finally
emerges as displayed in the Fig. 2. The angle between the original direction of the incident ray
and the emergent ray is called the angle of deviation d. Angle of deviation depends upon the
angle of incidence i and the wavelength of the light. For a certain angle of incidence, the
deviation will be minimum as schematically explained in Fig. 3. This is called angle of
minimum deviation (min). In this experiment the refractive index is obtained for a variety of
wavelengths by measuring this minimum deviation angle for each wavelength.

Undeviated Ray

Incident ray

Deviated Ray
Fig. 2: Refraction of light through the prism.

min

Fig. 3: Graph of the angle of deviation as a function of angle of incidence.

23
Relation between μ and λ:

It can be established that the prism is at the minimum deviation position when the ray passes
through the prism symmetrically. It means that the angle at which the light emerges is equal to
the angle of incidence such that the ray passes parallel to the base of the prism as shown in Fig.
4. At each face the ray changes its direction by an angle of (θi – θr). Therefore, the total
minimum deviation is
𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2(𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃𝑟 ). (1)

From Fig. 4, it can be shown that the angle MNO is the same as that of the refracting angle of
the prism. Referring to the triangle LMN, one obtains using trigonometry
A= 2θr. (2)
According to Snell’s Law, refractive index μ of the material of the prism = sinθi/sinθr.
Hence using eqn. 1 and 2, we obtain the following expression:
𝐴 + min
𝑆𝑖𝑛( )
𝜇= 2 ). (3)
𝐴
𝑆𝑖𝑛( 2 )

Thus, by measuring δmin for a variety of wavelengths, the variation of μ with wavelength can
be determined.

Fig. 4: Arrangement to determine angle of minimum deviation

𝑏 𝑐
An empirical equation of the form 𝜇 = 𝑎 + 2 + 4 + …. was developed by Cauchy to
𝜆 𝜆
describe the variation of μ with wavelength. Here a, b and c are coefficients that can be
determined for a material by fitting the equation to measured refractive indices at known
wavelength.
Usually, it is sufficient to use a two-term form of the equation:
𝑏
𝜇 = 𝑎 + 𝜆2 (4)

Note: As the variation in refractive index over the whole visible range of light is only of the
order of 3%, δmin varies slowly with wavelength. Great care in making the various
measurements are necessary if reasonable results are to be attained.

24
 X

Y Z

Position I Position II
Fig. 5: Schematic set-up to measure the angle of prism

Procedure:

Do the spectrometer adjustment as described in Appendix 1.

Measurement of angle of prism (A):

(i) Set up the prism and spectrometer as in Fig. 5. Lock the prism table.
(ii) Place the telescope cross-hairs in turn on the image of the slit reflected from surface
XY and then surface XZ.
(iii) At each position record the angular position of the telescope on the vernier scale – the
angle between the two positions of the telescope is 2A, twice the apex angle (A) of the
prism.

Measurement of the angle of minimum deviation, δmin for each wavelength:

(i) The telescope and prism are rotated until the spectrum formed by refraction is found. Further
rotation of the prism while viewing the spectrum through the telescope will result in reaching
the angle of minimum deviation. This is where the spectral lines “turn back" on themselves i.e.
move opposite to their initial direction of travel while the prism is still being rotated in the
same direction. Position the prism and telescope so that the spectral lines are at the angle of
minimum deviation i.e., at the point where the spectral lines “turn back" on themselves.

The light from a mercury lamp is polychromatic, and several colored lines red, yellow, green,
blue, will be seen in the field of view of the telescope. Focus on one color at a time.

(ii) Position the telescope on the highest wavelength spectral line and lock the prism table and
telescope. It is essential that the prism and prism table remain in this position for the remaining
of the experiment.
(iii) Using the telescope fine adjustment screw, position the crosshairs of the telescope
accurately on the spectral line of interest and read the vernier to the nearest minute of arc.
(iv) The above step can be repeated for the other lines in the field of view of the telescope there
should be enough movement in the telescope fine adjustment screw to allow positioning of the
cross-hairs on all of the Hg spectral lines without unlocking the telescope again. If this is not
the case, just unlock the telescope and reposition it such that the crosshairs of the eyepiece are

25
on the spectral line of interest. It is imperative that the prism and prism table remain in their
original fixed position.
(v) Rotate the telescope until the undeviated image (remove the prism) of the slit is in the field
of view. Again, position the crosshairs on the center of the slit image and record the angular
reading of the telescope on the vernier scale.
(vi) The actual value for δmin for each wavelength is the difference between the appropriate
angular reading of the telescope position for minimum deviation and for the undeviated
(straight through) position.

