55

The Future of Positive Psychology

A Declaration of Independence

C. R. Snyder & Shane J. Lopez

With contributions from Lisa Aspinwall, Barbara L. Fredrickson, Jon Haidt,
Dacher Keltner, Christine Robitschek, Michael Wehmeyer, and Amy Wrzesniewski

In thinking about preparing this handbook, we tributing scholars in this volume offer their
were driven by a basic question. What has psy- visions of how human strengths can foster
chology previously contributed to our under- health, well-being, and a sense of community.
standing of human strengths such as forgive- In this chapter, we describe the declaration of
ness, love, kindness, courage, hope, sharing, independence that has been made from the
caring, cooperation, sacrifice, spirituality, weakness model in psychology. We have par-
friendship, and so on? The answer, regrettably, titioned this declaration of independence into
is not very much. Although we can debate the four parts. The first involves a brief review of
underlying causes for the attraction to the “dark what has transpired and its significance; the sec-
side” of human experience, that strikes us as an ond, third, and fourth sections explore issues
unproductive exercise. Our focus, we would ar- pertaining to the science, application, and train-
gue, should be looking into the future of posi- ing in positive psychology. Additionally, we
tive psychology. have interspersed the views of some emerging
So, what does lie ahead for positive psychol- leaders in positive psychology at various points
ogy? That is the question that sparks excitement in the chapter.
in both of us because the positive psychology
perspective presents opportunities to address
philosophical issues (e.g., What is the good On Breaking Away
life?) and practical questions (e.g., “How do pos-
itive emotions affect us over time?”). Positive Some have characterized the positive psychol-
psychological science could guide us in our pur- ogy perspective as a recent phenomenon. Oth-
suit of mental health at the personal and com- ers see it as a slow accretion of work that has
munity levels. Toward this end, over 100 con- been building for years. In this section, we will

751
752 PART X. THE FUTURE OF THE FIELD

argue that it is probably most accurate to de- chology—the need to recognize and study the
scribe the emergence as involving both of these very best in people (see Seligman, this volume).
forces. Additionally, we will comment on the He did this not once but time and again, in one
practical implications of the growth of positive forum and another, spreading the word about
psychology. positive psychology.
Since that watershed year of 1998, what has
happened in regard to the progressive spread of
The Positive Psychology Movement
attention to and knowledge about positive psy-
Positive psychology will not supplant the weak- chology? Certainly, there have been recent no-
ness model, but it will grow as a necessary and table gains. One network television special, ex-
complementary scientific quest. The study of changes on National Public Radio, countless
mental illness and its treatment will continue as articles in magazines and newspapers, two na-
researchers delve into the etiology of disorders, tional summits, small gatherings of prominent
the nature of suffering, and the remediation of scholars, and $37 million of funding (Seligman,
psychological illness with psychotherapeutic 2000) (and $300 million being recommended by
and pharmacological treatments. But should we the surgeon general for mental health research)
look only to the weaknesses of people? Con- have attracted attention inside and outside of
cerning this lack of balance in our foci, Bandura psychology.
(1998) observes that we have been “more heav- It is our view, therefore, that the first stage
ily invested in intricate theories of failure than of a scientific movement—one that we would
in theories of success” (p. 3). But increasing characterize as a declaration of independence
numbers of social scientists in general, and psy- from the pathology model—has been com-
chologists in particular, agree that the sole focus pleted. The broader field now realizes that the
on human problems is not sufficient (Seligman positive psychology perspective exists. This
& Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). There is no need, handbook, which is built on our belief that a
however, for battles over the superiority of ei- vital science and practice of positive psychology
ther the pathology or the strength approach. In- should grow alongside the science and practice
deed, at this juncture of living history, what of the pathology model, is yet another marker
positive psychology seeks is not so much a con- of this declaration of independence.
frontation but rather recognition as a viable,
new paradigm—a rigorous science on the posi-
The Significance of Adding the Positive
tive side of what it means to be human.
Psychology Perspective
We would hasten to emphasize that this pos-
itive psychology perspective is not a brand-new The pathology model delimits the search for
one (Snyder & McCullough, 2000). Indeed, pi- knowledge on at least two levels. First, suppose
oneering thinkers over the past several decades the psychologist begins the study of a given
have provided compelling exemplars of positive person or phenomenon within the pathology
psychology in their theories and research en- model, and the evidence begins to point to a
deavors. Therefore, what appears to be a phe- human strength issue. With the dominance of
nomenon that suddenly jumped into our aware- the pathology model, the investigator does not
ness actually has been growing steadily through pursue the strength. We are reminded here of
the efforts of these theorists and bench scien- a common scene in American cowboy movies
tists. Consider the names of the authors in this where the posse is in hot pursuit but must pull
volume. They are recognized, first and fore- up when the suspect rides across the border.
most, as being outstanding psychological sci- With the acceptance of the positive psychology
entists. Although these scientists previously approach, it would be more likely that such
were not called “positive psychologists,” their boundaries would not halt the pursuit of knowl-
efforts over the last two decades have laid a edge.
strong foundation for the building of this per- Second, even when a psychologist is operat-
spective. ing from a strength model and the data clearly
It was Martin Seligman who provided a nec- point to the scholarly search of human strength,
essary spark for positive psychology. From the the pathology focus may prevail. Consider the
bully pulpit of his 1998 presidency of the example of the positive psychology researcher
American Psychological Association, he trum- who was explaining his struggle to apply his
peted the essential principle of positive psy- talents and scientific skill to developing an un-
 CHAPTER 55. THE FUTURE OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 753

