PSYCH212: PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Vision and Other Sensory Systems

Prof. Rainier Ladic

VISION What Happens At The Back Of Our Eye When Light

Sensations requires two things Hits A Rod Or Cone?
1. It requires stimulus Photoreceptors are usually turned on when
Stimulus for vision is light there’s no stimulus
Light is a type of electromagnetic wave When light hit, it will suddenly turned off
Electromagnetic wave has its own range called The on and off of photoreceptors is what we call
electromagnetic spectrum photo transduction cascade
Electromagnetic spectrum are gamma rays to x- Inside the photoreceptors, there’s a protein
rays, until AM/FM radio waves When the proteins turned off, they send signal
Light is somewhere in the middle of this that therefore will turn on the bipolar cell
spectrum The bipolar will now activate an action potential
Light also have its own range so it will communicate with retinal ganglion cell,
There are 3 classifications of light: which will going to fire its own action potential
 Blue/violet (400nm) short wavelength Those signals will now be transmitted to the
 Green/yellow (500nm) mid wavelength optic membrane going to the brain, specifically
 Red/orange (700nm) long wavelength the primary visual cortex in occipital lobe
2. It should have a specialized type of cell that
transforms stimulus into a neural impulse
Photoreceptors

TWO TYPES OF PHOTORECEPTORS

Rods
Contains a protein Rhodopsin
Very sensitive to light
Responsible for our night vision
Responsible for grayscale sight (black and white)
Found in our periphery The significance of using low to mid wavelength of
Responsible for seeing at the sides restaurants is because it has something to do with
120 million attraction. These colors are very attractive to our
eyes.
Very slow recovery rate
Cones COLOR BLINDNESS
Contains a protein Photopsin Also known as color deficiency
Color vision The abnormality of having a same color of red and
Three types of cone: Red, green, blue green cones
Found in the small region that is called as Fovea Carried by our X chromosome
Fovea is responsible for us to see in details This means that it is more common to happen on
6 million males compared to females
Fast recovery rate
AGNOSIA
Refers to the impairment or distraction in certain
sensation. Such as hearing, taste, sight, because of
the brain damage

VISUAL AGNOSIA
PSYCH212: PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Vision and Other Sensory Systems
Prof. Rainier Ladic

Problems in visual cortex that is interacting with Vestibules contains the receptors for balance
other lobes of the brain Semicircular Canals consists receptors for
There are two types of visual agnosia: balance
Prosopagnosia and Object agnosia. AUDITORY PROCESS
Prosopagnosia Our brain is relying on the cochlea to differentiate
Inability to recognize faces between different sounds
A problem in the visual cortex and at the same As the sound waves enters the ear, they
time in the temporal lobe eventually hit the cochlea
Object Agnosia The cochlea converts the sound waves to a neural
Inability to recognize the appearance of an impulse. By that, it eventually reaches to the brain
object Along cochlea, there’s a basilar membrane
Auditory processing is how cochlea distinguishes
AUDITION
sounds between various frequency, and how its
Sense of hearing
destination maintained to the brain so that the
Divided into main parts: the outer ear, middle ear,
brain will perceive different sound
and inner ear
We were actually able to hear things with a
PARTS OF THE EAR frequency of 20hz – 20khz
In order to distinguish low and high frequencies,
the brain uses the basilar tuning
The basilar tuning is inside the cochlea
There’s a bunch of hair cells in our basilar
membrane

Outer Ear
Pinna (Auricle) is the outside part of the ear
External Auditory Canal is the tube that The base of the cochlea is responsible for
connects the outer ear to the inside or middle perceiving high pitch or high frequency
ear
The apex is responsible for perceiving low pitch or
Tympanic Membrane also known as eardrum, low frequency
divides the outer ear from the middle ear
Along the basilar membrane, there’s a lot of hair
Middle Ear
cells
Ossicles are the small bones that are connected
Different hair cells gets activated in different
and transmit the sound waves to the inner ear
sounds
Eustachian Tube is a canal that links the middle
Hair cells at the base of the cochlea are activated
ear with the back of the nose
by high frequency sound
Inner Ear
Hair cells on the apex are activated by low
Cochlea contains the nerves for hearing
frequency sounds
PSYCH212: PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Vision and Other Sensory Systems
Prof. Rainier Ladic

