Earth Science — 1st Semester

Grade 11 STEM

Module 1: The Habitable Earth and Its Subsystems

Review:
》The Solar System is composed of the sun and the eight planets revolving around it namely Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
- Pluto, originally the ninth planet, was downgraded by the International Astronomical Union (IAU)
from the group and was considered a dwarf planet because it did not meet the criteria the IAU
uses to define a full-sized planet.

▪︎Planet’s habitability is the ableness of the planet to harbor life.

Planet’s habitability, or ableness to harbor life, results from a complex network of interactions between
the planet itself, the system it is a part of, and the star it orbits.

There are two major conditions for a planet to become habitable:

》First, the star should survive long enough for its planet to develop life.
- Massive stars have the slightest possibility to be habitable since they only live for a relatively
short period. This is because the more massive stars are throwing out energy at such a rate that
even though they have larger reservoirs of fuel, they burn out very rapidly.

- Our sun, a low- mass star, can survive long enough for life to develop.

》The second condition is the planet should exist in a region where water could remain liquid.
- Just like in the story of Goldilocks and the Three Bears, Goldilocks Zone describes an area in
space where a planet is located just the right distance from its home star so that the planet’s
surface is not too hot and not too cold, just like what the earth is....” a habitable zone”.

Facts on Planet Earth

▪︎The name Earth is at least 1,000 years old.

▪︎All the planets, except Earth, were named after Greek and Roman gods and goddesses.
- Earth, on the other hand, is a Germanic word, which simply means “the ground.”

▪︎If the Sun were as tall as a typical front door, Earth would be the size of a nickel (door handle).

▪︎Earth is the third planet from the Sun at about 93 million miles (150 million km).

▪︎A day on earth is 24 hours. Earth makes a complete orbit around the sun (a year in Earth time) in about
365 days.

▪︎It is a rocky planet with a solid and dynamic surface of mountains, canyons, plains, and more. Most part
of our planet is covered with water.
▪︎Earth’s atmosphere is 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O), and 0.9% argon (Ar).
- Gases like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, methane, and ozone are trace gases that account for
about a tenth of one percent of the atmosphere.

▪︎Earth has no ring and has one moon.

▪︎Many orbiting spacecrafts study the earth from above as a whole system- observing the atmosphere,
ocean, glaciers, and the solid Earth.
▪︎Earth’s atmosphere protects us from incoming meteoroids, most of which break up in our atmosphere
before they can strike the surface.

Factors that make a Not Enough of the Just Right Too Much of the Situation in the
Planet Habitable Factor Factor Solar System

Temperature
Low temperatures Life seems to be At about 125oC, Surface: only the
influences how cause chemicals to limited to a protein and Earth’s surface is in
quickly atoms and react slowly, which temperature range carbohydrate this temperature
molecules move. interferes with the of -15oC to 115oC. molecules, and the range.
reactions necessary In this range, liquid genetic material
for life. It can also water can still exist (e.g., DNA and Sub- surface: the
cause the freezing of under certain RNA) start to break interior of the solid
water, making liquid conditions. apart. Also, high planets and moons
water unavailable. temperatures cause may be in this
the quick temperature range.
evaporation of
water.

Atmosphere Small planets and Earth & Venus are Venus’s atmosphere Of the solid planets
moons have the right size to hold is 100 times thicker & moons, only Earth,
Traps heat, shields insufficient gravity to a sufficient-sized than Earth’s. It is Venus, & Titan have
the surface from hold an atmosphere. atmosphere. Earth’s made almost entirely significant
harmful radiation, The gas molecules atmosphere is about of greenhouse atmospheres. Mars’
and provides escape to space, 100 miles thick. It gasses, making the atmosphere is about
chemicals needed leaving the planet or keeps the surface surface too hot for 1/100th that of
for life, such as moon without an warm & protects it life. The four giant Earth’s, too small for
nitrogen and carbon insulating blanket or from radiation & planets are significant insulation
dioxide. a protective shield. small- to medium- completely made of or shielding.
sized meteorites. gas.

Energy
When there is too With a steady input Light energy is a Surface: The inner
Organisms use light little sunlight or too of either light or problem if it makes a planets get too much
or chemical energy few of the chemicals chemical energy, planet too hot or if sunlight for life. The
to run that provide energy cells can run the there are too many outer planets get too
their life processes. to cells, such as iron chemical reactions harmful rays, such little.
or sulfur, organisms necessary for life. as ultraviolet. Too
die. many energy-rich Sub-surface: Most
chemicals is not a solid planets &
problem moons have energy-
rich chemicals.