derstanding of optimal health. After sharing a to moral beauty can be clearly identified in
synopsis of two decades of his research, he took American sixth graders and in members of
questions from the audience. One question is of non-Western cultures. The exploration of pos-
particular importance in the present context. itive emotions such as elevation, awe, and grat-
Namely, this researcher was asked why most of itude is an important area in which positive
his studies had examined the relationships be- psychology can reshape and brighten the pic-
tween “his” positive psychology construct and ture of human nature.
mental illness. The questioner continued, “Why
haven’t you examined the connection to mental In our estimation, the positive psychology per-
health?” First our researcher was puzzled, and spective unfetters the search for understanding
then he candidly replied, “I don’t know how to all aspects of human nature, it opens the eyes
measure health!” of skilled researchers to new questions concern-
The positive psychology perspective also may ing health and well-being, and it sets the stage
aid in the discovery of aspects of human nature for future scientific discovery.
that previously have been undetected by social
scientists. For example, Jon Haidt, who once fo-
cused his efforts on researching moral disgust, Breaking Away: Issues for the Science
has become captivated by moral beauty and its of Positive Psychology
effects. His ideas about awe and elevation in
particular and about positive emotions more In this section, we explore some of the major
generally exemplify the emergence of positive issues that will be involved in the science of
psychology. positive psychology in the coming years. Al-
though these issues would apply to any rigor-
ous new branch of psychological science as it
The Positive Emotion of Elevation— establishes its identity, it is important to discuss
Jon Haidt these as they apply to positive psychology.

The emotions have generally been thought of

Building on Science, Peer Review, and
as self-interest monitors. Emotions force our
Prudent Claims
minds and bodies to care about what’s good for
us. Yet it is a curious, beautiful, and under- What is obvious in the previous pages of this
studied fact about human nature that we can volume is that the scholars want to construct a
be deeply moved by the sight of a stranger do- positive psychology on a foundation of scientific
ing a good deed for another stranger. I have principles and methods. All of the advances that
been studying this emotional response for the have been made in experimental design and so-
past few years, and I find enough similarities phisticated statistical analyses within the pa-
in the way people talk about it that I have given thology paradigm can be used in the service of
it a name: “elevation.” Elevation has most of positive psychology science. A viable and en-
the hallmarks of a basic emotion: It has an elic- during positive psychology will be founded not
iting condition (acts of moral beauty), a phys- on armchair philosophical speculations but
iological effect (something in the chest, proba- rather on carefully crafted hypotheses that can
bly involving the vagus nerve, which gives a be tested empirically and analyzed with the lat-
warm, open, and pleasant feeling), and an ac- est statistical procedures.
tion tendency (the desire to be a better person With the spread of positive psychology ex-
oneself—to be more loving or helpful toward perimentation, the gatekeepers—the journal ed-
others). Elevation can be best thought of as the itors—will be seeing more studies that explore
opposite of social disgust. Elevation lacks a spe- the strengths of people. When this happens,
cific facial expression (which may be why it has however, the authors of positive psychology
not previously been studied), and it is not as manuscripts should be prepared to have their
discrete as the negative emotions (it appears to writing undergo extra scrutiny. Namely, jour-
overlap with awe, love, and gratitude). So ele- nal editors may well ask that results cast within
vation is harder to study than emotions such a positive psychology framework be compared
as anger and fear. But it can be studied. On- and contrasted with various pathology expla-
going research with Sara Algoe and Dacher nations. On this point, Snyder and McCullough
Keltner finds that this emotional responsiveness (2000) have written about the activities at many
754 PART X. THE FUTURE OF THE FIELD

psychology journals in the 1980s that “authors more reasonable to say that one should no
who submitted manuscripts often were forced to longer assume that positive beliefs and states
prove that their results were not explicable in are harmful. Understanding how and when
terms of negative affectivity counter explana- such beliefs are linked to constructive future-
tions. . . . [the] prevailing lens through which oriented behaviors—as well as when they are
reality was seen was strongly ruled by the neg- not—will yield a more nuanced and accurate
ative affectivity construct to the exclusion of view (see, e.g., Armor & Taylor, 1998).
other tenable and more positive constructions” What is needed in future research are studies
(p. 154). in which the nature and consequences of dif-
As a new paradigm becomes more successful ferent positive states and beliefs are evaluated
and gathers proponents, it usually is the case in in diverse and meaningful contexts, such as
science that it no longer must be tested rou- achievement, development, close relationships,
tinely in relation to the old paradigm (Kuhn, intergroup processes, coping, work, and health
1970). We have yet to reach this stage in posi- (see Aspinwall & Staudinger, in press). An es-
tive psychology. Thus, in the near future, we sential element of such efforts will be to jettison
must be prepared to have our ideas met with widespread assumptions regarding the sym-
skepticism. There are those who will try to cast metrical effects of positive and negative affect
positive psychology ideas as being whimsical on cognition and behavior (see Isen, 1993, for
and lacking in merit. Consider Lisa Aspinwall’s discussion). In its strong form, this assumption
retort to such views. may yield misleading conclusions—for exam-
ple, if depression leads people to think carefully,
then happiness must promote careless thinking;
Happier and Wiser: Optimism or if people in a negative mood are sensitive to
and Positive Affect Promote risk information in the environment, then peo-
Careful Realistic Thinking and ple in a positive mood must be insensitive to it.
Behavior—Lisa Aspinwall Again, such conclusions are at odds with a
great deal of evidence, yet they frequently in-
Perhaps one of the most important advances fluence the design and interpretation of re-
that could be made in positive psychology is to search.
incorporate into the field’s thinking the wealth Across the exciting spectrum of “positive”
of evidence suggesting that positive beliefs and topics that will be examined in the coming
states foster careful realistic thinking and con- years, efforts to take positive beliefs, feelings,
structive behavior (Armor & Taylor, 1998; and attributes seriously—and to elucidate their
Ashby, Isen, & Turken, 1999; Aspinwall, 1998, neurological, cognitive, developmental, social,
in press; Aspinwall, Richter, & Hoffman, 2000; and therapeutic functions in their own right—
Isen, 1993). Characterizations of positive think- are likely to yield many findings with impor-
ing as empty-headed, delusional, wishful, or tant implications for human health and well-
Pollyannish are at odds with a great deal of being.
evidence suggesting considerable benefits of op-
timism and positive affect, including (a) more In the excitement that may be associated with
thorough, efficient, and flexible decision mak- this new and invigorating approach, it may be
ing, (b) careful attention to negative informa- tempting to overextrapolate so as to convey a
tion that suggests the possibility of harm or sense of the progress that is being made. This
loss, and (c) consistent relations to adaptive can be even more possible when a person from
coping efforts and good outcomes in a wide the news media is almost putting words in our
range of settings. mouths about the supposed discoveries and ad-
People can be—and frequently are—both vances that already have occurred. Contrary to
happier and wiser. What are the implications this “breakthrough” mentality, however, sci-
of this assertion for research and application in ence typically advances in the context of slow,
positive psychology? I believe there are several. incremental increases in knowledge. Therefore,
First, in our efforts to send Pollyanna home, in the processes of conducting positive psychol-
we should not oversimplify the study of posi- ogy research, getting it published, and describ-
tive beliefs and states. It would be premature— ing such work in public forums, researchers
and likely incorrect—to say that all positive be- must be very careful to make appropriate infer-
liefs and states are salutary. Instead, it may be ences from their data. Claims that go beyond
 CHAPTER 55. THE FUTURE OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 755

