fluids

Article
Viscoelastic Representation of the Operation of Sucker
Rod Pumps
Sheldon Wang 1, * , Lynn Rowlan 2 , Abbey Henderson 1 , Sean T. Aleman 1 , Trent Creacy 1 and Carrie Anne Taylor 2

1 McCoy School of Engineering, Midwestern State University, The Texas Tech University System, 3410 Taft
Blvd., Wichita Falls, TX 76308, USA; [email protected] (A.H.); [email protected] (S.T.A.);
[email protected] (T.C.)
2 Echometer Company, 5001 Ditto Ln, Wichita Falls, TX 76302, USA; [email protected] (L.R.);
[email protected] (C.A.T.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-940-397-4061

Abstract: The issues of leakage with respect to the clearance between the pump plunger outer surface
and the pump barrel inner surface and other operational conditions have been revisited in this paper.
Both Poiseuille flow rate due to the pressure difference and Couette flow rate due to the plunger
motion have been considered. The purpose of this study is to explore the possibility of representing
the entire downhole pump system with a simple viscoelastic model. We have explored both Kelvin
and Maxwell viscoelastic models along with the dynamic behaviors of a mass point attached to the
viscoelastic model. By using the time-dependent polished rod force measured with a dynamometer
as the input to the viscoelastic models, we have obtained the displacement responses, which match
closely with the actual measurements in experiments and operations. Further study and experiments
have been planned and partially implemented in the McCoy School of Engineering at Midwestern




State University, a member of the Texas Tech University System.


Citation: Wang, S.; Rowlan, L.; Keywords: artificial lift; sucker rod pump; leakage; Kelvin; Maxwell; viscoelastic
Henderson, A.; Aleman, S.T.;
Creacy, T.; Taylor, C.A. Viscoelastic
Representation of the Operation of
Sucker Rod Pumps. Fluids 2022, 7, 70. 1. Introduction
https://doi.org/10.3390/
Throughout a typical petroleum reservoir’s productive life, natural lift force due to
fluids7020070
fluid pressure tends to decay and diminish. Therefore, artificial lift methods are commonly
Academic Editor: utilized to transfer the oil and gas from the formation to the surface. The most popular
Antonio Santamaría artificial lift means are the sucker rod pumping system, hydraulic pumping system, electric
Received: 7 January 2022
submersible pumping system, and gas lift system [1,2]. As one of the earliest inventions for
Accepted: 4 February 2022
oil fields in land, the sucker rod pumping system has proved to be one of the most efficient
Published: 8 February 2022
and popular artificial lift systems in the petroleum industry [2–4].
In references [5,6], the largest relaxation times have been estimated and compared
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
based on transient solutions with Bessel functions for cylindrical coordinates and Fourier
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
series for Cartesian coordinates. It is confirmed that the largest relaxation times are still
published maps and institutional affil-
less than a tenth of the typical sampling period used in oil industries with comparable
iations.
physical dimensions. The resulting steady analytical solutions have also been compared
with full-fledged transient computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solutions. The sampling
rate adopted in oil fields normally ranges from 30 to 60 samples per second. Thus, the
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
quasi-static nature of the flow within annulus regions in typical sucker rod pump systems
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. has been confirmed with both analytical and computational studies. The full-fledged
This article is an open access article computational fluid dynamics results have also been documented in references [5,6] with a
distributed under the terms and well-established commercial code ADINA for the annulus region using measured pressure
conditions of the Creative Commons differential and plunger velocity as boundary conditions. These sets of computations have
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// yielded nearly identical flow rates through the annulus region directly matching with the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ analytical formulas for quasi-static Poiseuille and Couette viscous flows respectively as
4.0/). documented in references [5,6]. Finally, the effects of the eccentricity have been established

Fluids 2022, 7, 70. https://doi.org/10.3390/fluids7020070 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/fluids

Fluids 2022, 7, 70 2 of 12

analytically with the perturbation method and have been directly verified with the flow
rates passing through the annulus region with various eccentricities calculated with the
full-fledged computational fluid dynamics. As documented in reference [6], the flow rate is
related to the eccentricity and follows the same quadratic relationship with the eccentricity
as analytically predicted with the perturbation method.
In this paper, we focus more on the production efficiency with respect to the pump
mechanisms, which consists of a moving contact area between the traveling unit (plunger),
a chamber with a so-called traveling valve, and the tube or barrel with a so-called standing
valve [7]. We have substituted the complicated downhole pump unit with a simple vis-
coelastic model such as a Kelvin or Maxwell viscoelastic model and confirmed the similar
relationship between the polished rod load and the displacement measured in experiments
and operations.
Very often a clearance between 3 to 8 mills (one thousandth of an inch) is recommended
to avoid the direct contact (abrasion) between the plunger and the tube and to allow the
unimpeded passage of sands and particles within the oil mixture [8,9]. In practice, it has
been reported that the leakage is related to the clearance, or two times the gap size, defined
as the difference between the inner diameter of the barrel and the outer diameter of the
plunger [10,11]. In the existing literature, it has been established that for viscous fluid to
squeeze through a narrow annulus channel, the required pressure gradient or pressure
drop given a fixed channel length will be proportional to the clearance to the power of
three [7,12,13]. Moreover, analytical approaches were presented in the study of both leakage
and eccentricity effects which have also been confirmed by comparable computational
fluid dynamics and experimental data with similar quasi-static responses [6]. In this paper,
based on the information we have obtained in our study of leakage issues and effects of
the eccentricity [5,6], namely, the viscous force acting on the plunger is proportional to
the pressure drop for the Poiseuille flow and the plunger velocity for the Couette flow.
Moreover, for the Poiseuille flow, volume flow rate or the leakage is proportional to the
pressure drop and for the Couette flow, the volume flow rate is proportional to the plunger
velocity. Thus, in this paper we have attempted to replace the entire downhole sucker rod
pump system with a simple viscoelastic model to mimic sucker rod pump units behavior,
in particular the piston-like motions between the plunger and the barrel.