Observations:

Table I: Measurement of angle of prism (A)

[Least count of the spectrometer (l.c.) = .............. in deg.]

Position I Position II 2A = 1 - 2 Prism Angle

CSR VSR Total (1 CSR VSR Total (2 (in deg.) A (in deg.)
in deg.) in deg.)

CSR - Circular scale reading,

VSR - Vernier scale reading.

Table II: Measurement of angle of minimum deviation (δmin)

[Angle of undeviated ray () = . . . . . in deg.]

Sl. Color* Angle of deviated ray min =  1/2

CSR VSR  (in -  (use (in nm) ( nm-2)
deg.) (in deg.) eqn. 3)
1 Violet 404.66
2 Indigo 435.83
3 Blue 491.66
4 Green 546.07
5 Yellow 578.0
6 Orange 615.20
7 Red 690.75

* Take readings for whichever colors are visible.

Results and Calculations:

1. Draw a graph of μ vs 1/λ2.
2. Extract values for the Cauchy constants, a (intercept) and b (slope) from your graph.
Note a is unitless and b has units of nm2.

26
 Experiment 7
Aim of the experiment:
Determination of the wavelengths of light from mercury arc lamp with the help of a diffraction
grating

Apparatus required:
• A white light source (Mercury vapor lamp)
• Diffraction grating
• Spectrometer
• Spirit level

Fig. 1: Picture of the spectrometer with diffraction grating.

Theory:

Diffraction Gratings:

Diffraction grating is an arrangement of large number of equidistant and parallel slits. The
distance between the slits is called the grating constant, or d (see Fig. 2).

Light rays that strike the transparent portion of the grating will pass through the grating at an
angle with respect to their original path. If the deviated rays from adjacent rulings on the grating
are in phase, a bright fringe is produced. This will be true when the adjacent rays differ in path

27
length by an integral number of wavelengths of the light. Thus, for a given wavelength , there
will exist a series of angles at which image would be formed.

According to Fig. 2, the path difference between the incident and diffracted ray is d sin1 (1 is
the angle between incident and diffracted ray) and bright fringe is observed when equation
d sin1 =  is satisfied.
At some larger angle 2, when the path difference is equal to 2, then the equation
d sin2 = 2 is satisfied.

In general, bright fringes are formed at any angle n for which the adjacent rays from adjacent
rulings have a path difference equal to n, where n is an integer called the order number. Thus,
the general case is described by the grating equation
d sinn = n . (1)

The image formed along the original path of the light rays is called zeroth order. For each of
the higher orders (i.e., n  1), there are two images formed symmetrically at different sides of
the zeroth order image.

Light emitted from an elemental gas typically consists of a number of discrete wavelengths
(colors). A grating spectrometer can be used to determine the wavelengths of these colors.

Fig. 2: Geometrical conditions for the diffraction from multiline grating.

Procedure:
Do the spectrometer adjustment as described in Appendix 1.

Adjustment of the grating for normal incidence: The plane transmission grating is mounted
on the prism table. The telescope is released and placed in front of the collimator. The direct
reading is taken after making the vertical cross-wire to coincide with the fixed edge of the
image of the slit, which is illuminated, by a monochromatic source of light. The telescope is
then rotated by an angle 90 (either left or right side) and fixed. The grating table is rotated
until the reflected image of the slit coincides with the vertical cross-wire. This is possible only
when a light emerging out from the collimator is incident at an angle 45 to the normal to the

28
grating. The vernier table is now released and rotated by an angle 45 towards the collimator.
Now light coming out from the collimator will be incident normally on the grating.

Determination of the deviation angle:

(i) Place the mercury lamp in front of the entrance slit of the collimator.
(ii) Rotate the telescope so that it is in line with the collimator axis and view the slit through
the telescope. If required, adjust the slit width while observing it through the telescope.
(iii) Rotate the telescope to the left of the collimator axis and observe the lines in the Mercury
spectrum.
(iv) Align the cross hairs with the visible lines. Read the circular and vernier scales for each
line. (Note that the first set of visible lines belong to the first order spectrum).
(v) Move the telescope to the other side of the collimator axis and align the cross hairs to all
the visible lines in a similar way as above and again note down the readings.