the data never are appropriate, and they can be use as Christopher Peterson, Martin Seligman,
especially damaging to the credibility of a new and a team of consultants develop a classifica-
field. When one positive psychologist makes an tion system for strengths. In an early draft of
unwarranted claim, this undermines the trust- this taxonomy, Peterson and Seligman (2000)
worthiness of all positive psychologists and the wrote: “Psychology is not the only field now
“movement” more generally. Accordingly, we concerned with the striving and thriving end of
must carefully monitor both our colleagues and the human continuum. . . . psychology has
ourselves. come late to this perspective. The unique con-
tribution of psychology to the study of positive
traits, we believe, is its century-old concern
The Need for a Classification of
with the measurement of individual differ-
Human Strengths
ences” (p. 3).
Positive psychology needs to have a classifica- By the time this handbook is published, this
tion of human strengths and civic virtues. To classification system may be completed; more-
be able to measure human strengths not only over, it may serve positive psychology in a
will facilitate our understanding of those manner akin to how the DSM has served the
strengths but also will help in our efforts to in- pathology model. In the interim, however, it is
crease these strengths. Classification is abso- not as if we are lacking in theory-based, indi-
lutely crucial to scientific ventures, and, as such, vidual differences measures that tap the most
positive psychology must be careful and thor- visible constructs in the field. Indeed, we al-
ough in fulfilling this need. We turn to this and ready have several such measures. We turn next
related issues in this section. to the role of individual differences in positive
psychology.
Classification Systems as Foundations
of Science Individual Differences
Classifications exist in every scientific disci- Brief Measures of Positive
pline (recall the periodic table of elements Psychological Constructs
learned in high school chemistry class), and it
could be argued that it would be difficult to Based on the chapters in this handbook, it ap-
have a science without a system for categoriz- pears that there already have been strides made
ing the phenomena being examined. For psy- in the measurement of individual differences in
chology, a classification system is needed to various positive psychology constructs. Even at
build a greater understanding of psychological this early stage in the positive psychology
strengths, to promote research, and to foster movement, scholars have established sophisti-
positive psychology practice focused on incul- cated and well-articulated theories, along with
cating strengths. Though we do not view the the accompanying reliable and valid self-report
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental indices.
Disorders (known as the DSM; American Psy-
chiatric Association, 1952, 1968, 1980, 1987,
1994, 2000) system as a good example of a Personal Growth Initiative—
classification system (see Maddux, this vol- Christine Robitschek
ume), it has served as a profoundly influential
framework for the research and practice arms Personal Growth Initiative (PGI; Robitschek,
of psychology. The new system in positive 1998, 1999) is defined as active, intentional
psychology will have to gain widespread accep- involvement in changing and developing as a
tance of the same level as that exhibited by the person. Not only must the growth or change
DSM. be in the person’s awareness; it also must be
an intentional process. People who have high
levels of PGI recognize and capitalize on
A Classification System in Development
opportunities for personal growth. They also
Developing a classification system is a daunting seek out and create situations that will fa-
task that involves the collaboration of experts, cilitate their growth. In contrast, people with
along with field testing in practice communities. low levels of PGI have little or no awareness
The skills of psychologists are being put to good that they are changing and might actively
756 PART X. THE FUTURE OF THE FIELD