2. Theory and Experimental Setup

In the sucker rod experimental setup with horizontal configuration established in
McCoy Engineering Hall at Midwestern State University, a member of the Texas Tech
University System, as shown in Figure 1, we used one solenoid valve with four ports and
three positions. The physical and mathematical model is depicted in Figure 2. Chamber A
near the cap end corresponds to the sucker rod pump stationary valve unit, the plunger
with a length L is the exactly same plunger used in industry. Chamber B near the rod end
represents the oil well section above the sucker rod pump, more precisely, the traveling
valve unit. To ensure the air and liquid tightness, we use the same stuffing box to support
the retracting sucker rod physically attached to the plunger as implemented in the oil field.
Moreover, a position measurement system linear variable displacement transducer (LVDT)
is installed at the tip of the sucker rod. Transient pressure within both chambers A and
B will be measured with a sampling rate of 30 samples per second or 30 Hz using the
Echometer pressure measurement system following the confirmation of theoretical and
computational studies in references [5,6] as well as engineering practice in oil fields.
As illustrated in Figure 2, consider the plunger with an outer diameter Di and the
barrel inner diameter Do . Note that the subscript o and i are designated with respect to the
annulus flow region boundaries, namely, the outer region is the barrel inner surface and
the inner region is the plunger outer side. Assume the gap δ denoted as Do − 2
Di
is small in
comparison with Do and Di . In engineering practice, the clearance C is equivalent to 2δ
with ε = 2δ
Di .
 represents the oil well section above the sucker rod pump, more precisely, the traveling
valve unit. To ensure the air and liquid tightness, we use the same stuffing box to support
the retracting sucker rod physically attached to the plunger as implemented in the oil
field. Moreover, a position measurement system linear variable displacement transducer
(LVDT) is installed at the tip of the sucker rod. Transient pressure within both chambers
Fluids 2022, 7, 70 A and B will be measured with a sampling rate of 30 samples per second or 30 Hz using 3 of 12
the Echometer pressure measurement system following the confirmation of theoretical
and computational studies in references [5,6] as well as engineering practice in oil fields.

Fluids 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

Figure1.1.AAtypical
Figure typicalsucker
suckerrod
rodpump
pumpsystem
system and
and its
its experimental
experimental setup at Midwestern State Univer-
Uni-
versity (MSU)
sity (MSU) Texas.
Texas.

Figure 2. Sucker rod experimental validation system model.

Figure 2. Sucker rod experimental validation system model.

The external horizontal forces acting on the plunger are depicted in Figure 2 which
As illustrated in Figure 2, consider the plunger with an outer diameter Di and the
include the viscous force Fp due to the pressure differential and the viscous force Fc due to
barrel inner diameter Do. Note that the subscript o and i are designated with respect to the
the plunger motion as well as the normal forces FA and FB due to the pressure in chambers
annulus flow region boundaries, namely, the outer region is the barrel inner surface and
A and B, respectively. Assume the atmospheric pressure patm and the plunger is moving
the inner region is the plunger outer side. Assume the gap δ denoted as is small in
at this time instant with a velocity V to the left, a positive direction in this case, we have
comparison
viscous forceDFo pand
shearwith Di. In
acting onengineering practice,
plunger to the right the clearance
in the C is equivalent
same direction to 2δ
as the pressure
with ε = .
difference or the Poiseuille flow direction. Furthermore, the pressure in chamber A, the cap
side, denoted as pA
The external , exerts onforces
horizontal the plunger as the
acting on a horizontal
plunger are force:
depicted in Figure 2 which
include the viscous force Fp due to the pressure differential and the viscous force Fc due
to the plunger motion as well as the normal forces πD2
FA = pA Fi A, and FB due to the pressure in cham- (1)
bers A and B, respectively. Assume the atmospheric 4 pressure patm and the plunger is mov-
ing at this time instant with a velocity V to the left, a positive direction in this case, we
which is to the left; whereas the pressure in chamber B, the rod side, denoted as pB , exerts
have viscous shear force Fp acting on plunger to the right in the same direction as the
on the plunger as a horizontal force:
pressure difference or the Poiseuille flow direction. Furthermore, the pressure in chamber
A, the cap side, denoted as pA, exerts on the
D2 −plunger
D2a as a horizontal
D2 force:
FB = pB π i + patm π a (2)
4 πD 4
F =p , (1)
4
which is to the left; whereas the pressure in chamber B, the rod side, denoted as pB, exerts
on the plunger as a horizontal force:
D −D D
Fluids 2022, 7, 70 4 of 12