Observation:

Table I: Table for calculating wavelengths

For first order (n = 1)
d = ……

Deviation angle Deviation angle 2 = =

Sl. Color (LHS) (RHS) L - R  dsinθ
No CSR VSR Total CSR VSR Total (R (in (in (in
(L in in deg.) deg.) deg.) nm)
deg.)
1 Violet
2 Indigo
3 Blue
4 Green
5 Yellow
6 Orange
7 Red

Results and Calculations:

1. Use the grating equation to find the wavelength λ for each color and note down in
table I.

29
 Experiment 8
Aim of the experiment:
Determination of the wavelength of He-Ne laser from single and double slit experiments

Apparatus required:
• Monochromatic light source (He-Ne Laser)
• Optical bench
• Single slit
• Double slit
• Projection screen
• Ruler

Figure 1: Optical bench with slit and projection screen holders.

30
 Single slit

Theory:

Figure 2: Single slit diffraction: Schematic and intensity distribution

Diffraction is defined as the bending of waves around the corners of an obstacle or through an
aperture into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle/aperture. Being an
electromagnetic wave, when light falls on a narrow slit, it spreads out and each part of the wave
front becomes a secondary source of wavelets. When we use a monochromatic light source like
a laser, all these wavelets start in phase at the slit. If we place a screen at a distance far away
compared to the slit width, the wave-front spreads out and different wavelets picks up different
phases due to different path lengths that they travel towards the screen. Due to the constructive
and destructive interference of these wavelets alternate bright and dark fringes occur on the
screen.

The condition for the first minimum can be expressed as

𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝜆, (1)

where 𝑎 is slit width, 𝜆 is the wavelength of the light, and 𝜃 is the angular position (see Fig.
2).

If the distance between the slit and screen (L) is very large compared to the slit width (a),
𝑦
sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 ≈
𝐿
𝑎𝑦
⟹𝜆= . (2)
𝐿

Here, y is the linear position of intensity minimum from the center of the screen.

31
Procedure:

1. Turn laser source ON and wait for some time till the laser source becomes intense.

2. Place the screen in front of the optical bench at sufficiently large distance from the slit.

3. Mount the slit on the optical bench such that the light is incident on the slit. Align it properly
so that a well-defined and distinct pattern consisting of alternating maxima and minima is
observed on the screen. You should see an intense central bright spot, surrounded by a series
of off-central bright spots.

4. Note down the slit width, 𝑎 (this will be provided).

5. Measure carefully the distance L between the slit and the screen.

6. Carefully measure the distance between the center of the central bright spot and first dark
spots on both sides of the center and take average of these values as 𝑦.

7. Vary the slit to screen distance (L) by moving the slit and repeat the above measurements
(steps 5 and 6).

Observation:

Slit width (a) = ………... mm

Table I: Calculation of wavelength

Sl. Slit to screen y Wavelength λ Average wavelength λ

no. distance, L (mm) using Eqn. (2) (in nm)
(mm)
1
2
3
4
5

Calculations and Results:

Calculate the wavelength (λ) of the He-Ne laser light using Eqn. (2) and note it down in the
table above. Finally report average λ in units of nm (1 nm = 10−9 m).

32
 Double slit
Theory:

This experiment will demonstrate wave nature of light. For that purpose, two narrow
apertures(slits) are used, and light is allowed to pass through these slits. After passing through
the slits, the light waves will superimpose with each other. The two slits would act as two
coherent sources of light. After superposition, the waves will produce a pattern of alternate
bright and dark regions on the projection screen. Such a pattern is referred to as an interference
pattern and is produced due to the different path lengths traversed by the waves before
superimposing. If we take two simple sinusoidal waves as an example, then the effect of
superposition is given by

𝐸 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) (1)

where E is the physical quantity that is produced or modified by the waves (in case of light this
could be the electric or magnetic field), A is the amplitude of the wave, k is the wave vector
and is related to wavelength λ as k = 2π/λ, ω is the angular frequency, related to frequency ν as
ω = 2πν, x is a position on the axis from slits to the projection screen and t is a given moment
of time. φ is the phase difference between the two waves caused due to the different optical
path lengths traversed by the waves while travelling from the two slits to the screen.

