Fluid flow may be steady or unsteady; uniform or non-uniform; continuous; Potential Energy (Pressure energy)

laminar or turbulent; one-dimensional, two-dimensional or three-

𝑃
dimensional; and rotational or irrotational. 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑊 ∙
𝛾
Discharge or flow rate is the amount of fluid passing through a section per 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑷
unit of time. This is expressed as mass flow rate (kg/sec), weight flow rate ∴ 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 = =
𝑾 𝜸
(kN/sec) and volume flow rate (cc/s, lit/s).
Total Flow Energy, E
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆, 𝑸 = 𝐴𝑣
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆, 𝑴 = 𝜌𝑄
𝒗𝟐 𝑷
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆, 𝑾 = 𝛾𝑄 ∴ 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅, 𝑬 = + ±𝒛
𝟐𝒈 𝜸
Where:
The Bernoulli’s energy theorem results from application of the principles of
Q = discharge in 𝑚3 /𝑠 conservation of energy.

A = cross-sectional area of flow in 𝑚2 𝑬𝟏 + 𝑬𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒅 − 𝑬𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝑬𝟐

𝜐 = mean velocity of flow in m/s 1. Neglecting frictional losses, the total head or the total amount of energy
per unit per weight is the same as every point in the path.
𝜌 = mass density in kg/𝑚3
E1 = E2 ; assuming no head loss
𝛾 = weight density in N/𝑚3
Total Energy, E = velocity head + pressure head + elevation head
The energy possessed by a flowing fluid consists of the kinetic and the
potential energy. 𝒗𝟐 𝑷
𝑬= + ±𝒛
𝟐𝒈 𝜸
Kinetic Energy
𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝑷𝟐
1 1 𝑊 ∴ + ± 𝒛𝟏 = + ± 𝒛𝟐
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑀𝑣 2 = ∙ 𝑣 2 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸
2 2 𝑔
2. Considering head losses or energy added or abstracted from the flow, the
𝑲𝑬 𝒗𝟐
∴ 𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 = = Bernoulli’s Energy Equation takes the form:
𝑾 𝟐𝒈
𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝑷 𝟐
Potential Energy (Elevation Energy) ∴ + ± 𝒛𝟏 + 𝒉𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = + ± 𝒛𝟐 + 𝒉𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 + 𝒉𝑳𝟏−𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑊𝑧 = 𝑀𝑔𝑧
𝐡𝐩𝐮𝐦𝐩 - energy added to the flow, say using pump
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
∴ 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 = =𝒛 𝐡𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐞 - energy abstracted from the flow, saying turbine
𝑾
𝐡𝐋𝟏−𝟐 - head losses due to friction, expansion, contraction, etc.
Power Solution:

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑄𝛾𝐸 a. the volume flow rate in 𝐦𝟑 /𝐬𝐞𝐜 and lit/sec,

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑸 = 𝐴𝑣
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚, 𝜼 = × 100%
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝜋
𝑸= (𝐷)2 𝑥 𝑣
Note: 4

1 Horsepower (hp) = 746 Watts 𝜋 1𝑚

𝑸= (75𝑚𝑚 𝑥 )2 𝑥 3𝑚/𝑠
4 1000𝑚𝑚
1 Horsepower (hp) = 550 ft-lb/s
𝑸 = 0.01325 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 Watt = 1 N-m/s = 1 J/s

b. the mass flow rate in kg/sec,

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
𝑴 = 𝜌𝑄
Also known as pressure gradient, hydraulic grade line is the graphical 𝑘𝑔
representation of the total potential energy flow. It is the line that connects 𝑴 = 1000 (0.01325 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐)
𝑚3
water levels in successive piezometer tubes placed at intervals along the
𝑷 𝑴 = 13.25 𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐
pipe. Its distance from the datum line is + 𝒛
𝜸

c. the weight flow rate in N/sec

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
𝑾 = 𝛾𝑄
1. Water flows through a 75 mm diameter pipe at a velocity of 3 m/sec.
𝑁
Find, 𝑾 = 9810 (0.01325 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐)
𝑚3
a. the volume flow rate in m3 /sec and lit/sec, 𝑾 = 129.98 𝑁/𝑠𝑒𝑐
b. the mass flow rate in kg/sec, and

c. the weight flow rate in N/sec.