Nutrients
 Without chemicals to All solid planets & Too many nutrients Surface: Earth has a
Used to build and make proteins & moons have the are not a problem. water cycle, an
maintain an carbohydrates, same general However, too active atmosphere, and
organism’s body. organisms cannot chemical makeup, a circulation system, volcanoes to
grow. Planets so nutrients are such as the constant circulate nutrients.
without systems to present. Those with volcanism on Venus, Titan, Io, and
deliver nutrients to a water cycle or Jupiter’s moon, Io, Mars have nutrients
its organisms (e.g., a volcanic activity can or the churning and ways to
water cycle or transport and atmospheres of the circulate them to
volcanic activity) replenish the gas planets, organisms.
cannot support life. chemicals required interferes with an
Also, when nutrients by living organisms. organism’s ability to Sub-surface: Any
are spread so thin get enough planet or moon with
that they are hard to nutrients. sub-surface water or
obtain, such as on a molten rock can
gas planet, life circulate and
cannot exist. replenish nutrients
for organisms

The Four Subsystems of the Earth

》Earth is the only planet in the Solar System that can sustain life.
- It was tagged as the “blue marble” because as seen from outer space, the vast oceans of the
Earth have a far larger area than the land.
- Spinning clouds can also be seen hanging above the land and oceans.

With these, it can clearly be seen that Earth is divided into different subsystems or spheres:
▪︎hydrosphere, the water part
▪︎atmosphere, the gaseous covering
▪︎geosphere, the solid part
▪︎biosphere, the living component of the Earth.

These subsystems work together making earth sustain life. The interaction of the spheres is what makes
Earth a system, where one sphere cannot act independently from the others.

》Earth is a closed system.

- A closed system holds a fixed quantity of matter.

》The volume of mineral resources a planet has will remain the same all through time.
- The resources used can never be regenerated, and the waste produced cannot really be
disposed of.
- Once used up, these mineral resources are transformed into something else, maintaining the
amount within this closed system.

》Changes within one subsystem eventually causes change in others just like the domino effect.
- Although earth is considered a closed system, its four subsystems are open systems where
matter and energy can freely navigate between them.
- Thus, any disturbance in one system distresses the others.
▪︎The geosphere (sometimes referred to as
lithosphere in other books), is the solid part of the
earth.
- This subsystem includes the naturally-
occurring solid aggregate of minerals, soil,
sand, rocks,mountains, volcanoes, and hills.

- It includes the rocks of the crust and mantle,

the metallic liquid outer core, and the solid
metallic inner core.

- Plate Tectonics is an important process

shaping the surface of the Earth. The
primary driving mechanism is the Earth's
internal heat, such as that in mantle
convection.

- ex: St. Paul Mountains, Cabayugan, Puerto Princesa City

▪︎The hydrosphere is the water portion of the earth including the cryosphere.
- The cryosphere contains the frozen parts of the planet.

- It includes snow and ice on land, ice caps, glaciers, permafrost (a thick subsurface layer of soil
that remains frozen throughout the year,occurring chiefly in polar regions), and sea ice.

- ex: The Underground River in Puerto Princesa City, Palawan

▪︎The atmosphere is the envelope of gases that surround the planet.

- It’s the thin gaseous layer that envelops the lithosphere.
- These gases include nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, and water vapor.
- The general composition of air in the atmosphere is 78% Nitrogen (N), 21% Oxygen (O),
0.9% Argon (Ar), and 0.1% of trace gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides,
methane, and ozone.

- One of the most important processes by which the heat on the Earth's surface is redistributed is
through atmospheric circulation.

- There is also a constant exchange of heat and moisture between the atmosphere and the
hydrosphere through the hydrologic cycle.

▪︎The biosphere contains all the living component of the earth such as plants, animals and microbes that
can be seen 1 km above the sea level down to the deepest parts of the oceans.
- The biosphere is the set of all life forms on Earth. It reaches any place where life of any kind
exists. Some denotes biosphere as the “zone of life”.
 - From a geophysical viewpoint, the biosphere is the global ecological system combining all living
things and their relationship, encompassing their interactions with the elements of the geosphere,
hydrosphere, and atmosphere.