The result of superposition or adding the two waves is

∅ ∅
𝐸 = 2𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 2) (2)

The intensity of light is proportional to E2, square of the electric or magnetic field of the light
wave. At the projection screen (where x is fixed) the time average of intensity is proportional
∅
to 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2. Whenever the phase difference, φ between the waves is an even multiple of π,
∅
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2 = 1 and the intensity reaches a maximum. Such a phenomenon is referred to as
∅
constructive interference. When φ is an odd multiple of π, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2 = 0 and the intensity reaches
a minimum. This is referred to as destructive interference. In sinusoidal waves, a path
difference (s) of λ correspond to a phase difference of 2π. Hence, superposing waves will
produce constructive or destructive interference depending on whether the path difference (s)
is an even or odd multiple of λ/2.

33
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of Young’s double slit experiment. Light emanating from the
two slits travel different path lengths before interfering the screen.

Figure 3 shows the geometry of the paths traversed by waves from the two slits before
superposing on the screen. If the slits are infinitely narrow, then the difference between the
paths BP and AP (for a distant screen) is given by: 𝑠 ≈ 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, where d is the separation
between the two slits. For a distant screen θ is very small and sin θ ≈ tan θ = y/L, where L is
the distance from the slits to the screen, y is the position of the point of interest on the screen
with respect to the screen center. Hence,

𝑦𝑑
𝑠≈ (3)
𝐿

The superposing waves will produce an interference pattern on the screen consisting of
alternate bright and dark regions or fringes. At the center of a bright fringe the path difference
(s) is an even multiple of λ/2 (i.e. 0, λ, 2 λ, 3 λ, ………). At the center of a dark fringe the path
difference (s) is an odd multiple of λ/2 (i.e. λ/2, 3λ/2, 5λ/2, ………). Let us consider two
consequent bright/dark fringes located at positions y1 and y2 on the screen, the path differences
corresponding to the two fringes are s1 and s2, respectively. Then

(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )𝑑
𝑠1 − 𝑠2 = =𝜆
𝐿
𝑤𝑑
𝜆= (4)
𝐿

where w is the fringe width, i.e., separation between consecutive bright or dark fringes on the
screen.

Procedure:

1. Turn laser source ON and wait for some time till the laser source becomes intense and stable.

2. Place the screen in front of the optical bench at sufficiently large distance from the slits.

34
3. Mount the slit on the optical bench such that the light is incident on the slits. Align it properly
so that a well-defined and distinct pattern consisting of alternating maxima and minima is
observed on the screen. You should see an intense central bright spot, surrounded by a series
of off-central bright spots.

4. Measure carefully the distance L between the slits and the screen.

5. Carefully measure the length of 10 fringe widths (w′) on the graph paper, attached to the
screen. One fringe width is the separation between the centers of two consecutive bright (or
dark) fringes. Start with one edge of a bright fringe (either the left or the right edge) and
measure the distance to the corresponding edge of the 11th bright fringe. This gives w′. Then
calculate the fringe width, which is given by w = w′ /10.

6. Vary the slit to screen distance (L) by moving the slit and repeat the above measurements
(steps 4 and 5).

Observation:

Separation between the two slits (d) = ………... mm

Table I: Calculation of wavelength

Sl. Slit to screen Length pf Fringe width Wavelength λ Average

no. distance, L of10 fringe w = w′ /10 using Eqn. (4) wavelength λ
(mm) widths (w′) (in mm) (in nm)
in mm)
1
2
3
4
5

Calculations and Results:

Calculate the wavelength (λ) of the He-Ne laser light using eqn. (4) and note it down in the
table above. Finally report average λ in units of nm (1 nm = 10−9 m).

35
 Experiment 9

Aim of the experiment:

Determination of wavelength of monochromatic light using Newton's rings

Apparatus required:
• A nearly monochromatic source
of light (sodium vapor lamp)
• A plano-convex lens
• Two flat glass plates
• A traveling microscope
• Spherometer

Fig. 1: Newton’s Ring Setup

36
 (c)
Fig. 2: (a) A schematic ray diagram to explain how Newton’s rings are formed. (b) and (c)
Interference pattern produced.

Theory:
Basic working principle of this experiment is schematically presented in Fig. 2(a). A plano-
convex lens is placed with its convex surface on a plane glass plate, so as to enclose a thin film
of air of varying thickness between the lens and the plate. Light from an extended
monochromatic source (sodium vapor lamp, in this case) is converted into a parallel beam by
using a convex lens of short focal length and made to fall on a plane glass plate inclined at an
angle of 45 from the horizontal direction, where it gets reflected onto the plano-convex lens.
Interference takes place between the rays of light reflected from the upper and the lower
surfaces of the wedge-shaped air film, enclosed between the lens and the plane glass plate. As
a result, alternate dark and bright circular interference fringes called Newton’s rings are
produced [see Fig. 2(b) and (c)].