avoid situations that might challenge them to

The “Other” Positive Psychology Variables
grow.
The Personal Growth Initiative Scale (PGIS; Just as there have been psychological variables
Robitschek, 1998, 1999) measures this con- wherein the associated individual differences
struct. Research to date has supported a unitary variable have been examined, there also are in-
factor structure and strong internal consistency dividual differences in nonpsychological “re-
and construct validity. No significant differ- sources” that warrant our positive psychology
ences have been found on mean scores for the attention. These “other” variables often are
PGIS between women and men or between eth- tapped in the demographics portion of various
nic minority and majority groups. Scores on questionnaires. In this list of beneficial individ-
the PGIS are positively related to assertiveness, ual differences, we would call the reader’s at-
internal locus of control, instrumentality, and tention to higher income and education (Diener,
growth that is in awareness and intentional. 1984; Veroff, Douvan, & Kulka, 1981), higher
Also, PGI appears to be related to environmen- socioeconomic status (Dohrenwend, 1998; Pear-
tal career exploration and vocational identity lin, 1989; Wills & DePaulo, 1991), and better
(Robitschek & Cook, 1999). When PGI was physical health (Williamson, Parmelee, & Shaf-
combined with another measure of personal fer, 2000). Positive psychology would be well
growth (Ryff, 1989), the latent construct of per- advised to embrace these concepts, as well as
sonal growth orientation fully mediated the re- environmental variables (see Wright and Lopez,
lation of family functioning to psychological this volume), as being part of our territory in
distress (Robitschek & Kashubeck, 1999). We plotting the strengths of people. Of interest
have hypothesized that PGI (i.e., including a would be research on the predictive powers of
willingness to change and grow) might protect these variables for important life outcomes, as
against psychological distress when stressful well as how these variables moderate or mediate
events occur and might lead people to seek help other relationships of interest.
earlier in the process of experiencing psycho-
logical distress, thus reducing the extent and ef-
fects of distress. Research is under way to ex- Unique Aspects of Optimal Functioning
amine these hypotheses. Additional current
In advancing positive psychology constructs and
research is testing the validity of the PGI con-
their associated individual differences instru-
struct with an ethnic minority population and
ments, it will be important to learn a lesson
is distinguishing between PGI, openness to ex-
from problems that emerged in the pathology
perience, and risk-taking attitudes. PGI appears
model. In particular, there has been a prolifer-
to be an important construct that is related to
ation of pathology concepts without the appro-
many aspects of human behavior.
priate attention to how those concepts are sim-
ilar to, and different from, existing ones.
Having such instruments available should help
Positive psychology researchers must constrain
to bring further attention to the positive psy-
their natural tendencies to see their constructs
chology approach as researchers increasingly
as unique (Snyder & Fromkin, 1980). What this
use these measures of strength, health, and
means is that greater attention needs to be paid
well-being in their studies. Indeed, because of
to the overlap of constructs so as to ascertain
the ease of giving these questionnaires, we pre-
shared operative processes and the shared vari-
dict an outpouring of instrument-driven re-
ance in optimal functioning. Furthermore, pos-
search (Snyder, 1997).
itive psychology researchers must document the
Although considerable research has been
discriminant validity of their measures. Thus,
conducted on the moderation and mediation
the proliferation of positive psychology ideas
roles of weakness-oriented individual differ-
and measures should proceed with careful at-
ences measures such as depression, neuroti-
tention to what is common or shared, as well as
cism, and hostility, there has been relatively
what is unique.
little work on strength-oriented variables as
moderators (Snyder & Pulvers, 2001). Accord-
ingly, the role of positive psychology individ-
Sampling Issues
ual differences as moderators and mediators
should receive increasing attention as the 21st At the risk of oversimplification, the positive
century unfolds. psychology research to date may be falling into
 CHAPTER 55. THE FUTURE OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 757

a sampling pattern of emphasizing Caucasian omission to be problematic because of its sim-

college students as research participants. In a ilarity to pathology research. We should be
recent survey that we (Snyder, Tennen, Af- careful, in our estimation, to avoid what has
fleck, & Cheavens, 2000) conducted of 100 ar- happened in the weakness model, where re-
ticles taken from the 1998 issues of six journals search is best characterized as being “trickle-
that provide major outlets for positive psy- down” in that anything about children appears
chology research, the percentages of research only as an afterthought. It is crucial, we be-
participants recruited for the studies from var- lieve, to build etiology into our theory and re-
ious sources were as follows: college stu- search.
dents, 45%; community residents, 24%; out- Having made the case that we attend to de-
patients, 13%; children/adolescents, 9%; hos- velopmental issues, we also would emphasize
pital health patients, 8%; and psychiatric inpa- that positive psychology is not just pertinent to
tients, 1%. the young. Indeed, much more attention needs
In total, there were 56.4% females and to be given to research with the elderly. In this
43.6% males in this sample, a finding that re- regard, the age of research participants was re-
verses the predominance of male over female ported in only 35% of the studies in the Sny-
participants that has been found in previous der, Tennen, et al. (2000) sample. Positive psy-
research. We would encourage positive psy- chology researchers should routinely report on
chology researchers to continue to include the age of their research participants. Moreover,
women and men in their research. Because ap- older persons need to be targeted for study from
proximately 80% of the present Ph.D. gradu- a positive psychology perspective. Because life
ates in counseling and clinical psychology are expectancies are increasing and American baby
women (see Snyder, McDermott, Leibowitz, & boomers are maturing from their 50s to 60s,
Cheavens, 2000), it is our prediction that the positive psychology research will be needed on
female investigators in these fields will include this segment of our population (see Williamson,
female research participants along with males. this volume).
Only half of the articles in this survey re- Overall, we hold that the scientific foci of
ported racial composition, and the breakdown positive psychology, along with its applications,
in those articles was as follows: Caucasians, should be on the full age range and ethnic back-
75.6%; African Americans, 18.9%; Hispanics, grounds of humankind. A guiding premise,
4.6%; Asians, 2.8%; and other, 1.8%. It is therefore, is that positive psychology is for the
difficult to infer the reasons for the omission many rather than the few.
of these racial identification data in half of the
studies that were sampled. For positive psy-
Longitudinal Research
chology researchers who will be living in the
increasingly diverse and multiracial United Louis Terman (Terman, 1926, 1959; Terman &
States of the 21st century, it will be crucial to Oden, 1947) devoted decades to tracing what
have persons of color participating in research can be learned from examining the unfolding
and to determine acculturation levels of those lives of exceedingly intelligent people. Simi-
participants (see Lopez et al., this volume). larly, Emmy Werner (Werner & Smith, 1982,
The same applies to positive psychology re- 1992) followed children who were born into dif-
searchers in other countries around the globe. ficult circumstances and yet were resilient and
Positive psychology research should be tested adaptive throughout their lives. It is this kind
with various ethnic groups to examine of longitudinal research that will be needed to
whether similar or different processes are op- provide insights that simply cannot be exam-
erative. At this point in the research, we ined by the cross-sectional, snapshot method-
would be just as premature in assuming that ology.
positive psychology principles apply to all eth- We also acknowledge the methodological and
nic groups as we would be in inferring that financial challenges of conducting longitudinal
different processes apply only to particular ra- research. We call for this form of study because
cial groups. longitudinal designs offer enduring answers to
Children were not participants in the studies the questions about how psychological
that made up this sample. Granting that there strengths can make our futures brighter, buffer
are special journals dedicated to developmental us against the ills of the world, and assist us in
and child issues, we nevertheless find this coping with the adventures of daily living.
758 PART X. THE FUTURE OF THE FIELD