- In a nutshell, the biosphere is the subsystem which covers all the living things found on the other
spheres. It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs,
and from the plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep sea.

- ex: Irawan Eco Forest, Puerto Princesa City, Palawan

- For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain comprises photosynthetic organisms.
During photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from the atmosphere, while oxygen is released as a
byproduct. The biosphere is a CO2 sink, and therefore, an important part of the carbon cycle.

- Sunlight is not necessary for life.

Addtl. Info
• Warm air converges and rises to form low- pressure zones. Low-pressure areas are associated with
increased precipitation. By contrast, cold air descends to form high-pressure regions (dry regions).

• The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is transferred among the atmosphere, oceans, soil,
and living organisms.

• Isolated and complex ecosystems thrive in the deep sea floor at depths beyond the reach of sunlight.
The base of the food chain for such ecosystems is called chemosynthetic organisms. Instead of sunlight,
these organisms use energy from hydrothermal vents or methane seeps (methane seeping through rocks
and sediments) to produce simple sugars.

• The term "biosphere" was popularized by Vladimir Vernadsky (1863-1945), a Russian - Ukranian
scientist who hypothesized that life is a geological force that shapes the Earth.
Biogeochemical Cycle

》Biogeochemical cycle is any of the natural pathways by which essential elements of living matter are
distributed.
- The term biogeochemical is a narrowing term for the involvement of biological, geological, and
chemical aspects in a cycle.

To demonstrate the connections among the four subsystems, let’s take the water cycle, one of the
biogeochemical cycles, as an illustration.

Groundwater (located in the geosphere) is absorbed by plants (biosphere) and released to the
atmosphere through transpiration.
⏬
Water vapor (in the atmosphere) falls as rain where some of it is “absorbed by rocks”, (that is, water
seepage in rocks/rock layers), and become part of the groundwater
⏬
Some of it falls down in the bodies of water (hydrosphere) which will again evaporate and go to the
atmosphere through the help of the sun’s energy.

▪︎Biogeochemical cycle permits the distribution of necessary chemicals that sustain life, such as carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen, calcium, phosphorus, and water.

▪︎Through biogeochemical cycles, the balance of substances in the four spheres is achieved.

Importance
》Discussing about balance, let us take another important biogeochemical cycle — the carbon cycle.
- Carbon can be deposited in the biosphere (within the plants), in the atmosphere as a carbon
dioxide gas, as dissolved carbon dioxide in the oceans (hydrosphere), and as coal and oil
deposits in the geosphere.

- Due to human activities that entails burning of fossil fuels, there is a continuous accumulation of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere when it should have been deposited within the rocks.

- As a result, the atmosphere retaliates with a warmer temperature which in due course,
progresses to global warming and inevitable climate change.

▪︎The movement of matter and transfer of energy around the planet plays a fundamental role in Earth’s
system.
- It ensures that earth is habitable and determines the availability of key resources for human use.

▪︎Take, for instance, the availability of fossil fuels such as hydrocarbons and gas.
- The large- scale exploitation of these fossil fuel reserves has enabled Earth’s population to
develop on an incredibly fast economic growth trajectory that has brought us great wealth and
progress.

- However, the waste products of this fossil fuel use, primarily in the form of carbon dioxide and
methane, are causing large-scale disturbances in Earth’s climate.

▪︎These have been assessed by the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) in a series of
groundbreaking assessment reports, documenting sea levels, increasing temperatures, changing weather
patterns, heat waves and drought.

▪︎In geological history, some of the greenhouse gases that are now playing havoc with the climate have
played an essential role in regulating Earth’s temperature and created the conditions for life to evolve.
- At these long timescales, without human interference, the carbon atoms in carbon dioxide and
methane molecules would be continuously recycled in Earth’s geological cycles.

▪︎Variations in the rate of biogeochemical cycling are key to understanding past climate variability and
today’s climate change.

Module 2: Common Rock-forming Minerals

Rock-forming Minerals

》If a cell is the smallest unit of a living thing and is the basic building block of all organisms, the building block of
rocks are minerals.

▪︎The first written descriptions of minerals and rocks and why they were collected date back to Ancient
Egypt. Minerals, then, were used for cosmetic purpose and also for medical use and therefore collected in
the field

▪︎There are almost 5000 known mineral species, yet most rocks are formed from the combinations of a
few common minerals, referred to as “rock-forming minerals”.
- These are feldspars, quartz, amphiboles, micas, olivine, garnet, calcite, and pyroxenes.