Fig. 3: Interfering rays formed from the upper and lower surfaces of the air-film.

Light rays involved in the formation of Newton’s rings are shown in Fig. 3 which displays a
wedge-shaped air film formed between the convex lens and plane glass plate. The refractive
index of the film is assumed to be given by μ. The incident ray AB is almost normal to the film.
It suffers partial reflection (ray BE) and partial transmission (ray BC) on the convex surface.
The ray BC again suffers partial reflection (ray CF) and partial transmission (not shown in the
figure) on the plane surface at C. The bright rings in Fig. 2(c), are formed due to constructive

37
interference between the reflected light rays BE and CF. The dark rings are caused by
destructive interference between the same light rays BE and CF.

For normal incidence of monochromatic light (AB), the path difference between the reflected
rays (BE and CF) is equal to 2𝜇𝑡, t being the thickness of the air-film. Note that here we ignore
the reflections from the top of the plano-convex lens and the bottom of the plane glass plate,
because these reflections just contribute to overall glare.

𝜆
Following Stoke’s law, a phase shift of π (equivalent to the path difference of 2 ) is introduced
in the beam BCD (Fig. 3), for the reflections at point C, because here the light is traveling from
rarer medium (air) to a denser medium (glass), while no such phase change occurs for the
reflection at point B where the light is traveling from a denser medium to a rarer medium. So
𝜆
the net path difference becomes 2μt + 2, where λ is the wavelength of the light in free space.

Hence, the condition for the bright fringes (constructive interference) is given by,
𝜆
2μt = (2n + 1) 2 , (1)
and for the dark fringes (destructive interference), it is
2μt = nλ . (2)

𝜆
At the center, the path difference between the two interfering beam is 2, satisfying the condition
for dark fringes.

Fig. 4: Geometry used to determine the thickness of the air-film.

Determination of wavelength: In the right-angled triangle OAB of Fig.4, for the n-th fringe
(ring) of radius rn,
𝑂𝐵 2 = 𝑂𝐴2 + 𝐴𝐵 2

or,
𝑅 2 = (𝑅 − 𝑡)2 + 𝑟𝑛2
or,

38
 𝑟𝑛2 = 2𝑅𝑡,
(R is the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens, and we assume that t2 << 2Rt .)
Thus,
𝑟𝑛2
𝑡= , (3)
2𝑅
or,
𝐷2
𝑡 = 8𝑅𝑛 , (4)
where Dn = 2rn is the diameter of the n-th fringe.

We use diameter Dn instead of the radius of the ring, because the measurement of radius will
involve large errors as it is not easy to locate the center of the ring accurately. On the other
hand, measurement of the diameter will be much less error prone. Because dark fringes satisfy
the condition 2μt = nλ, eqn. 4 gives us the following expression for the diameter of dark rings

4𝑛𝑅𝜆
𝐷𝑛2 = , (5)
𝜇

We will measure the diameters of the dark fringes in the experiment. Since, we are using air-
film, 𝜇 = 1. A plot between Dn2 and n will be linear with slope (m) given by
m = 4𝑅𝜆 (6)

The radius of curvature (R) of the plano-convex lens can be determined using a spherometer,
applying the following formula:
𝑙2 ℎ
𝑅 = 6ℎ + 2, (7)
where l is distance between the legs of the spherometer and h is the thickness/height of the lens
from the base plane of the tips of the spherometer legs. h is also called the sagitta.

Procedure:

1. Clean the glass plate, and the plano-convex lens. Put them in position at front of the
sodium lamp as shown in the Fig. 2(a).
2. Level the traveling microscope with its axis vertical and focus the microscope on the
air-film such that alternate dark and bright rings clearly visible.
3. Adjust the horizontal position of the microscope till the point of intersection of the
cross-wires roughly coincides with the center of the ring system.
4. Move the microscope to the left (or the right) with the help of micrometer screw so that
the vertical cross wire lies on the 20th dark ring. Now move the microscope backward,
i.e. to the right (or the left). Note the reading on the micrometer scale once the cross-
wire coincides with the 18th dark ring (i.e. one of the wire is tangential to the 18th ring).
(Please note that you need to move the micrometer always in one direction, so that no
backlash error appear in your reading.)
5. Keep moving the microscope with the help of micrometer screw and go on noting the
readings when the cross wire coincides with the 15th, 12th, 9th, 6th and 3rd dark rings
respectively.
6. Continue moving the microscope so that the cross-wire crosses the central dark spot
and starts coinciding with the diametrically opposite ends of the rings. Note the readings
when cross-wire coincides with the 3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th, 15th, and 18th dark rings.