Breaking Away: Issues for the ment. But then suppose that the person under-
Applications of Positive Psychology takes an even more rigorous regimen of exercise
so as to obtain a level far beyond that which
As positive psychological science develops, so, would be considered typical of a well-
too, must a parallel application of the principles conditioned person. This latter training ap-
and findings from such research. In this section, proach may yield truly superb levels of physical
we review some of the major issues pertaining functional and its associated psychological well-
to applications. ness. Such a person would be described as
reaching secondary enhancement. Or, in an-
other example, a person may gain primary en-
Making Changes to Practice hancement through his or her interchanges
with other people, but the peak of such expe-
Primary and Secondary Enhancement riences would involve intensive human inter-
Elsewhere, we have proposed that it may prove action events such as passionate love, the birth
useful for the purposes of research and appli- of a child, a wedding, the graduation of a loved
cations to divide positive psychology practice one, and so on.
into primary and secondary enhancement (Sny- It may be that primary enhancement is a
der, Feldman, Taylor, Schroeder, & Adams, more easily attained and widely applicable pos-
2000). Primary enhancement includes activities itive psychology focus than secondary enhance-
geared to achieve optimal functioning and sat- ment. On the other hand, some types of pri-
isfaction—the topics that previously have been mary enhancement activities may lend
invoked to define positive psychology. Second- themselves most readily to progression into sec-
ary enhancement represents those additional ef- ondary enhancement. Another possibility is
forts that are taken over time to obtain peak that that our attentions need to be focused on
functioning and satisfaction. Thus, secondary understanding and promoting secondary en-
enhancement pertains to reaching beyond the hancement—even though it is more difficult to
already positive levels of functioning and sat- attain than primary enhancement. This latter
isfaction of primary enhancement. Such second- scenario would be driven by the fact that sec-
ary enhancement efforts typically occur after a ondary enhancement is such a profoundly in-
primary or basic level of enhancement has been tense and gratifying experience.
achieved. Thus, as can be seen in Figure 55.1,
the enhancement activities of positive psychol- Intervention Issues
ogy can be conceptualized as occurring over
time, with establishing optimal functioning and Relative to the amount of inquiry into theory
satisfaction (primary enhancement) progressing and individual differences variables in positive
to peak levels of functioning and well-being psychology, there has been less research on how
(secondary enhancement). to induce positive change in people. (In fairness,
Let us consider some examples of the differ- however, it should be acknowledged that the in-
ence between primary and secondary enhance- tervention work has begun in some of the pos-
ment. Suppose a person decides to undertake a itive psychology research programs.)
regimen of exercise involving rigorous work- An in-depth understanding of any positive
outs at three differing times per week. Such a psychology concept also should involve com-
person will achieve a level of physical function- prehension of how to enhance it. Thus, positive
ing and psychological wellness that we would psychology should be careful to avoid the sep-
characterize as exemplifying primary enhance- aration of diagnosis and intervention that has
happened in the pathology model. For example,
even with its pervasive influence, the DSM does
not provide links to appropriate interventions
for each diagnostic category. As we come to de-
fine a classification system in positive psychol-
ogy, it should have obvious leads to appropriate
interventions. Of special interest will be exper-
iments on how to increase the strengths of peo-
Figure 55.1 Primary and secondary enhancement ple who are low on one or more of the positive
in positive psychology. psychology individual differences measures.
 CHAPTER 55. THE FUTURE OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 759

These latter designs enable one to explore the about the strength of human will, the bonds of
important person (individual differences) by en- a loving family, the deeds of a caring commu-
vironment (change interventions) interactions nity, and the like, are worthy of telling if bal-
that are crucial for both understanding a given anced reporting is the goal. Such tales also can
positive psychology concept and providing an raise our spirits and give us models to emulate.
appropriate intervention. Unfortunately, the “bad news” approach is
As we more fully comprehend the underlying likely to create a self-fulfilling bunker mentality
dynamics of positive psychology change pro- in which people expect things to be bad, think
cesses (see Mahoney, this volume), the ultimate in terms of protection, and to some extent pas-
beneficiaries will be the people with whom those sively allow bad things to happen.
interventions can be used. To facilitate the dis- Although there may be happy endings that
covery of change processes, we believe that pos- are begotten from the pathology approach, such
itive psychology should reach out to the present as a person being successfully treated for de-
psychotherapy outcome investigators who typ- pression, in such instances it still is the negative
ically are operating under a pathology model framework that retains the power to command
(Snyder & Ingram, 2000). our attention. It is as if this weakness perspec-
tive is the default option to which we automat-
ically turn. For all its contributions, and there
Delivery Issues
have been many significant ones, the pathology
Caution will be necessary, however, when at- model leaves us reactive. With some notable ex-
tempting to translate positive psychological sci- ceptions, the weakness model of psychology can
ence into practice. We encourage researchers foster a passive, avoidant approach to life. Pos-
and innovative practitioners to be sure to itive psychology, on the other hand, starts with
ground interventions in theory and science, and the premise that human beings have an im-
to submit these interventions to careful and ex- mense storehouse of remarkable talents and
tensive empirical examination before sharing skills. Many of these strengths, however, have
them with the broader community of scientists lain fallow as we implicitly accept a passive view
and practitioners. about human capabilities. What positive psy-
To make appropriate applied translations of chology offers is a more comprehensive view of
our findings, we not only will need to conduct humankind.
the basic research aimed at understanding the
positive change processes but also will need to
undertake programs of research to see how such Self-Determination and Causal Agency
interventions actually can be effectively deliv- Theory—Michael Wehmeyer
ered to maximal numbers of people. Eventually,
we will want to know how to impart strengths Over the last decade there has been considera-
to people in the context of families, schools, ble focus in the field of special education on the
works settings, and so on. importance of promoting the self-determination
Likewise, officials in government and private of students with disabilities to enable them to
granting agencies must be kept apprised of the successfully transition from school to adult-
benefits derived from the science and applica- hood. That focus, which has been applied to
tions of positive psychology principles. Obvi- other populations of youth at risk for school
ously, there will be an ongoing need for streams failure and negative adult outcomes, including
of funding related to positive psychology re- youth in foster care and children and youth in
search and action programs. Similarly, it will be urban settings, is predicated on the contention
crucial to keep policy makers and the general that students who leave school as self-
public apprised of the usefulness of positive determined young people will be better able to
psychology research and applications. become self-sufficient, self-reliant adults. We
have developed a functional model of self-
determination, also referred to as causal agency
Broadening the Philosophy and
theory, which defines self-determined behavior
Scope of Practice
as acting as the primary causal agent in one’s
There is a saying in journalistic circles that “bad life and making choices and decisions regarding
news sells papers.” Obviously, however, bad one’s quality of life free from undue external
news is not the full story. Compelling recounts influence or interference (Wehmeyer, 1996).
760 PART X. THE FUTURE OF THE FIELD