which is to the right, with the outer diameter of the plunger Di and the rod diameter
Da , ignoring the slight friction around the stuffing box contact area. Since the plunger as
illustrated in Figure 2 at this time instant is moving to the left, the pressure in chamber A
must be higher than the pressure in chamber B. However, in oil fields, the Poiseuille flow
due to pressure difference, as the primary contribution of leakage, is to the left, with the
rod side pressure higher than the cap side pressure, whereas the Couette flow due to the
boundary shear motion, as the secondary contribution of leakage, is to the left, in the same
direction as the plunger velocity V at this time instant.
For Poiseuille flow, following the discussion in our earlier paper on leakage refer-
ences [5,6], we obtain the leading terms of the corresponding flow rate Qp

π(pA − pB )
Qp = Di δ3 , (3)
12µL

where µ is the dynamic viscosity of the hydraulic fluid we use in this setup.
As a consequence, the viscous shear force Fp acting on the plunger surface in the
direction from the chamber A to the chamber B, namely, the direction of the pressure
difference pA −pB , can be calculated as:

δ
Fp = π(pA − pB )Di . (4)
2
For Couette flow, again, following the discussion in our earlier paper on leakage
references [5,6], we obtain the leading terms of the corresponding flow rate Qc:

δ
Qc = πVDi . (5)
2
As a consequence, the viscous shear force Fc acting on the plunger surface in the
direction from the top to the bottom, or opposite to the direction of the plunger motion
defined by the rod or plunger velocity V, can be calculated as:

πLµDi V
Fc = . (6)
δ
Overall, the flow rate Q to the left with a plunger velocity V to the left is calculated
as Q = Qc + Qp , as illustrated in Figure 2, whereas the shear force to the right, opposite
to the plunder velocity V, is calculated as Fv = Fc -Fp , as illustrated in Figure 2. Notice
the proportionality to the velocity V and the sign change for the shear flow. This is due
to the Poiseuille flow direction which is from the chamber A to the chamber B and the
Couette flow direction which is defined by the plunder motion defined by the velocity V.
Assume the hydraulic system has the flow rate Qo of the hydraulic fluid, and with the
assumption of the constant temperature and constant density, the corresponding power Ph
can be established as:
Ph = Qo (pA − pB ). (7)
The following two governing equations are the key to analyzing the experimental
data [12,14]. First of all, we consider the kinematic relationship with regard to the cap end
cavity or control volume. Assume the rod displacement is U(t), the change of the cap end
volume with a fixed cap is then depicted as:

. D2o
Uπ = Qo − Q, (8)
4
.
with V = U.
Fluids 2022, 7, 70 5 of 12

Note that this relationship only holds for the cap end since the stuffing box side or the
rod end is not fully sealed. Secondly, we must observe and monitor the dynamical balance
of the plunger. Assume the total mass of the plunger with the polished rod is M, we have:
.
Fp − Fc + FA − FB = MV. (9)

The combination of Equations (8) and (9) clearly shows a first-order differential equa-
Fluids 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13
tion with respect to the sucker rod velocity V with a negative exponent, which governs
the relaxation time for an exponential decay or growth function as measured in Figure 3.
Moreover, the external forces Fp , FA , and FB are dependent on the pressures as illustrated in
in Equations
Equations (1), (1),
(2), (2),
andand
(4). (4). To reiterate,
To reiterate, Equation
Equation (8) will
(8) will yield
yield a linear
a linear relationship
relationship be-
between
tween the pressure difference p −p and the plunger or sucker rod velocity
the pressure difference pA −pB and the plunger or sucker rod velocity V with a negative
A B V with a neg-
ative coefficient.
coefficient. Thus, Thus, Equation
Equation (9) represents
(9) represents a first-order
a first-order differential
differential equation
equation with re-to
with respect
the sucker rod velocity V. In short, as the sucker rod velocity plateaus so will the will
spect to the sucker rod velocity V. In short, as the sucker rod velocity plateaus so the
pressure
pressure difference
difference pA −pB which pA−psuggests
B which suggests that aforce
that a typical typical
andforce and displacement
displacement cycle,
cycle, the the
so-called
so-called force-displacement
force-displacement pump card, pump
mustcard, must
follow follow a viscoelastic
a viscoelastic material material
behavior.behavior.

Figure3.3.Echometer
Figure Echometer pressure
pressure measurement
measurement interfaces
interfaces for
for vertical
verticalconfiguration.
configuration.