Sounds of varying frequencies stimulates different ears in the same range, suggesting that some
parts of the basilar membrane other input is activating the part of the auditory
The sound waves eventually cause the fluids cortex
inside the cochlea to travel in such a way the hair If there’s no problem in the cochlea, there could
cells that are very sensitive to a certain Hz will be more than one cause why it is happening
activate GUSTATION
This hair cells will fire action potential Sense of taste
This signal will reach the brain, specifically the There are five main taste: Bitter, Salty, Sweet,
primary auditory cortex for the sound to be Sour, Umami (Glutamate)
interpreted Each taste buds depends on a particular receptors
that is located on the tongue
HEARING DISORDERS
We have taste buds all over our tongue
Conductive Deafness
For the most part, they are highly localized in the
Also known as middle ear deafness
anterior part of the tongue
Sometimes temporary
If persists, it can be corrected by surgery or THREE TYPES OF TASTE BUDS
hearing aids that will amplify the sounds Fungiform
People with conductive deafness have normal Can be found in the anterior of the tongue
cochlea and auditory nerves Foliate
They readily hear their own voices conducted Can be found in the sides of the tongue
through the bones of the skull, directly to the Circumvallate
cochlea by passing the middle ear Can be found in the posterior of the tongue
Because they hear themselves clearly, they may
accuse others of mumbling or talking too softly
Nerve Deafness
Also known as inner ear deafness
Results from damage to the cochlea, the hair
cells, or the auditory nerve
If it is confined to the one part of the cochlea, it
impairs a certain frequency and not others
Can be inherited
Can result from disease or exposure to loud
noises
Tinnitus
Frequent or constant ringing in the ears GUSTATORY PROCESS
May be due to a phenomenon that is similar to There are some little buds in the receptors which
phantom limb, a damage to a part of a cochlea is the taste buds
that is like an amputation. If we zoom in, we would find a pore
If the brain no longer get its normal input, axons Inside the pore, there are cells
representing other part of the body may invade Each cells is responsible for one of the five taste
part of the brain area that usually responds to Each taste buds contains all taste cells
sound These taste buds are mostly located in the
In many cases, people who have lost their anterior of the tongue
hearing in particular range report ringing in the
PSYCH212: PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Vision and Other Sensory Systems
Prof. Rainier Ladic

We can taste all the five taste everywhere in the People with more taste buds
tongue Can be inherited
Labelled Lines Model They tend to dislike strongly flavored food.
Taste is sent through a dedicated axon and Specially foods that tasted very bitter but only
there’s no mixing mildly bitter to other people
There are axons projecting to taste cells Non-Tasters
These axons remain separated all the way to the Their taste buds are lower compared to typical
brain or normal people
All these get projected and sent to the brain in Can be inherited
synapse into different parts of the brain Non-tasters are common in India where the food
Specifically it sends projection to the gustatory is spicy, also in Britain where it is relatively bland
cortex It could be implied that the amount of taste buds
Each axon will synapse in different parts of the affect the way we tasted food
brain
TASTE DISORDERS
Every sweet cell will send its axon to the brain
Ageusia
and will all end up into the part of gustatory
Can’t detect any taste
cortex that is very responsive in interpreting
Rare case
sweet taste. Same goes to all other taste cells
Most often people are experiencing a loss of
smell instead loss of taste
Dysgeusia
An odor, taste, or flavor may be distorted
A condition which a foul, salty, rancid, or
metallic taste sensation persists in mouth
Sometimes accompanied by Burning Mouth
Syndrome
Most common in the middle ages and old
women
Can be experienced by patients with cancer or
brain tumor

CAUSES OF TASTE DISORDERS

Could be beyond dysfunctions of our tongue or
gustatory cortex
At times ageusia and dysgeusia can be cause of
upper respiratory and middle ear infection
TASTE VARIATION At times, it can be cause of medications like
Women’s taste sensitivity varies with their antibiotics and antihistamine, therapy, and
hormones and reaches its maximum during early exposure to a certain types of chemicals like
Pregnancy insecticides
When their estrogen levels are high enough Head injury, specifically, damage to gustatory
That tendency is adaptive for women because cortex
they need to be more careful than usual to avoid Undergone surgery to the ears, nose, and throat
harmful foods
Super Tasters
PSYCH212: PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Vision and Other Sensory Systems
Prof. Rainier Ladic