▪︎Minerals occurring within a rock in small quantities are referred to as “accessory minerals”.
- Although accessory minerals are present in only small amounts, they may provide significant
insight into the geological history of a rock and are frequently used to determine the age of a rock.
- Common accessory minerals include zircon, monazite, apatite, titanite, tourmaline, pyrite, and
other opaques.

▪︎The abundance and diversity of minerals depend on the abundance in the Earth’s crust of the elements
of which they are composed.
- Eight elements make up 98% of the Earth’s crust: oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium,
calcium, sodium and potassium.

▪︎The composition of minerals formed by igneous processes is directly controlled by the chemistry of the
parent body.
- For example, a magma rich in iron and magnesium will form minerals such as olivine and
pyroxene (as found in basalt).
- Magma richer in silicon will form more silica-rich minerals such as feldspar and quartz (as found
in granite).
- It is unlikely that a mineral will be found in a rock with dissimilar bulk chemistry unlike its own;
thus it is unlikely that andalusite (Al2SiO5) would be found in an aluminum-poor rock such as
quartzite.

》The term “mineral” is used in health sciences as a substance that is beneficial to the body.
- In the mining industry, it is any substance that has been extracted from a mine.
- However, for geologists, a mineral is a naturally occurring substance that is usually solid,
crystalline, stable at room temperature, and inorganic.

Characteristics of Minerals
To determine an Earth mineral, it should exhibit the following characteristics:

✓ Naturally-occurring. It is a mineral if it has been formed by geologic processes without any human
intervention.

✓ Inorganic. A mineral is inorganic if it is formed by inorganic processes and does not contain any
organic compounds. However, minerals like calcite and other shell-forming materials are formed through
organic processes but are still considered as minerals if they become part of a rock.

✓ Solid. A mineral should exhibit stability at room temperature, which can only be attained if it is solid.

✓ Crystalline structure. Minerals look like crystals since the arrangement of their atoms is ordered and
repetitive. Thus, naturally occurring, inorganic solids, such as obsidian, cannot be considered a mineral
since they lack a crystalline structure.

✓ Can be represented by a chemical formula. Most minerals are chemical compounds and can be
represented using a fixed or variable chemical formula. An example of a mineral with a fixed formula is
quartz (SiO2). This indicates that the mineral quartz contains one silicon atom and two oxygen atoms.
Olivine is a mineral that has a variable chemical formula. It can be represented as either Mg2SiO4 or
Fe2SiO4.

The above characteristics are used to differentiate a mineral from a regular rock. Moreover, a mineral is
further identified by its unique sets of properties.

▪︎Some minerals are easily classifiable; others can only be recognized using a petrographic microscope
or by complex analytical techniques. The following criteria are used to differentiate minerals in hand
sample.
- Most minerals cannot be identified from one particular property, and so, it is advisable to use
several of the diagnostic criteria below. A hand lens will help greatly.

□ Color
- Color is one of the most obvious characteristics of a mineral, but generally not the most useful
diagnostic feature.
- A lot of minerals can exhibit same or similar colors. Individual minerals can also display a variety
of colors resulting from impurities and also from some geologic processes like weathering.
- Examples of coloring: quartz can be pink (rose quartz), purple (amethyst), orange (citrine), white
(colorless quartz) etc.

▪︎Depending on impurities, individual mineral types may come in a vast variety of colors.
- For example, ruby and sapphire are differently colored types of mineral corundum (Al2O3). The
red color of ruby is due to the presence of the element chromium. Sapphires may come in a vast
variety of colors; blue being the most familiar color; but yellow, orange, green, pink, orange, and
brown varieties are also known.

- Garnets may also come in a large range of colors, depending on their composition. They can be
found with virtually any color, although blue garnets are exceptionally rare. Therefore, it is not
advisable to rely on color alone to identify a mineral.
□ Crystal habit
- It refers to the characteristic shape of a mineral unit (either an individual crystal or an aggregate
of crystals).
- Crystals with well- developed faces are referred to as “euhedral”; for example, garnet crystals are
often euhedral.
- Minerals may also occur as aggregates of crystals; for example, asbestos is usually found as an
aggregate of very fine fibers.