Note
Notethatthatthe
themass
massMMshould
shouldrepresent
representthe thetotal mass
total mass of of
thetheplunger, thethe
plunger, polished
polishedrod,
and other attachments in the lumped form. In the current setup, the polished
rod, and other attachments in the lumped form. In the current setup, the polished rod is rod is in direct
in direct
contact contact
with LVDT with LVDT
which haswhich has
a very a very
soft springsoftand
spring
littleand little impedance
impedance to the pol-
to the polished rod
ished
and therod and rod
sucker the sucker rod pump experimental
pump experimental setup. We setup. We do that
do recognize recognize thathorse
from the from head
the
horse jack
pump headonpump jack ontothe
the surface thesurface to thesucker
down-hole down-hole
rod pumpsucker rod exists
there pumpathere
long exists a
polished
long
rod polished rod
connected connected
together together in
in segments. segments.
Transfer Transferand
functions functions and wave propaga-
wave propagation models
tion models
must also be must also be implemented
implemented and revisited and forrevisited
a betterfor a better understanding
understanding of sucker ofrodsucker
pump
rod pump
systems systems
[3,7,8]. [3,7,8]. A preliminary
A preliminary measure measure for the vertical
for the vertical orientation
orientation of ourof our exper-
experimental
imental
setup setup is presented
is presented in Figurein Figure
3 and the3detailed
and the study
detailed study
of this of this complicated
complicated set of
set of kinematic
kinematic and dynamic governing equations will be presented in the
and dynamic governing equations will be presented in the Southwestern Petroleum Short Southwestern Petro-
leum Short
Course 2022.Course 2022.

3.3.Viscoelastic
ViscoelasticSystem
System Modeling
Modeling
Based
Basedonon the
the findings
findings in the study of of the
the leakage
leakageand andthe
theeffects
effectsofofeccentricities
eccentricitiesasas
reported
reportedininreferences
references[5,6],
[5,6],wewenote
notethe
therelationship
relationshipbetween
betweenthethepolished
polished rod
rodforce and
force andthe
displacement
the displacement resembles that of a typical viscoelastic material, in which a local forcebe
resembles that of a typical viscoelastic material, in which a local force can
proportional to the velocity
can be proportional and the and
to the velocity displacement as well as
the displacement as well
theiras
respective combinations.
their respective com-
binations.
We introduceWefirst
introduce first the Kelvin-based
the Kelvin-based viscoelastic viscoelastic
model in model
a dynamicin a dynamic case asin
case as shown
shown4,inessentially
Figure Figure 4, essentially a typical
a typical Kelvin Kelvin viscoelastic
viscoelastic setup forsetup
creepfor creep
test test combined
combined in series
in series
with with with
a spring a spring with a k
a stiffness stiffness k andm.
and a mass a mass
The m. The displacement
displacement of the parallel
of the parallel section
ofsection of the stiffness
the stiffness ko and ktheo and the dashpot
dashpot co shares
co shares the same
the same displacement
displacement u2(t),
u2 (t), whereas
whereas the
the displacement
displacement of the
of the stiffness
stiffness k isk denoted
is denoted asas
u1u(t).
1(t).Since
Since the
the mass
mass m misisconnected
connectedwithwith
the stiffness k in series, the total displacement of the mass u(t), is a combination of the two
displacements u1(t) and u2(t). In general, the external load F(t) is directly applied to the
mass point which has a finite mass m. Notice here this external load will be replaced with
the polished rod force as measured by the Echometer dynamometer in our attempt to
replace the entire downhole sucker rod pump system with such a Kelvin viscoelastic
 the displacement resembles that of a typical viscoelastic material, in which a local force
can be proportional to the velocity and the displacement as well as their respective com-
binations. We introduce first the Kelvin-based viscoelastic model in a dynamic case as
shown in Figure 4, essentially a typical Kelvin viscoelastic setup for creep test combined
Fluids 2022, 7, 70 in series with a spring with a stiffness k and a mass m. The displacement of the parallel 6 of 12
section of the stiffness ko and the dashpot co shares the same displacement u2(t), whereas
the displacement of the stiffness k is denoted as u1(t). Since the mass m is connected with
the stiffness k in series, the total displacement of the mass u(t), is a combination of the two
the stiffnessuk
displacements in series, the total displacement of the mass u(t), is a combination of the
1(t) and u2(t). In general, the external load F(t) is directly applied to the

mass point which has a u

two displacements 1 (t) and
finite massum.
2 (t). In general,
Notice theexternal
here this external load
load F(t)
will beisreplaced
directlywith
applied to
the mass point which has a finite mass m. Notice here this external
the polished rod force as measured by the Echometer dynamometer in our attempt to load will be replaced
with the polished rod force as measured by the Echometer dynamometer
replace the entire downhole sucker rod pump system with such a Kelvin viscoelastic in our attempt to
replace the entire downhole sucker rod pump system with such a Kelvin
model. We can imagine that in a creep test we can simply add a dead weight Wo in addi- viscoelastic model.
We
tion to can
the imagine
weight mg that
of in
thea mass
creepm.test we can simply add a dead weight Wo in addition to the
weight mg of the mass m.