Given:

D = 75mm

V = 3m/sec
2. What is the rate of flow of water passing through a pipe with a diameter Solution:
of 20 mm and speed of 0.5m/sec?
𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃1
Solution: + ±𝑧 = + ± 𝑧 + ℎ𝐿1−2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
𝑸 = 𝐴𝑣 𝑸 = 𝐴1 𝑉1
𝜋
𝑸= (𝐷)2 𝑥 𝑣 1𝑚3 𝜋 20 2
4 40 𝑙𝑖/ sec ( )= ( ) 𝑉1
1000𝑙𝑖 4 100
𝜋 1𝑚
𝑸= (20𝑚𝑚 𝑥 )2 𝑥 0.5𝑚/𝑠 𝑽𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
4 1000𝑚𝑚
𝑸 = 1.57𝑥10−4 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 1𝑚3 𝜋 15 2
40 𝑙𝑖/ sec ( )= ( ) 𝑉2
1000𝑙𝑖 4 100

3. The water is flowing through a pipe having a diameter 20 cm and 15 cm 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟔𝟒 𝒎/𝒔
at sections 1 & 2 respectively. The rate of flow through pipe is 40 li/s. (1.273 𝑚/𝑠)2 𝑁 100𝑐𝑚 2
Section 1 is 6 m above the datum while section 2 is 2 m above the datum. + 29.43 2 𝑥 ( ) ± 6𝑚
2(9.81 𝑚/𝑠) 𝑐𝑚 1𝑚
If the pressure head is 29.43 N/𝐜𝐦𝟐 at section 1 to 2 and head losses is 5
times the velocity head of section 2, determine the pressure intensity at (2.264 𝑚/𝑠)2 𝑃1 2.2642
= + ± 2𝑚 + 5 ( )
section 2. 2(9.81 𝑚/𝑠) 9810 𝑁 2 𝑥 9.81
𝑃2
294306.083 = 3.567 +
9810
9810 ( 294306.083 − 3.567) = 𝑃2

𝑷𝟐 = 𝟐𝟖𝟖𝟕𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟔𝟖𝟐 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐

Given:

At point 1, At point 2,

D1 = 20cm D2 = 15cm

Q = 40 li/s Z2 = 6m
𝑽𝟐 𝟐
Z1 = 6m 𝒉𝑳 = 𝟓 ( )
𝟐𝒈

𝒑𝟏− 𝒑𝟐
= 𝟐𝟗. 𝟒𝟑 𝑵/𝒄𝒎𝟑
𝜸
Head losses in pipes may be classified into two; the major head loss, which
is caused by pipe friction along straight sections of pipe of uniform diameter
MAJOR HEAD LOSS, 𝒉𝒇
and uniform roughness, and Minor head loss, which are caused by changes
in velocity or direction of flow, and are commonly expressed in terms of B. MANNING’S FORMULA
kinetic energy.
𝟐. 𝟖𝟕𝒏𝟐 𝑳𝑽𝟐
MAJOR HEAD LOSS, 𝒉𝒇 𝒉𝒇 = ; (𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎)
𝑫𝟒/𝟑
A. DARCY – WEISBACH FORMULA 𝟒. 𝟔𝟓𝒏𝟐 𝑳𝑸𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = ; (𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎)
𝒇𝑳 𝒗𝟐 𝑫𝟏𝟔/𝟑
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑫 𝟐𝒈
f – friction factor MAJOR HEAD LOSS, 𝒉𝒇