Here is a list of different crystal habits and examples of common minerals that may exhibit each habit:
Acicular Dendritic Massive
needle-like, tree-like, branching in multiple no distinct shape
e.g. natrolite, directions, e.g. pyrolusite, native e.g. turquoise,
rutile copper, native silver realgar

Bladed Fibrous Octahedral

blade-like slender and flattened, very slender eight-sided, e.g. diamond,
e.g. kyanite prisms, magnetite
e.g. asbestos,
tremolite,
silimanite

Botryoidal Foliated or Platy

grape-like lamellar flat, tablet shape
masses layered structure, e.g. wulfenite
e.g. hematite, parts easily into
malachite very thin sheets,
e.g. muscovite,
biotite

Columnar Granular Prismatic

long, slender prisms, e.g. aggregates of crystals, e.g. bornite, elongate,
calcite, gypsum scheelite prism-like
e.g. tourmaline,
bery

Cubic Hexagonal Radial or stellate

cube-shaped, six-sided radiating outwards from a central
e.g. pyrite, e.g. quartz, point, star-like, e.g. wavellite,
galena, halite hanksite, pyrophyllite
sapphire
□ Hardness
- It is a measure of how resistant a mineral is to scratching. Their physical property is controlled by
the chemical composition and structure of the mineral.

▪︎Hardness is commonly measured on the Mohs’s scale.

- This is defined by ten minerals, where each mineral can scratch those with a lower scale number.
- Diamond (Hardness 10) can scratch everything below it on the Mohs’s scale, whereas quartz
(Hardness 7) can scratch fluorite (Hardness 4) but not corundum (Hardness 9).

Pros of the Mohs scale:

i. The test is easy.

ii. The test can be done anywhere,

anytime, as long as there is sufficient light
to see scratches.

iii. The test is convenient for field

geologists with scratch kits who want to
make a rough identification of minerals
outside the lab.

Cons of the Mohs scale:

i. The Scale is qualitative, not quantitative.

ii. The test cannot be used to accurately

test the hardness of industrial materials.

□ Streak
- The streak of a mineral refers to the color of the mark it leaves behind after being rubbed against
a piece of unglazed porcelain.
- It is the mineral’s color in powdered form. It is inherent in almost every mineral, and is a more
diagnostic property compared to color. Note that the color of a mineral can be different from its
streak.

▪︎Hematite provides a good example of how streak works. While this mineral is usually black, silver, or
brown-red in hand sample, its streak is always a dark blood-red.
▪︎Chalcopyrite is usually golden-brown in hand sample but has a green-black streak.
▪︎Streak can be used only for minerals with a Mohs’s hardness of 7 or less, as minerals with a hardness
greater than 7 will themselves scratch the streak plate.
▪︎A streak plate is an unglazed porcelain is with a hardness of approximately 7.0.
□ Luster
- It refers to the way in which the surface of a
mineral reflects light, and is controlled by the
kinds of atoms present and their bonding.

- it is the quality and intensity of reflected light

exhibited by the mineral

a. Metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent

shine similar to a polished metal
b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy), adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like), resinous, silky, pearly, dull
(earthy), greasy, among others.

It is described by the following terms:

Term Definition Examples

Adamantine diamond-like luster; such minerals diamond

are usually transparent and have a cerussite
high refractive index cubic zirconia

Dull or earthy no reflections kaolinite

Greasy the appearance of being coated with opal

an oily substance; may also be
greasy to the touch

Pearly the whitish iridescence of materials stilbite

such as pearls

Vitreous like glass calcite

quartz
beryl

Silky like silk fabric satin spar

(a variety of gypsum)

Resinous like a resin fire opal

Metallic metal-like in appearance pyrite

□ Cleavage
▪︎Minerals are composed of atoms, which, for each mineral, have a characteristic arrangement.
- Weaknesses in the chemical bonds between these atoms cause plane of weakness in the crystal
structure.

▪︎Cleavage is an indication of how well a mineral breaks along these planes of weakness and maybe a
good diagnostic characteristic.
- It may be described as “perfect”, “good”, “distinct” or “poor”.
- In transparent minerals or in thin sections viewed through a microscope, cleavage may be seen
as a series or parallel lines.
▪︎It is the property of some minerals to break along specific planes of weakness to form smooth, flat
surfaces
- These planes exist because the bonding of atoms making up the mineral happens to be weak in
those areas.
- When minerals break evenly in more than one direction, cleavage is described by the number of
cleavage directions, the angle(s) at which they meet, and the quality of cleavage (e.g. cleavage in
2 directions at 90°).