(a) (b)
Figure 4. Kelvin
Figure and and
4. Kelvin Maxwell viscoelastic
Maxwell vibration
viscoelastic models.
vibration models. (a) Kelvin Vibration Model; (b) Maxwell
Vibration Model.
Using the procedure to identify dynamic and kinematic governing equations, con-
sider forUsing
each section in series to
the procedure that we have
identify consequent
dynamic continuity governing
and kinematic of axial forces and com-
equations, consider
bination of displacements and for each section in parallel we have consequent continuity
for each section in series that we have consequent continuity of axial forces and combina-
of displacements and combination
tion of displacements and for of forces;
each therefore,
section we have:
in parallel we have consequent continuity of
displacements and combinationku
of (t)
forces;
= k therefore,
u + c u we have: (10)
.
(t)
kuku1 (t=
) F(t)
= ko−umu
2 + co u2 (11) (10)
Using the kinematic relationship u(t) = u (t) + u (t), we
.. obtain the following third-
ku1 (t) = F(t) − mu (11)
order governing equation for u2(t),
Using the kinematic m
mc relationship u(t) = u1 (t) + u2 (t), we obtain the following third-
+ u (k
u for + k )u + c u + k u = F(t). (12)
k
order governing equation k2 (t),
Let us look at two special . dashpot, namely, co = 0. In this
mco ...cases.mFirst of all,.. with no
case, we have: u 2 + (k + ko )u2 + co u2 + ko u2 = F(t). (12)
k k
k First
Let us look at two special cases. u = ofku all, with no dashpot, namely, c =(13)
0. In this
o
case, we have:
ko u2 = ku1 (13)
hence,
k + ko
u = u1 + u2 = u2 . (14)
k
Finally, the governing dynamic equation yields the familiar spring-mass vibration
system for this setup with two stiffness or springs connected in series:

.. kko
mu + u = F(t), (15)
k + ko
Fluids 2022, 7, 70 7 of 12

with the familiar effective stiffness of two springs in series.

The second special case corresponds to the infinite stiffness k, namely, k → ∞ , conse-
quently, we have u1 → 0 and u(t) = u2 (t). Finally, we recover the familiar spring-mass-
dashpot vibration system
.. .
mu + co u + ko u = F(t) (16)
To facilitate the solution, we can rewrite the third-order viscoelastic vibration system
with a standard dynamic system format,
.
y = Ay + f, (17)

. .. 
with the state variable y = u2 , u2 , u2 , and,

0 1 0 0
   

A= 0 0 1  and f =  0 .
kko
− mco
k
−m − k+coko kF
mco

Let us consider the Maxwell-based comparable viscoelastic model in a dynamic case

as shown in Figure 4, essentially a typical Maxwell viscoelastic setup for a relaxation test
combining a mass m in series connecting with two parallel branches, one with a stiffness
k and another one with a stiffness ko, and a dashpot co in series. The displacement of the
parallel section shares the same value u(t), whereas the displacement of the stiffness is
denoted as u(t) and the dashpot co with the displacement u2 (t) connected in series with
the stiffness ko with the displacement u1 (t). Since the displacement of the stiffness k is u(t),
naturally, the total displacement of the mass u(t) is a combination of the two displacements
u1 (t) and u2 (t) within one of the parallel branches. In general, the external load F(t) is
applied to the mass point with a mass m. Likewise, this external load will be replaced with
the polished rod force measured by the Echometer dynamometer when we replace the
entire downhole sucker rod pump system with the Maxwell viscoelastic model. Again, we
can imagine that in a relaxation test, we can simply add a dead weight Wo in addition to
the weight of the mass m. Using the same kinematic and dynamic procedures, assuming
the force in the dashpot and stiffness series as Fo , we consider each section in series and the
consequent continuity of axial forces, and we have:
..
F − mu = ku + Fo (18)
.
. Fo Fo
u= + . (19)
ko co
. . .
Using the kinematic relationship u(t) = u1 (t) + u2 (t), hence u(t) = u1 (t) + u2 (t), we
obtain the following third-order governing equation for u(t),
.
m ... m .. k + ko . k F F
u 2 + u2 + u2 + u = + . (20)
ko co ko co ko co

Let us look at two special cases. First of all, with no dashpot, namely, co = 0. In this
case, we have Fo = 0, hence the governing dynamic equation yields the familiar spring-mass
vibration system:
..
mu + ku = F(t). (21)
The second special case corresponds to the infinitely stiff spring ko , namely, ko → ∞ ,
consequently, ko → ∞ and u(t) = u2 (t). Finally, we recover the familiar spring-mass-
dashpot vibration system:
.. .
mu + co u + ku = F(t). (22)
 Thesecond
The secondspecial
specialcase
casecorresponds
correspondsto tothe
theinfinitely
infinitelystiff
stiffspring namely, kk →
springkkoo,,namely, → ∞,
∞,
consequently, k → ∞ and u(t) = u (t). Finally, we recover the familiar spring-mass-dash-
consequently, k → ∞ and u(t) = u (t). Finally, we recover the familiar spring-mass-dash-
potvibration
pot vibrationsystem:
system:
Fluids 2022, 7, 70 8 of 12
mu+
mu +cc uu+ +kuku = = F(t).
F(t). (22)
(22)
Again, to
Again, to facilitate
facilitate the
the solution,
solution, we we can
can rewrite
rewrite the the third-order
third-order viscoelastic
viscoelastic vibration
vibration
system
systemAgain, as Equation (17),
to facilitate with the
the solution, state
the state we variable
can rewrite =< u , u , u
the, uthird-order >, and,
as Equation (17), with variable =<
u . , u.. >, and,viscoelastic vibration
system as Equation (17), with the state variable y = u , u , u , and,
00 11 00 00
2 2 2

AA== 00  000 11 1 andandff0==  00 ..