39
 (Please note that the observations of first few rings from the center are generally not
taken because it is difficult to adjust the cross-wire in the middle of these rings owing
their large width)
7. Remove the Plano-convex lens and put it on a clean surface, such that the convex side
faces up. Take a spherometer and rotate the central screw (which has the circular scale
attached to it) anticlockwise so that a large enough gap is created between the tip of the
legs of the spherometer and the tip of the central screw. Put the tips of the spherometer
legs on a scale and measure the separation between them. Note the three separations
and take average.
8. Put the spherometer on the convex side of the lens. Make sure that the tips of the legs
are in contact with the lens while the central screw is not. Slowly rotate the central
screw in clockwise direction till it makes contact with the lens surface. Insert a strip of
paper between the tip of the screw and the lens. If the paper cannot be inserted between
the two, it means there is no gap and the two are in contact. Note the reading of the
spherometer
9. Put the spherometer on a flat surface (for e.g., a glass plate) and repeat the step 8.

Observations:

Least count of the spherometer = ……..

𝑙 +𝑙 +𝑙
Average distance between the legs of the spherometer (𝑙 = 1 32 3 ) = …………
Least count of the micrometer attached to the eyepiece = ……..

Table I: Radius of curvature of surface of plano-convex lens

Sl. Spherometer reading on Thickness Radius of Mean R
No. Convex surface (x1 in Plane surface (x2 in of the curvature in mm
mm) mm) lens (h) (R) mm
= (x1-x2) (use eqn.
mm 7)

Main Circular Total Main Circular Total

1
2

Table II: Measurement of the diameter of the dark rings

Ring Microscope reading Diameter Dn2
no. Dn = |a-b|
(n)
Left side (a in mm) Right side (b in mm)

Main Circular Total Main Circular Total

18
15
12
9
6
3

40
Calculations and Results:
1. Plot a graph of Dn2 vs. n, with Dn2 on y axis and n on the x axis
2. Find the slope of the best fitted line.
3. Calculate the wavelength λ of light from sodium vapor lamp using eqn. 6.

41
 Experiment 10

Aim of the experiment:

Determination of specific rotation of sugar molecules using polarimeter

Apparatus required:
• Polarimeter
• Polarimeter tube
• Sodium vapor lamp
• Power supply
• Measuring flask
• Beaker
• Sucrose (sugar) powder
• Distilled water

Fig. 1: An image of the polarimeter

42
Theory

Optical activity is an intriguing property of certain molecules. It was found that solution of
sugar and certain other naturally occurring chemicals would rotate a beam of polarized light
passing through the solution. They called it optically active substance. The instrument used to
measure the rotation of polarized light is called Polarimeter and it is shown in Fig. 1.

The polarimeter is made up of two Nicol prisms (the polarizer and analyzer). The polarizer is
fixed, and the analyzer can be rotated. The light waves may be considered to correspond to
waves in the string. The polarizer allows only those light waves which move in a single plane.
This causes the light to become plane polarized. When the analyzer is also placed in a similar
position it allows the light waves coming from the polarizer to pass through it. When it is
rotated through the right angle no waves can pass through the right angle and the field appears
to be dark. If now a glass tube containing an optically active solution is placed between the
polarizer and analyzer the plane of polarization of light will rotate through a certain angle, the
analyzer will have to be rotated by the same angle to establish the original condition.

If a light of wavelength λ passes through a column of solution of length l decimeter (1 decimeter

(dm) =10 cm) which contains an optically active substance having concentration c gm/cc (or c
gm/ml), then the active substance will produce a rotation of the plane of polarization of the
light by an angle θ, given by
𝜃 = 𝑆𝑙𝑐 (1)
Here S is the specific rotation of the substance and is defined as the angle of rotation produced
by a column of solution of one decimeter (dm) in length containing 1 gm of active substance
per cc of solution. Note that S depends on the wavelength of the transmitted light and
temperature of the substance. A plot of θ vs. c will be a straight line with slope = Sl. Using eqn.
1, specific rotation, S of sugar can be written as:
𝜃
𝑆 = 𝑙𝑐, (2)
Note: θ should be in degrees, l in dm and c in gm/cc or g/ml.