▪︎Cleavage is different from habit; the two are distinct, unrelated properties. Although both are dictated by
crystal structure, crystal habit forms as the mineral is growing, relying on how the individual atoms in the
crystal come together. Cleavage, meanwhile, is the weak plane that developed after the crystal is formed.

▪︎The number of cleavage planes in a mineral may also aid in its identification.
- Cleavage typically occurs in either one, two, three, four or six directions.
- Micas easily split along their one plane of cleavage to form thin sheets.
- Amphiboles exhibit two cleavage planes.
- Iceland spar, a variety of calcite, cleaves readily along three planes of weakness into
distinctive rhombs.
- Galena breaks along three cleavage planes producing cubic fractions.
- Fluorite and diamond show cleavage in four directions.
- Sphalerite exhibits cleavage in six directions.

▪︎Not every mineral display cleavage. For example, quartz does not have a weakness in its crystal
structure and therefore does not exhibit cleavage.

▪︎When a quartz specimen is broken with a hammer, it displays conchoidal (shell-like) fracture. Fracture
is exhibited if the mineral does not have a cleavage plane.

□ Specific Gravity
- also known as SG, is a measurement that determines the density of minerals.

▪︎Two minerals may be the same size, but their weight may be very different.
- The specific gravity of a mineral determines how heavy it is by its relative weight to water.
- The specific gravity value is expressed upon how much greater the weight of the mineral is to an
equal amount of water.

▪︎Water has a specific gravity of 1.0. If a mineral has a specific gravity of 2.7, it is 2.7 times heavier than
water.

▪︎Minerals with a specific gravity under 2 are considered light, between 2 and 4.5 average, and greater
than 4.5 heavy.

▪︎Most minerals with a metallic luster are heavy. The specific gravity may slightly vary within a mineral
because of impurities present in the mineral's structure.
 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 / 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

□ Others
- magnetism, odor, taste, tenacity, reaction to acid, etc.
- For example, magnetite is strongly magnetic; sulfur has distinctive smell; halite is salty; calcite
fizzes with acid as with dolomite but in powdered form; etc

ROCK FORMING MINERALS

Mineral Characteristics

1. Feldzpar ▪︎”Feldspar” is the name of a huge group of rock-forming silicate minerals that
make up over 50% of Earth’s crust.

▪︎They are found in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks in all parts
of the world.

▪︎Feldspar minerals have very similar structures, chemical compositions, and

physical properties.

▪︎Common feldspars include

orthoclase (KAlSi3O8)
albite (NaAlSi3O8)
anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8).

Potassium Feldspar

2. Quartz ▪︎Quartz or Silicon dioxide (SiO2) is a chemical compound consisting of one-

part silicon and two parts oxygen.

▪︎It is the most abundant and widely distributed mineral found at Earth's
surface
- present and plentiful in all parts of the world.
- Its unique properties make it one of the most useful natural
substances.
Quartz forms at all temperatures and is abundant in igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.

▪︎It is highly resistant to both mechanical and chemical weathering.

- This durability makes it the dominant mineral in mountaintops and
the primary constituent of beach, river, and desert sand.

▪︎Quartz is ubiquitous, plentiful, and durable.

- Minable deposits are found throughout the world.
3. Amphibole ▪︎Amphibole is a crucial institution of usually darkish-colored, inosilicate
minerals, forming prism or needlelike crystals, composed of double chain
SiO4 (Silicon tetroxide) and normally containing ions of iron and/or
magnesium in their systems.

▪︎Amphiboles may be inexperienced, black, colorless, white, yellow, blue, or

brown.

▪︎The International Mineralogical Association presently classifies amphiboles

as a mineral supergroup with several subgroups.

4. Mica ▪︎Of the 28 known species of the mica group, only 6 are
common rock-forming minerals.
- Muscovite, the common light-colored mica, and biotite, which is
typically black or nearly so, are the most abundant.
- Phlogopite, typically brown, and paragonite, which is
macroscopically indistinguishable from muscovite, also are fairly
common.
- Lepidolite, generally pinkish to lilac in color, occurs in lithium-
bearing pegmatites.
- Glauconite, a green species that does not have the same general
macroscopic characteristics as the other micas, occurs occasionally
in many marine sedimentary sequences.