−
−A = − 0 − −
− 0 +
+
1 
kko k + ko ko
− mc o
− m − co
4. Results
4. Results
4. Results
InIn the
the following
following two two examples,
examples, we we employ
employ kk == 44 lbf/ft,
lbf/ft, m m == 11 slug,
slug, ccoo==0.2
0.2 lbf
lbf s/ft,
s/ft, kkoo==
4 lbf/ft, Inand
theW following
o = 10 lbf. two
Both examples,
viscoelastic wevibration
employ modelsk = 4 lbf/ft, will m = from
start 1 slug,thecozero
= 0.2 lbf s/ft,
position
4 lbf/ft, and Wo = 10 lbf. Both viscoelastic vibration models will start from the zero position
ko =zero
with 4 lbf/ft, and and
velocity Wo =zero
10 lbf. Both viscoelastic
acceleration. In our vibration
our initial
initial modelstests,
numerical will start from the
the external
external zero
force
with zero velocity and zero acceleration. In numerical tests, the force
position with
F(t) isis aa dead zero
dead weight velocity
weight W and
Woo.. Based
Based on zero acceleration.
on the
the numerical In our
numerical integration initial
integration with numerical
with central tests, the external
central differencing
differencing
F(t)
force F(t)similar
schemes is a deadto weight Wo .[15,16],
references Based on we the numerical
have obtained integration
the dynamic withresponses
central differencing
of these
these
schemes similar to references [15,16], we have obtained the dynamic responses of
schemes
two similardifferential
third-order to references [15,16], with
equations we have Maxwellobtainedand the
Kelvin dynamic responses
viscoelastic models.of these
As
two
twothird-order
third-order differential
differential equations
equations with
with Maxwell
Maxwell and
andKelvin Kelvinviscoelastic
viscoelastic models.
models. AsAs
depicted
depicted in Figures
ininFigures 5 and
5 5and 6, it is clear
6,6,it itisisclear that
that the
the vibration
vibration eventually
eventually settles
settles down
down to
totoanan
depicted
equilibriumposition Figures
positiondue and
dueto tothe
thedashpot clear
dashpotdamping.that the
damping.Of vibration
Ofcourse,
course,in eventually
inthis
thispaper, settles
paper,we down
wewill
willreplace
replace an
equilibrium
equilibrium position due to the dashpot damping. Of course, in this paper, we will replace
the deadweight
the deadweight with with the
the actual polished
polished rod rod force
force measured
measured with with the the dynamometer
dynamometer and and
thethe
use deadweight
same with theactual
numerical actual polished
scheme to obtain rod
the force measuredof
displacement withthe the dynamometer
viscoelastic material and
use
usethe thesame
samenumerical
numericalschemeschemetotoobtain obtainthe thedisplacement
displacementofofthe theviscoelastic
viscoelasticmaterial
material
modelrepresenting
model representing theactual actual downholesucker sucker rodpump pump systems.
model representingthe the actualdownhole
downhole suckerrod rod pumpsystems. systems.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 5.5.
Figure
Figure 5. Kelvin
Kelvin viscoelastic
Kelvin
viscoelastic vibration
viscoelastic
vibration system
vibration
system withaawith
system
with constant forceF(t).
a constant
constant force F(t).
force F(t). (a) Phase diagram;
(b) Mass displacement.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 6. Maxwell viscoelastic vibration system with a constant force F(t). (a) Phase diagram;
(b) Mass displacement.

As shown in Figures 7 and 8, even with very preliminary Kelvin and Maxwell models,
we can still recreate the relationship of the polished rod load and displacement, namely,
Fluids 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 12
Fluids 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 12

Figure 6. Maxwell viscoelastic vibration system with a constant force F(t).