Extraction of teeth can create a temporary Olfactory cells will send an action potential going
impairment of gustatory to the olfactory cortex to be interpreted
Poor oral hygiene and dental problems

OLFACTION
Sense of smell
Sense of smell is very essential to our sense of
taste
A we smell, were breaking down different cellular
components that release molecules
It will eventually travel at the back of our throat, PHEROMONES
and some will come into the nose San additional sense that is important to
As we chew, we were actually smelling little mammals
molecules being released in the conjunction with Vemeronosal organ (VMO) is a set of receptors
the sense of taste located near but separate from the olfactory
receptors. Unlike olfactory receptors, VMO
ANATOMY OF OLFACTION responds only to pheromones
Nostril Chemicals released by animals that affects the
An opening to let various odor molecules to brain of other members of the same species
come in Humans have pheromones but it is less. It can be
Olfactory Epithelium released through sweat
A thin, cellular tissue that runs along the roof of When a female sweat, it send signals to a male
the nasal cavity that she is sexually attractive. While when a male
Cribriform Plate sweat, it send a potential danger pheromones to a
Separates the brain and olfactory epithelium female.
Olfactory Bulb
Bundle of nerves that sense little projections SYNESTHESIA
through the cribriform plate into the olfactory The experience some people have in which
epithelium stimulation of one sense evolves a perception of
These projection of nerves breaks out and that sense to another
branches that contains thousands of cells Someone might perceive the letter J as green or
As the end of these cells are the olfactory bulb even taste, feels like a particular shape in the
receptors that is sensitive to a particular type of tongue
molecules such as benzene ring People reporting synesthesia have inverse amount
Benzene rings is related to aromatic or sweet of grey matter in certain brain areas and altered
smell that binds to a certain receptor inside the connection to other areas
nose that triggers neural response to the People who perceive colors in letters and numbers
olfactory cortex have increase connection between the brain areas
When we smell a certain type of molecule, these responding to colors and those responding to
molecules ail bind into the receptors letters and numbers
It clusters in families, suggesting a genetic
predisposition and it frequently occurs in the
same families as people with absolute pitch
Can be inherited
PSYCH212: PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Vision and Other Sensory Systems
Prof. Rainier Ladic

SMELL DISORDERD This means that there are axons designated for
Anosmia our mechanoreceptors and there are axons that
Loss of sense of smell are very responsive to nociceptors and
Due to other types of disorder or physiological thermoreceptors
impairment such as diabetes, obesity, high blood When mechanoreceptors detects a stimuli, it is
pressure, poor nutrition, nervous system going to send back the message in axons of the
diseases peripheral nervous system
Hyposmia There are axons carrying information in the
Reduce ability to smell periphery through nerves in the peripheral
nervous system back into the central nervous
SOMATOSENSATION
system
Refers to the senses of the body
All these somatosensory information such as
It includes a whole bunch of different senses:
position, vibration, touch, pain, and temperature,
Position, Vibration, Touch, Pain and
they all travel to different somatosensory neuron
Temperature.
There are differences in the sizes of
TYPES OF SOMATOSENSORY RECEPTORS somatosensory neurons and its thickness of
Mechanoreceptors myelin sheath
Responds to physical forces Somatosensory axons related to position,
Responds to position, vibration, and touch vibration, and touch is that they tend to have
They respond to mechanical stimuli large diameter axon
Nociceptors They also have thick myelin sheath
Receptors that is responsive to pain Somatosensory axons related to pain and
Thermoreceptors temperature information and some for touch
Receptors that responsive to temperature information, they actually tend to have small
diameter axon
SOMATOSENSORY PROCESS These axons either have thin myelin sheath or no
All these receptors are actually neurons, axons myelin sheath
entering the different parts of our skin that will These are called unmyelinated axons
have some of these somatosensory receptor types Axons with thicker myelin sheath, the faster they
In our skin, we have mechanoreceptors that can conduct the action potential
sense all sorts of mechanical stimuli Our sense of touch can be both travel either of
We also have somatosensory receptors in our these somatosensory neurons, either thick or thin
deep tissues of our skin axons
These receptors can detect, stretch, which is also Fine touch sense tends to travel fast to travel in
a type of mechanoreceptors fast somatosensory neurons
Mechanoreceptors deep within our skin or Gross touch sense tends to travel in slow
muscles are usually concern with body positions somatosensory neuron
And those that are located not so deep in our skin
are usually helpful in detecting vibrations in our PAIN
body Pain sensation begins with at least specialized of
Nociceptors and thermoreceptors are detected by all receptors, which is a bare nerve ending
different axons that are different from the axons Because of the axons carrying pain information
of our mechanoreceptors have little to no myelin sheath
PSYCH212: PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Vision and Other Sensory Systems
Prof. Rainier Ladic