▪︎All of these micas except glauconite exhibit easily observable perfect

cleavage into flexible sheets.
- Glauconite, often occurs as pelletlike grains, does not have
apparent cleavage.

5. Olivine ▪︎Olivine is typically found in mafic and ultramafic igneous

rocks such as basalt, gabbro, dunite, diabase, and peridotite.

▪︎They are usually green in color and have compositions that typically range
between Mg2SiO4 and Fe2SiO4.

▪︎Many people are familiar with olivine because it is the mineral of a very
popular green gemstone known as peridot.

6. Garnet
▪︎Garnet is best known as a red gemstone and birthstone of January.

▪︎It occurs in many colors and has many industrial uses.

▪︎These minerals are found throughout the world in metamorphic, igneous,

and sedimentary rocks.
- Most garnet found near Earth's surface forms when a sedimentary
rock with a high aluminum content, such as shale, is subjected to
heat and pressure intense enough to produce schist or gneiss.
 - Garnet is also found in the rocks of contact metamorphism,
subsurface magma chambers, lava flows, deep-source volcanic
eruptions, and the soils and sediments formed when garnet-bearing
rocks are weathered and eroded.

▪︎In the United States, the major industrial uses of garnet in 2012 were
waterjet cutting (35%), abrasive blasting media (30%), water filtration
granules (20%), and abrasive powders (10%).

7. Calcite ▪︎Calcite is a rock-forming mineral with a chemical formula of CaCO3.

▪︎It is extremely common and found throughout the world in sedimentary,

metamorphic, and igneous rocks.
- Some geologists consider it to be a "ubiquitous mineral" - one that is
found everywhere.

▪︎Calcite is the principal constituent of limestone and marble.

- These rocks are extremely common and make up a significant
portion of Earth's crust.
- They serve as one of the largest carbon repositories on our planet.

▪︎The properties of calcite make it one of the most widely used minerals.
- Its uses include as a construction material, abrasive, agricultural soil
treatment, construction aggregate, pigment, pharmaceutical, and
more.

▪︎It has more uses than any other mineral.

8. Pyroxene ▪︎Pyroxene is any of a group of important rock-forming silicate minerals of

variable composition, among which calcium-, magnesium-, and iron-rich
varieties predominate.

▪︎Pyroxenes are the most significant and abundant group of rock-forming

ferromagnesian silicates.
- They are found in almost every variety of igneous rock and also
occur in rocks of widely different compositions formed under
conditions of regional and contact metamorphism.

▪︎Pyroxene is derived from the Greek pyro, meaning “fire,” and xenos,
meaning “stranger”.

Significance of Studying Minerals

》Rocks and minerals are all around us. By studying minerals, we develop awareness about the benefits they bring to
people.
- As we learn about these benefits, we become mindful of their significance to mankind.
- This significance gives us thoughts on how we can preserve them so that they will still be
available in the future.

》Rocks and minerals help us to develop new technologies that are used in our everyday lives.
- They are utilized as building materials, cosmetics, cars, roads, and appliances.
 - They also play a valuable role in natural systems such as providing habitat and provide soil
nutrients where the tallest trees in the world grow.

》Rocks and minerals are important for learning about earth materials, structure, and systems. Studying these natural
objects incorporates an understanding of earth science, chemistry, physics, and math.

Chemical compositions of Minerals

Element Element Element Element Element Element Element
+ SiO4 + O2 + SO4 + S2 + CO3 + Halogens

Native Silicate Oxide Sulfate Sulfide Carbonate Halide

Gold Quartz Hematite Gypsum Pyrite Calcite Chlorine

Bismuth Olivine Magnetite Barite Galena Dolomite Fluorine

Diamond Talc Chromite Anhydrite Bornite Malachite Halite

Elements in Minerals
▪︎The elements listed below comprise almost 99% of the minerals making up the Earth’s crust.

Element Symbol % by weight of Earth’s % of atoms

crust

Oxygen O 46.6 62.6

Silicon Si 27.7 21.2

Aluminum Al 8.1 6.5

Iron Fe 5.0 1.9

Calcium Ca 3.6 1.9

Sodium Na 2.8 2.6

Potassium K 2.6 1.4

Magnesium Mg 2.1 1.8

All other elements 1.4 <0.1

1. Silicates – minerals containing the two most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust, namely, silicon
and oxygen.

a. When linked together, these two elements form the silicon oxygen tetrahedron - the
fundamental building block of silicate minerals.
b. Over 90% of rock-forming minerals belong to this group.