Drawing on work in personality, community ological (see Ryff & Singer, this volume; Tay-
and motivational psychology, the functional lor, Dickerson, & Klein, this volume), and phys-
model identifies four essential characteristics of iological (see Dienstbier & Zillig, this volume)
self-determined behavior: (a) the person acted levels.
autonomously; (b) the action was self- From a positive psychology perspective, the
regulated; (c) the person initiated and re- investigative focus turns to those bodily struc-
sponded to the event(s) in a psychologically tures and processes that enable humans to
empowered manner; and (d) the person acted in thrive and flourish. With the exciting advances
a self-realizing manner. The model posits that that are being made at the juncture of psychol-
people become self-determined as they develop ogy and the neurosciences, we look forward to
or acquire a set of component elements of self- discoveries about brain structures and functions
determined behavior, including learning to set that are implicated in the manifestation of hu-
goals, solve problems, make decisions, and ad- man strengths. This approach has received little
vocate for one’s needs as well as by having op- attention to date, but it holds enormous promise
portunities to make choices and experience con- for stimulating future advances in understand-
trol in life. Our research has empirically ing and applying positive psychology concepts.
validated this framework (Wehmeyer, Kelch-
ner, & Richards, 1996), explored the relative
Positive Families
self-determination of youth with disabilities
(Wehmeyer & Metzler, 1995), provided evi- What are the characteristics of families that pro-
dence of the relationship between student self- duce happy, well-adjusted offspring who con-
determination and positive adult outcomes tribute meaningfully to society? Admittedly,
(Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997, 1998), and ex- this is a very complex question; nevertheless, it
amined environmental barriers to self- needs to be addressed by positive psychology
determination (Wehmeyer & Bolding, 1999). scholars. One place to start in such positive
We have identified instructional methods and family research would be to examine the role of
materials to promote self-determination (Weh- family rituals in the inculcation of values. An-
meyer, Agran, & Hughes, 1998) and have de- other line would be to determine how families
veloped and empirically validated an instruc- explain everyday adversity, how they set goals
tional model to enable educators to teach youth for the future, and how they engender hope in
to become more self-determined and to become their offspring (McDermott & Hastings, 2000;
self-regulated problem solvers (Wehmeyer, McDermott & Snyder, 2000; Snyder, Mc-
Palmer, Agran, Mithaug, & Martin, 2000). Dermott, Cook, & Rapoff, 1997). In addition to
Current research is examining key operators in the traditional male and female two-parent and
why people become causal agents in their lives, child(ren) model, positive psychology also
including exploring the development and ac- would be wise to examine the various forms
quisition of causal and agentic capability and that families are taking in the 21st century.
examining how such capability is used to re- Whatever the structure, however, the family
spond to opportunities and threats to create will be a crucial arena for fostering the tenets
causal action and, in turn, enable individuals to of positive psychology. For these reasons, and
become more self-determined. While our ear- countless others, the family should capture the
liest work was with youth with cognitive and attentions of positive psychology researchers.
other disabilities, later work, including the in- Positive psychology also should open its
structional model and our efforts to examine doors to child psychology and any other disci-
the key operators in causal and agentic action, pline that focuses on research aimed at under-
is applied to all youth, though not excluding standing and promoting the welfare of children.
youth with disabilities or other at-risk groups. The training of clinical child psychologists, for
example, would focus on helping children in ar-
eas of their weakness and enhancing the
Positive Bodies
strengths of all children (see Brown, Johnson,
Positive psychology will need to go “under the Roberts, & Reinke, this volume).
hood,” so to speak. Whereas most positive psy-
chology researchers are focused at the cognitive
Positive Schools
and behavioral levels, we believe that a growing
group of researchers will trace human strengths Although families are expected to provide the
to the neurological (see Isen, this volume), bi- necessary stimulation and nurturing for healthy
 CHAPTER 55. THE FUTURE OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 761