Fig. 2: (a) Principle of a polarimeter, (b) Schematic of a polarimeter.

43
Procedure:

1. Take the polarimeter tube and clean well both the sides such that it is free from dust.
Now fill the tube with pure water and see that no air bubble is enclosed in it. Place the
tube in its position inside the polarimeter. Switch on the source of light and look through
the eyepiece.
2. Three sections of different illuminations are observed in the field of view; the two outer
sections may appear bright and the inner section may be dark or vice versa. By rotating
the analyzer eyepiece system, the bright‐dark sections get interchanged to dark‐bright
sections, or vice versa. Just before the interchange, all the three sections appear equally
bright/illuminated. Readings have to be taken at this equal illumination position.
An alternative method to locate this position is to rotate the analyzer eyepiece system
through 3600 and locate the position where all three sections of the field of view have
equal illumination, but the brightness of the field of view is at its minimum.
Note: One must be careful while locating this position.
3. Note down this position of uniform illumination for distilled water. This reading serves
as reference for the measurement of rotation produced by sugar solution. This will
remove the effect of distilled water and the glass plates provided with the Polarimeter
tube.
4. Remove water from the Polarimeter tube.
5. Now take sugar solutions of different concentrations.
6. Fill the tube with the prepared sugar solution of highest strength. Take care that no air
bubble should be formed. If bubble is formed, trap the bubble within the central bulge
by keeping the tube horizontal.
7. Place the tube horizontally inside the Polarimeter.
8. Follow the step 2 to obtain readings corresponding to the sugar solution inside the tube.
9. Remove the solution from Polarimeter tube.
10. Rinse the Polarimeter tube thoroughly with a new sugar solution of different strength.
11. Repeat steps 5-9 to obtain reading for a number of sugar solutions, having different
strengths.

Observations:

Length of the sugar solution (l) = ……… dm

Least Count of the Vernier scale = ………….
Analyzer’s reading with water (θ0) = Circular scale reading (CSR) + Vernier scale reading
(VSR) × Least Count (LC) = …………….

Table I: Measurement of optical rotation with sugar solutions

Strength of Analyzer's Rotations Specific Average S

Sl. solution reading = CSR + θ = θ1 - θ0 0
rotation, S ( .cc/dm.gm)
No (c in gm/cc) VSR × LC degrees (0.cc/dm.gm)
(θ1 degrees)
1

44
 2
3
4
5

Calculations and Results:

1. Calculate S using eqn. 2 and put the values in Table I.
2. Plot a graph of θ vs c. Determine the slope of the best fit line and calculate S using eqn.1
3. Compare the average value of S in Table I with the value obtained from the graph.

45
 Appendix 1
Description of the Spectrometer and the Procedure for its Adjustment

Basic description of a Spectrometer:

The spectrometer is an instrument for studying the optical spectra. Light coming from a source
is usually dispersed into its various constituent wavelengths by a dispersive element (prism)
and then the resulting spectrum is studied. A schematic diagram of prism spectrometer is shown
in Fig.1. It consists of a collimator, a telescope, a circular prism table and a graduated circular
scale along with two verniers. The collimator holds an aperture at one end that limits the light
coming from the source to a narrow rectangular slit. A lens at the other end focuses the image
of the slit onto the face of the prism. The telescope magnifies the light dispersed by the prism
and focuses it onto the eyepiece. The angle between the collimator and telescope are read off
by the circular scale. The detail description of each part of the spectrometer is given below.