So they conduct impulses relatively slowly in the People with damage to their cingulate gyrus, they
range of 2-30m/s actually still feel pain but it no longer distresses
The thicker and faster axons, they convey what we them
feel sharp pain After a romantic relationship breakup, you might
The thinner ones, they convey duller pain feel emotional pain. This may be more than
Mild pain releases neurotransmitter called emotional expression and could bring emotional
glutamate distress
Stronger pain releases glutamate with certain The hurt feeling resembles physical pain in several
types of neuropeptides including Substance P and regards
Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) The hurt feeling are like pain in another way
We have pain sensitive cells In our spinal cord that
TICKLE
relay information to several sites in the brain
The reason why we cannot tickle ourselves is the
One path extends to the ventral posterior nucleus
same reason that we can’t surprise ourselves
of our thalamus to the somatosensory cortex
When we touch ourselves, our brain compares the
So the spinal path for the pain and touch are
resulting stimulation to the expected stimulations
actually parallel but with one important difference
that generates a weaker somatosensory response
Pain pathway crosses immediately from pain
than we would experience from an unexpected
receptors on one side of the body to attract,
touch
ascending the contralateral side of the spinal cord
Some people can actually tickle themselves but a
Touch information actually travels up the
little if they tickle the right side of the body with
ipsilateral side of the spinal cord to the medulla
the left hand or left side of the body with the right
and then it crosses to the contralateral side
hand
EMOTIONAL PAIN But is not intensified as when others do it
Painful stimuli also activate a path that goes You might be able to tickle yourself as soon as you
through medulla and to the thalamus, going to the wake up because your brain is not that fully
amygdala, hippocampus, pre-frontal and anterior aroused at that state
cingulate cortex ITCH
These areas react not to the stimulation itself but We have two types of itch
to its emotional aspect The first is when we have mild tissue damage such
When your love ones is experiencing pain, you as when your skin is healing after a scar
experience a sympathetic pain that shows up as Our skin releases histamine that dilates blood
activity in your cingulate cortex and other cortical vessels and produce and itching sensation
areas The second type is a contact with a certain plant,
Some people are very suggestive when it comes to specially cowhage which is a tropical plant with
hypnosis barb hairs
In some hypnosis therapy, some people can be It also produces the sensation of itch
commanded not to feel pain Anti-histamine blocks the itch that histamine
What happens is that there’s a decrease in causes but not the itch that how the itch causes
response to the cingulate cortex without much Conversely, rubbing the skin with capsaicin relives
effect on our somatosensory cortex the itch that how the itch causes, but it has little
Someone responding to a hypnotic sensation feels effect that histamine causes
the painful sensation almost normally but reacts Our itch receptors are slow to respond and when
with emotional indifference they do, their axons transmit impulses at the
PSYCH212: PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Vision and Other Sensory Systems
Prof. Rainier Ladic

usually slow velocity of only half a meter per

second
At that rate, our action potential from our foot
needed 3-4 seconds to reach our head
Itch is useful because it directs you to scratch the
area and remove whatever is irritating your skin
Vigorous scratching actually produces mild pain
and pain inhibits itch
When it comes to the sensation of itch, pain is
important to relieve itch