development, the reality is that many families accusing finger of “look at those lousy kids and
struggle to meet the very basic food and shelter the problems they have created.” Rather, posi-
needs of their children. Therefore, school be- tive psychology views all children as our chil-
comes a place where adjunctive instruction and dren and asks what we can do to help bring out
services are offered. In our experience, the the best in them. In this regard, perhaps the
school and families embrace such psychological greatest gift we can give to children is our time.
and physical health programs. Some critics ar- As adults, we sometimes get caught up in own
gue that such programs take precious time away activities, and we do not carve out enough
from “real learning,” but we contend that pos- time to spend with our children and those in
itive psychological support sets the stage for the neighborhood. Children hunger for positive
better learning. It is not an either-or issue, in models. To accomplish this, it is far better if
our estimation, but rather one in which children children have the option of turning to real peo-
deserve excellent instruction in both life skills ple than to the television screen that is filled
and content areas. with people committing violence against each
School psychologists often have been identi- other.
fied as being responsible for making sure that
the children with special needs (e.g., learning
Positive Workplaces
disabilities, behavioral problems, physical prob-
lems), are given optimal environments for Turner, Barling, and Zacharatos (this volume)
learning. These professionals play a key role in explain how the work setting can be a more pos-
our schools, and positive psychology should itive place that yields better outcomes related to
reach out to them. The tenets of positive psy- both the financial bottom line and the devel-
chology should prove very attractive to school opment of healthy people. The work of indus-
psychologists in their work to facilitate the very trial/organizational and vocational psycholo-
best in children with special needs, as well as all gists also points to how the workplace provides
children. This approach is based on adding var- an arena for workers to develop resources, find
ious positive psychology experiences to class- meaning, and pursue social, emotional, and psy-
room activities. For example, the junior editor chological well-being. We must not neglect the
of this volume (SJL) has established a series of nurturing of human potential in today’s work-
classroom experiences to enhance the hope of place.
junior high-school students (Lopez, Bouwkamp,
Edwards, & Teramoto Pedrotti, 2000). Further-
more, assuming that such educational activities Jobs, Careers, and Callings: The
prove to be beneficial for both the psychological Meaning of Work—Amy Wrzesniewski
and the academic development of students, we
believe that positive psychology principles and How do people differ in their experience of
applications should become a part of the teacher work? This is an important question, given that
instruction curricula in colleges. We look for- people spend more than one third of their wak-
ward to the day in which teachers systemati- ing life at work and increasingly define them-
cally use such positive psychology approaches. selves by what they do for a living. Research
Our guess is that the very best of teachers al- has shown that most people have one of three
ready weave positive psychology into their distinct relations to their work, seeing it as a
teaching plans and styles. Job, Career, or Calling (Bellah, Madsen, Sulli-
van, Swidler, & Tipton, 1985; see also
Schwartz, 1986, 1994; Wrzesniewski, Mc-
Youth Development
Cauley, Rozin, & Schwartz, 1997). The distinc-
Benjamin Franklin said that wasted strengths tions, drawn starkly, are these: People with Jobs
are like sundials in the shade. This is particu- focus on financial rewards for working, rather
larly true about the untapped assets of children than pleasure or fulfillment, those with Careers
because they often are in need of help to realize focus primarily on advancement, and those
their potentials. As adults, we are entrusted with Callings focus on enjoyment of fulfilling,
with promoting youth development. This re- socially useful work. Employees in a wide range
quires that we view all children as needing some of occupations, from clerical to professional,
support or guidance, not just those who are were unambiguous in seeing their work pri-
gifted or at risk for problems (Snyder, Tran, et marily in one of these three ways. Jobs, Ca-
al., 2000). Positive psychology does not point an reers, and Callings are each represented within
762 PART X. THE FUTURE OF THE FIELD

occupations as well. Having a Calling was as- illuminate and promote human flourishing can
sociated with the highest life and job satisfac- be accomplished only when a critical mass of
tion and with missing the fewest days of work positive psychology professionals collaborate
(Wrzesniewski et al., 1997). Jobs, Careers, and with laypeople who have identified their
Callings as general orientations toward work strengths and acknowledged the role of their
also predicted the goals people pursue in a job abilities and talents in their daily functioning.
search, as well as quality of and occupational For this to happen, psychologists assume that
level in the new job (Wrzesniewski, 1999). Re- health rather than illness is the natural state of
cent research has shown that people in menial the human condition. In the immediate future,
jobs can transform their relations to their work however, our goal is to ensure that there is bal-
and do so by shaping the tasks and relation- ance between the two psychologies—positive
ships that are part of the job in ways that make and negative.
the work more meaningful (Wrzesniewski & We encourage readers to think about the as-
Dutton, 2000). As a conceptual approach to sumptions they make about their research par-
studying work, Jobs, Careers, and Callings offer ticipants, their clients, their partners, children,
a rich opportunity for understanding the mean- and themselves. Psychological science has sug-
ing of work. gested that we use a negative lens for viewing
people. When it comes to your view of human
behavior, you concern yourself with what you
Positive Communities
think is most important to developing a better
Vibrant communities are ones that pull together understanding of a person. What you see de-
for the purpose of fostering the development of termines what working hypotheses you develop
healthy children. Cultural and historical pres- and test. The Aristotle-Galileo “pendulum de-
ervation unite yet other communities. Irrespec- bate” demonstrates this point. Aristotle as-
tive of the nature of the community mission, sumed that a stone suspended by a string real-
effective communities share unifying goals ized its natural state when it was at rest.
(Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swidler, & Tipton, Therefore, he concerned himself with the “time
1992). Moreover, when such community pur- to come to rest” and built hypotheses related to
suits result in goal attainments, celebrations are the “swinging stone” around this metric. On
warranted to mark the accomplishments. We the other hand, Galileo was more interested in
mention this because we believe that commu- the “time per swing” because he believed that
nity striving leads to the development of posi- the swinging state was natural in the absence of
tive connections, and community-wide celebra- friction. Thus, what you believe and therefore
tion increases the likelihood of future striving. see influences what you examine. So, if on first
The area of community psychology has yet blush a researcher or clinician sees symptoms of
to receive the scholarly attention that it de- illness instead of a person’s strengths, this will
serves. Perhaps with the assistance of their col- determine the hypotheses that are constructed.
leagues in positive psychology, and with further
attention to making good things happen rather
than solely trying to prevent bad things (see Another Side to Human Nature—
Snyder, Feldman, et al., 2000), there may be an Dacher Keltner
increase in research focusing on community
forces. Community is a concept that positive The future of positive psychology is bright and
psychology can and should embrace. promises to include an impassioned cadre of
young scholars across the disciplines of psy-
chology, as this volume suggests. The advances
Breaking Away: Issues for Training in this field will bring are numerous, from new
Positive Psychology ideas about relationships to studies of well-
being and virtue. Perhaps the most lasting of
For decades, psychology students have been these contributions is the opportunity positive
taught about human foibles, and the pathology psychology creates to contemplate the more
model spread across generations of young, mal- positive, beneficent nature of human nature.
leable minds. In turn, those students took aca- Many of the great traditions in the behav-
demic and applied jobs and imparted the same ioral sciences have portrayed human nature in
psychology of the negative to their intellectual a rather unflattering light. For Freud, humans
offspring. The positive psychology mission to were conflicted, defensive, and neurotic. For
 CHAPTER 55. THE FUTURE OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 763