(i) Collimator (C): It consists of a horizontal tube with a converging achromatic lens at one
end of the tube and a vertical slit of adjustable width at the other end. The slit can be moved in
or out of the tube by a rack and pinion arrangement and its width can be adjusted by turning
the screw attached to it. When properly focused, the slit lies in the focal plane of the lens. Thus
the collimator provides a parallel beam of light.
(ii) Prism table (P): It is a small circular table and capable of rotation about a vertical axis. It
is provided with three leveling screws. On the surface of the prism table, a set of parallel,
equidistant lines parallel to the line joining two of the leveling screws, is ruled. Also, a series
of concentric circles with the centre of the table as their common centre is ruled on the surface.
A screw attached to the axis of the prism table fixes it with the two verniers and also keep it at
a desired height. These two verniers rotate with the table over a circular scale graduated in
fraction of a degree. The angle of rotation of the prism table can be recorded by these two
verniers. A clamp and a fine adjustment screw are provided for the rotation of the prism table.
It should be noted that a fine adjustment screw functions only after the corresponding fixing
screw is tightened.
(iii) Telescope (T): It is a small astronomical telescope with an achromatic doublet as the
objective and the Ramsden type eye-piece. The eye-piece is fitted with cross-wires and slides
in a tube which carries the cross-wires. The tube carrying the cross wires in turn, slides in
another tube which carries the objective. The distance between the objective and the cross-
wires can be adjusted by a rack and pinion arrangement using the focus knob. It can be rotated
about the vertical axis of the instrument and may be fixed at a given position by means of the
clamp screw and slow motion can be imparted to the telescope by the fine adjustment screw.
(iv) Circular Scale (C.S.): It is graduated in degrees and coaxial with the axis of rotation of
the prism table and the telescope. The circular scale is rigidly attached to the telescope and
turned with it. A separated circular plate mounted coaxially with the circular scale carries two
verniers, 180° apart. When the prism table is clamped to the spindle of this circular plate, the
prism table and the verniers turn together. The whole instrument is supported on a base
provided with three leveling screws. One of these is situated below the collimator.

Adjustment of Spectrometer: The following essential adjustments are to be made step by

step in a spectrometer experiment:

46
(i) Adjusting cross wires and focusing image: Rotate the telescope towards any illuminated
background. On looking through the eye-piece, you will probably find the cross-wires appear
blurred. Move the eye-piece inwards or outwards until the cross-wire appears distinct.
Place the telescope in line with the collimator. Look into the eye-piece without any
accommodation in the eyes. The image of the slit may appear blurred. Make the image very
sharp by turning the focusing knob of the telescope and of the collimator, if necessary. If the
image does not appear vertical, make it vertical by turning the slit in its own plane. Adjust the
width of the slit to get an image of desired intensity.

(ii) Optical leveling of a prism: The leveling of a prism makes the refracting faces of the prism
vertical only when the bottom face of the prism, which is placed on the prism table, is
perpendicular to its three edges. But if the bottom face is not exactly perpendicular to the edges,
which is actually the case, the prism should be leveled by the optical method, as described
below:
(a) Illuminate the slit by mercury light and place the telescope with its axis making an angle of
about 90° with that of the collimator.
(b) Place the prism on the prism table with its vertex coinciding with that of the table and with
one of its faces perpendicular to the line joining two of the leveling screws of the prism table.
(c) Rotate the prism table till the light reflected from this face AB of the prism enters the
telescope. Look through the telescope and bring the image at the centre of the field of the
telescope by turning the two screws equally in the opposite directions.
(d) Next rotate the prism table till the light reflected from the other face AC of the prism enters
the telescope, and bring the image at the centre of the field by turning the third screw of the
prism table.

The following alternate method can also be used to focus Telescope and collimator in a dark
room.
Focusing for Parallel rays by Schuster’s method: This is the best method of focusing the
telescope and the collimator for parallel rays within the space available in the dark room. In
order to focus the telescope parallel light rays are required and this in turn requires a properly
adjusted collimator. For this reason the adjustment of the telescope and the collimator are
usually done together.
Schuster's method is based on the fact that the effect of the prism on the divergence of the beam
is different on opposite sides of this minimum deviation position. As explained in the theory
section, the emergent beam will be less divergent (or more divergent) than the incident beam
as the angle of incidence is increased (or decreased) from the minimum deviation value. This
property of the prism can be used to obtain an accurately collimated beam. The method is
explained below:

(a) Place the prism on the spectrometer table and set the telescope at a particular angle.
(b) Illuminate the slit of the spectrometer with light from a sodium lamp. Rotate the prism table
and observe the images of the slit through the telescope as it passes through the minimum
deviation position.
(d) Lock the telescope at an angle a few degrees greater than this position.
(e) Turn the prism table away from its minimum deviation position so that apex A moves
towards the telescope and a spectral line is brought into the centre of the field of view of the
telescope. Adjust the focus of the telescope until this line image is as sharp as possible.

47
(f) Turn the prism table to the other side of the minimum deviation position until the same
spectral line is again at the centre of the telescopes field of view. Now adjust the focus of the
collimator until a sharp image is once more obtained.
(g) Repeat this process until no further adjustment is required. If the same line image is sharply
focused when viewed on either side of the minimum deviation position then the light beam
through the prism is properly collimated.

48
49