L – length of pipe in meters or feet B. MANNING’S FORMULA

D – pipe diameter in meter or feet 𝟔. 𝟑𝟓𝒏𝟐 𝑳𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = ; (𝑺. 𝑰 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕)
v – mean or average velocity of flow in m/s or ft/s 𝑫𝟒/𝟑
𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝒏𝟐 𝑳𝑸𝟐
MAJOR HEAD LOSS, 𝒉𝒇 𝒉𝒇 = ; (𝑺. 𝑰 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕)
𝑫𝟏𝟔/𝟑
A. DARCY – WEISBACH FORMULA MAJOR HEAD LOSS, 𝒉𝒇
𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟔𝒇𝑳𝑸𝟐 C. HAZEN WILLIAMS FORMULA
𝒉𝒇 = ; (𝑺. 𝑰 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕)
𝑫𝟓
𝟒. 𝟕𝟐𝑳𝑸𝟏.𝟖𝟓
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟐𝒇𝑳𝑸𝟐 𝒉𝒇 = ; (𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎)
𝒉𝒇 = ; (𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕) 𝑪𝟏.𝟖𝟓 𝑫𝟒.𝟖𝟕
𝑫𝟓
𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝑳𝑸𝟏.𝟖𝟓
Q – discharge or flow rate 𝒉𝒇 = ; (𝑺. 𝑰 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕)
𝑪𝟏.𝟖𝟓 𝑫𝟒.𝟖𝟕
SAMPLE PROBLEMS 2. The head loss of a cast iron pipe 900 m long is 4 m. Compute the
diameter of the pipe if it carries a discharge of 0.8 𝐦𝟑 /s.
1. A 0.60 m diameter pipeline 30 m long carries 0.4 𝐦𝟑 /s of water.
Compute the head loss using the following formula: a. Using Darcy Weisback with f = 0.018

a. Darcy – Weisback with f = 0.014 b. Using Manning’s equation with n = 0.014

b. Mannings formula with n = 0.012 c. Use Hazen Williams formula with C = 130

c. Hazen Williams with C = 120 Solution:

Solution: a. Using Darcy Weisback with f = 0.018

a. Darcy – Weisback with f = 0.014 0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄 2

ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷5
0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄 2
ℎ𝑓 = 0.0826(0.018)(900)(0.80)2 5 0.0826(0.018)(900)(0.80)2
𝐷5 4𝑚 = 𝑜𝑟 √
𝐷5 4
0.0826(0.014)(30)(0.40)2
ℎ𝑓 = D = 0.7347 m
(0.60)5
𝒉𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝒎
b. Using Manning’s equation with n = 0.014
b. Mannings formula with n = 0.012
10.29𝑛2 𝐿𝑄 2
10.29𝑛2 𝐿𝑄 2 ℎ𝑓 =
ℎ𝑓 = 𝐷16/3
𝐷16/3
16
10.29(0.012)2 (30)(0.40)2 10.29(0.014)2 (900)(0.80)2 3 10.29(0.014)2 (900)(0.80)2
ℎ𝑓 = 4= 𝑜𝑟 √
𝐷 16/3 4
(0.60)16/3
D = 0.79388 m
𝒉𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟒𝟓 𝒎

c. Use Hazen Williams formula with C = 130

c. Hazen Williams with C = 120
10.64𝐿𝑄1.85
10.64𝐿𝑄1.85 ℎ𝑓 =
ℎ𝑓 = 1.85 4.87 𝐶 1.85 𝐷 4.87
𝐶 𝐷
10.64(900)(0.80)1.85 4.87 10.64(900)(0.80)1.85
10.64(30)(0.40)1.85 ℎ𝑓 =
(130)1.85 𝐷 4.87
𝑜𝑟 √
(130)1.85 (4)
ℎ𝑓 =
(120)1.85 (0.60)4.87
D = 0.71452 m
𝒉𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟒𝟓 𝒎