utilitarian approaches that have shaped social evident in the literature on bullying and victim-
psychology, humans were rational seekers of ization. This is no doubt true and one facet to
outcomes that maximize self-interest—an as- teasing. Yet it would be erroneous to assume
sumption that is echoed in certain versions of that these extreme kinds of teasing represent
evolutionary psychology. Other branches of the teasing of most people in their day-to-day
psychology have placed greater emphasis on lives. My own research on teasing starts from
the negative: We study aggression and not a different assumption: that most teasing re-
peace-making; we study negative emotion and flects the human capacity to play and pretend,
not positive emotion; we study relationship dis- and that it serves a variety of pro-social func-
satisfaction and dissolution rather than satis- tions, from expressing affection to socialization.
faction. As positive psychology progresses, it will
These, of course, are just assumptions about generate many inspiring insights about human
human nature. Positive psychology offers an nature, from the inspiration people find in vir-
alternative, scientific approach to human na- tue and beauty to the ways people devote them-
ture. In many ways it has the power of the selves to community. These insights will origi-
cognitive revolution in psychology, which sim- nate in a simple scientific question positive
ply raised the question of how thought guides psychology asks: What is good about human
behavior. Positive psychology asks about posi- nature?
tive human nature.
This emphasis is already producing scientific Undoubtedly, personal and professional experi-
advances in at least three ways. First, research- ences determine what you “see.” Thus, your
ers are now studying what was underrepre- view of human nature may be influenced by
sented in psychology. This is clearly seen in the your training (Snyder, 1977). The paradigm
study of positive emotions. Early emotion the- within which you have been professionally
orists widely assumed that the number of neg- trained guides what you see in human behavior
ative emotions outnumbered the positive ones and the routes that you take to positively influ-
(for no real reasons). Inspired in part by the ence human change. For positive psychology to
work of Fredrickson, we are now discovering become fully viable, there will need to be rig-
that there are numerous positive emotions, in- orous graduate programs with faculty and
cluding awe, love, desire, relief, hope, pride, and courses devoted to this perspective. The same
joy. These states may operate in different ways will be necessary for internships in positive psy-
than the negative ones, and they certainly are chology. Clinical, counseling, personality, and
embedded in many activities humans cherish social psychology programs, or interfaces of
most. Were it not for positive psychology, these scholars from two or more such programs, offer
states might still continue to be ignored. possible arenas for the teaching of positive psy-
Second, many widespread assumptions about chology at the graduate level. To further aware-
human nature are being challenged by research ness, however, there will need to be undergrad-
within positive psychology. For example, it was uate courses in positive psychology.
widely assumed as part of a Freudian legacy in At the organizational level, there eventually
the understanding of bereavement that people will need to be organizations and conventions
who are grieving are best served by working devoted to positive psychology perspectives.
through their negative emotions, such as anger Likewise, as with the scholarly and educational
and guilt. My own research with George Bon- evolution of any area, there will need to be
anno has shown this to be an erroneous as- books that give voice to the key ideas in positive
sumption (and one worries about clinical treat- psychology, as well as journals that serve as
ments based on this assumption). We have outlets for research. All of these matters, and
found that bereaved individuals who express a more, are necessary for the proper education in
great deal of anger do worse over the long haul, positive psychology.
whereas those individuals who laugh and gain
some distance from the loss do better.
Finally, research within positive psychology The Future of Positive Psychology—
will help develop a more nuanced view of many Barbara Fredrickson
phenomena that have largely been viewed
through a more “negative” lens. For example, Positive psychology shows tremendous prom-
the literature on teasing has largely focused on ise. Although many of the ideas central to the
its hostile content and antisocial outcomes, as field predate the emergence of the positive psy-
764 PART X. THE FUTURE OF THE FIELD

chology movement, only now—in response to of a mandatory age retirement rule, this woman
the movement and with resources like this had to quit her teaching position over 15 years
handbook—have these various ideas been ago. She fondly recounted how she had spent
united under the common mission of develop- those postretirement years with her grandchil-
ing the science of human flourishing. To realize dren. In fact, on this occasion, she was going to
this promise fully, the field needs to broaden visit her brand-new great-grandson. “What do
the range of phenomena targeted for study. For you do for a living?” she asked. I recounted the
instance, here and elsewhere I have pointed out short version of my life as a professor and men-
that the scientific study of positive emotions tioned my work in positive psychology. Upon
lags far behind the study of negative emotions. hearing about this, she became very animated,
Plus, some positive emotions have hardly asking question after question about positive
basked in the empirical spotlight at all, namely, psychology. The time passed quickly, and we
awe, serenity, gratitude, and elevation. Al- soon were off the plane, walking up the ramp
though this handbook is impressively compre- to the terminal building. She turned and opined,
hensive, in this early moment, positive psy- “Positive psychology, that’s a good way to
chology no doubt carries significant gaps. I spend your time.” With that, she waved and
encourage interested readers to locate those disappeared into the outstretched arms of smil-
gaps, see them as opportunities, and make em- ing family members. Positive psychology, that’s
pirical contributions to fill them. a good way to spend your time. We agree.
Even more important, to realize its full po- Please join us.
tential the field needs to build the ranks of sci-
entific psychologists who devote their careers to
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