Fluids 2022, 7, 70 Figure 6. Maxwell viscoelastic vibration system with a constant force F(t). 9 of 12
As shown in Figures 7 and 8, even with very preliminary Kelvin and Maxwell mod-
As shown
els, we can stillinrecreate
Figures 7the and 8, even withofvery
relationship the preliminary
polished rodKelvin
load and
and Maxwell mod-
displacement,
els, we can
namely, still recreate
the pump the relationship
dynamometer card for theofsucker
the polished
rod pumprodsystem.
load and displacement,
In the simulation,
the pump dynamometer card for the sucker rod pump system. In the simulation, the
namely,
the the pump factor
magnification dynamometer
is 85 for card
bothfor the sucker
Maxwell androd pump
Kelvin system.
models to In the simulation,
match the actual
magnification factor is 85 for both Maxwell and Kelvin models to match the actual large
the magnification factor is 85 for both Maxwell and Kelvin models to
large motion of the sucker rod with the viscoelastic model in the simulation. Note match the actual
again
motion of the sucker rod with the viscoelastic model in the simulation. Note again that the
large
that motion
the load of
F(t)the sucker
used in rod
the with the
viscoelasticviscoelastic
model is model
the exactin the
load simulation.
measurement Note again
recorded
load F(t) used in the viscoelastic model is the exact load measurement recorded in one of
that
in theofload
one F(t) used inTotal
the Echometer the viscoelastic
Asset Monitormodel is the
(TAM) exact load
software measurement recorded
examples.
the Echometer Total Asset Monitor (TAM) software examples.
in one of the Echometer Total Asset Monitor (TAM) software examples.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Kelvin
Figure viscoelastic
7. Kelvin vibration
viscoelastic system
vibration response
system and
response pump
and card.
pump card. (a) Displacement; (b) Force-
Figure 7. Kelvin viscoelastic
Displacement pump card. vibration system response and pump card.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 8. Maxwell viscoelastic vibration system response and pump card.
Figure 8. Maxwell
Figure viscoelastic
8. Maxwell vibration
viscoelastic system
vibration systemresponse
responseand
andpump
pumpcard.
card. (a) Displacement; (b) Force-
It is clear that
Displacement pump both
card.models work equivalently well, although for quasi-static prob-
lems,Ittheis clear
Kelvinthat both is
model models
more work suitable equivalently well, although
for creep problems and the forMaxwell
quasi-staticmodelprob-is
more It isKelvin
lems, suitable
the clear
forthat
model bothismodels
relaxation more workAn
suitable
problems. equivalently
for well,
creep problems
improved Kelvin although
and the for quasi-static
viscoelastic Maxwell
vibration problems,
model
system is
theadjusted
more
with Kelvin model
suitable is more
for relaxation
parameters csuitable
o, and ko for
m,problems. Ancreep
improved
demonstrates problems
aKelvin
much and the displacement
Maxwell
viscoelastic
closer model
vibration is more
system
response
suitable
with
with adjusted for parameters
the measured relaxation
polished problems.
m, crod o, and An improved
ko demonstrates
force F(t) as shown Kelvin
ainmuch viscoelastic
Figure closer vibration
9. Indisplacement
fact, system
response
the resemblance with
adjusted
with the parameters
measured m,
polished c , and
rod k demonstrates
force F(t) as shown a much
in closer
Figure
between the simulated pump card with that of the actual measurement is comparable with
o o 9.displacement
In fact, the response
resemblance with
the
between measured
the polished
simulated rod
pump force
card F(t)
with as shown
that of thein Figure
actual 9. In fact,
measurement
recent full-fledged simulation of downhole sucker rod pumps [17]. The successive cycles the resemblance
is comparable between
with
the
recent
will besimulated
full-fledged
a repetition pump thecard
simulation
of same withof that ofdisplacement
downhole
force and thesucker
actual rod
measurement
pumps
cycle is comparable
[17].
as depicted Figurewith
Theinsuccessive recent
cycles
9, which
is full-fledged
will be a repetition
further simulation
evidence of thatthethisof
same downhole
suckerforcerod sucker
andpump rod
displacement pumps [17]. The
cycle as depicted
system functions successive cycles
in Figurematerial,
as a viscoelastic 9, which will
notbea aviscoplastic
is furtherrepetition
evidenceof the this
that
material same
insuckerforce rod
which and displacement
pump
a permanent system cycle as will
functions
deformation depicted
as apersist. in In
Figure
viscoelastic 9, which
material,
general, by
reducing the parameter m, the peak of the displacement will shift to the left, which material,
notisafurther evidence
viscoplastic materialthat this
in sucker
which a rod pump
permanent system functions
deformation will as a viscoelastic
persist. In general, by
corre-
not
reducing a viscoplastic
the parameter material
m, the in which
peak of a
the permanent
displacement deformation
will
sponds to the increase of the natural frequency and by increasing the parameter co, the shift to will
the persist.
left, which In general,
corre-
by reducing
sponds to the parameter
the increase m, the peak
of the natural of theanddisplacement willtheshift to the left, co,which
viscous damping is increased and thefrequency
starting and byending
the increasingpoints parameter
will be closed. the
Fi-
corresponds
viscous to the increase of the natural frequency and by increasing the parameter
closed. Fi-co ,
nally, bydamping
increasing is the
increased
stiffness and the starting
parameter and
ko, the thedisplacement
end ending points willtobeincrease.
tends
the by
nally, viscous damping
increasing is increased
the stiffness and the
parameter kostarting
, the endand the endingtends
displacement points to will be closed.
increase.
Finally, by increasing the stiffness parameter ko , the end displacement tends to increase.
Fluids 2022,
Fluids 6, x7,FOR
2022, 70 PEER REVIEW 10 of
1012
of 12

(a) (b)
Figure 9. An
Figure improved
9. An Kelvin
improved viscoelastic
Kelvin vibration
viscoelastic system
vibration response
system andand
response pump card.
pump card. (a) Displace-
ment; (b) Force-Displacement pump card.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In the petroleum industry, as documented in references [8,10], in order to limit the
contact In as the
wellpetroleum
as the wear industry,
and tearasofdocumented
the sucker rod in pump
references [8,10],
plunger andintheorder
pump to limit
barrelthe
contact as well as the wear and tear of the sucker rod pump plunger
inner surface, it is not desirable to completely eliminate the leakage due to the pressure and the pump barrel
inner surface, it is not desirable to completely eliminate the
differential from the top of the traveling valve to the sucker rod pump chamber, which leakage due to the pressure
differential
could be as high from as the
a fewtopthousand
of the traveling valve to the
psi. Furthermore, bysucker rod apump
reserving finitechamber,
gap or space which
could be as high as a few thousand psi. Furthermore, by
between the plunger outsider surface and the pump barrel inner surface, the sucker rodreserving a finite gap or space
pump will also be able to operate in oil fields with the presence of sand and air bubbles.rod
between the plunger outsider surface and the pump barrel inner surface, the sucker
Thepump
mainwill also be
purpose of able to operate
this research in oilwas
paper fields with the
to utilize thepresence of sandanalytical
newly obtained and air bubbles.
and
The main purpose of this research paper was to utilize the
computational evidence with respect to the quasi-static natural of both Poiseuille newly obtained analytical andand
computational evidence with respect to the quasi-static natural of both Poiseuille and
Couette viscous flows within the annulus gap with extreme geometric aspect ratios, and
Couette viscous flows within the annulus gap with extreme geometric aspect ratios, and to
to replace the entire complicated sucker rod pump systems with simple Maxwell and Kel-
replace the entire complicated sucker rod pump systems with simple Maxwell and Kelvin
vin viscoelastic material models. By applying the experimentally obtained polished rod
viscoelastic material models. By applying the experimentally obtained polished rod force
force F(t) and the numerical integration of the third-order governing differential equations
F(t) and the numerical integration of the third-order governing differential equations for test
for test viscoelastic models, we recovered the sucker rod displacement and the load-dis-
viscoelastic models, we recovered the sucker rod displacement and the load-displacement
placement hysteresis which were very similar to those measured in oil fields. In lieu of the
hysteresis which were very similar to those measured in oil fields. In lieu of the information
information presented in references [5,6], we are gradually obtaining a better understand-
presented in references [5,6], we are gradually obtaining a better understanding along
ing along with quantifiable relationships with respect to the leakage, eccentricity, and
with quantifiable relationships with respect to the leakage, eccentricity, and many relevant
many relevant operational conditions such as the pressure differential and viscous shear.
operational conditions such as the pressure differential and viscous shear. In the end, a
In leakage
the end,issuea leakage issue is and
is multifaceted multifaceted
complex. and complex. Forengineering
For complicated complicated engineering
problems such as
problems such analytical,
this, simple as this, simple analytical, computational,
computational, or empirical
or empirical studies alone studies
are not alone are not
sufficient. This
sufficient.
revisiting This revisiting
of the leakage ofissue
the leakage
and theissue and the replacement
replacement of the entireof the entire
sucker rod pumpsuckersystem
rod
pump
withsystem
Maxwell with
andMaxwell and Kelvin
Kelvin viscoelastic viscoelastic
material models material
might yieldmodels
some might
useful yield some
information,
useful information, such as the relative importance of flow rate or
such as the relative importance of flow rate or leakage and pump card due to Poiseuille leakage and pump card
due to Poiseuille and Couette viscous flows. The combination of
and Couette viscous flows. The combination of analytical and computational approaches analytical and computa-
tional approaches
is presented in is presented
this paper inincomparison
this paper intocomparison to existing
existing empirical empirical measure-
measurements collected
ments
with Echometer TAM software and equipment. This viscoelastic study of the study
collected with Echometer TAM software and equipment. This viscoelastic of
downhole
theconditions
downholeof conditions of sucker rod pump systems will shed new
sucker rod pump systems will shed new light on the mechanisms of pump light on the mecha-
nisms
cards offor
pump cards
various for various
pump systemspump systemsthe
and pinpoint andkeypinpoint
physics,the key
with physics,towith
relevance rele-
the surface
vance to the surface displacement and the polished rod force that
displacement and the polished rod force that can be measured. In the near future, we can be measured. In the
will
near future,
connect thewe will connect
surface dynamicthe surface dynamic
conditions conditionssucker
with the downhole with the
roddownhole
pump systems suckerwith
rodwave
pump systems with
propagation waveorpropagation
models models
transfer functions ofor transfer
the tensionedfunctions
rod. of the tensioned
rod.
Author Contributions: Data curation, L.R. and C.A.T.; Formal analysis, S.W.; Investigation, A.H.,
Author
S.T.A.Contributions: Data
and T.C.; Project curation, L.R.S.W.
administration, and and
C.A.T.; Formal
C.A.T.; analysis,L.R.;
Resources, S.W.;Software,
Investigation, A.H.,
S.W. and L.R.;
S.T.A. and T.C.; Project
Writing—original administration,
draft, S.W. and &
S.W.; Writing—review C.A.T.; Resources,
editing, S.W. All L.R.; Software,
authors S.W.
have read and
and L.R.; to
agreed
Writing—original draft, S.W.;
the published version of theWriting—review
manuscript. & editing, S.W.; All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Fluids 2022, 7, 70 11 of 12

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank Jim McCoy and his Echometer Company and Brad
Rogers in Dover Artificial Lift, Harbison-Fischer for providing relevant information and financial
support for this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

Fp viscous force on the outer surface of the plunger due to the pressure differential
Di outer diameter of the plunger
Do barrel inner diameter
Da rod diameter
C clearance denoted as Do –Di
δ gap with C = 2δ
µ dynamic viscosity of the hydraulic fluid
U plunger displacement
V plunger velocity
Qp flow rate due to Poiseuille flow
Qc flow rate due to Couette flow
Qo flow rate of the hydraulic liquid
M plunger with the polished rod
Fp viscous force on the outer surface of the plunger due to the pressure differential
Fc viscous force on the outer surface of the plunger due to its motion
FA normal forces due to the pressure in chamber A
FB normal forces due to the pressure in chamber B
pA pressure in chamber A
pB pressure in chamber B

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