2. Oxides – minerals composed of oxygen anion (O2-) combined with one or more metal ions

3. Sulfates – minerals containing sulfur and oxygen in the form of the (SO4)- anion

4. Sulfides – minerals containing sulfur and a metal; some sulfides are sources of economically important
metals such as copper, lead, and zinc.

5. Carbonates – minerals containing the carbonate (CO3)2- anion combined with other elements

6. Native Elements – minerals that form as individual elements

a. Metals and Intermetals – minerals with high thermal and electrical conductivity, typically with
metallic luster, low hardness (gold, lead)
b. Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile than metals and have lower conductivity (arsenic,
bismuth)
c. Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, diamond)

7. Halides – minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or more metals

Module 3: The Three Main Categories of Rocks

》Lithosphere, as the part shared by both of our planet’s mantle and crust, is incredibly significant to all the
existing terrestrial lives.
- It holds a reservoir of underground water, minerals, and other natural resources.
- This very portion of the Earth is made up of tons of rocks that make it rigid and are subjected to
tectonic activities that later resulted in its differentiation.

》Rocks are compact aggregates of different types of minerals or plain consolidated aggregates of the
same kind.
- Despite having the same composition (minerals), rocks differ in terms of origin and properties.

》Petrology (derived from the) Greek words “petra” which means “rock” and “logos” which means “study”)
- it is a special branch of Geology that deals with rocks, leading us to fully use rocks as our key to
solve puzzles of how planet Earth came to be and how it is being continually shaped as time goes
by.

Classification of Rocks

□ Igneous Rock
 - derived its name from the Latin word “ignis” which means fire.
▪︎This type of rock is the result of the crystallization of molten material that is subjected to high
temperature and pressure.
- Once energy is released in the form of heat, solidification process (liquid to solid state) will occur.
- Crystallization, which is the process of formation and growth of individual mineral crystal,
determines the type of igneous rock that will be formed.

▪︎These are formed from the solidification of molten rock material (magma or lava).
- Molten rock material can solidify below the surface of the earth (plutonic igneous rocks) or at the
surface of the Earth (volcanic igneous rocks).
- Minerals are formed during the crystallization of the magma.
- The rate of cooling is one of the most important factors that control crystal size and the texture of
the rock in general.

▪︎Magma is a molten rock material beneath the surface of the earth. Lava is molten rock material extruded
to the surface of the earth through volcanic or fissure eruptions

Types:
▪︎Igneous intrusive or Plutonic igneous rocks are formed when the parent material, magma, does not
reach up Earth surface and cools down underneath.
- From solidified magma underneath the earth
- This type of igneous rock takes thousand or even million years to solidify due to its extremely hot
surrounding.
- gradual lowering of the temperature gradient at depth towards the surface would cause slow
cooling/crystallization
- Most of the common example of plutonic rocks are the gabbro, diorite, andesite and peridotite
which we have here in Palawan.
- This type of rock is phaneritic or coarse-grained in texture.

▪︎Igneous extrusive or volcanic igneous rocks on the

other hand, is formed when the magma reached Earth’s
surface or erupt onto the surface from a volcanic eruption.
- from solidified lava at or near the surface of the earth
- The liquid material coming out from a volcano (lava)
solidifies and becomes extrusive igneous rocks
because of its exposure to air or into the bodies of
the water.
- fast rate of cooling/crystallization due to huge
variance in the temperature between Earth’s surface
and underneath
- This type of igneous rock is fine-grained or aphanitic
in nature. Also porphyritic and vesicular
- Most common examples are basalt, obsidian, and
fire opal, which Palawan also has.
 - Pyroclastic rocks: fragmental rocks usually associated with violent or explosive type of eruption.
Examples are tuff and pyroclastic flow deposits (ignimbrite)

》 Igneous rock can also be classified based on its

color as felsic (from “feldsfar” and “silicon”) and
mafic (from “magnesium” and “ferric”).
- Felsic igneous rocks are light in
coloration due to high concentration of
the feldsfar that is rich in aluminum.
- On the contrary, mafic igneous rocks are
dark-colored due to the huge presence of
olivine and pyroxene that are rich in
magnesium and iron.

Addtl info:
Igneous rocks are also classified according to
silica content: felsic, intermediate, mafic and
ultramafic.
• felsic: also called granitic; >65% silica,
generally light-colored
• intermediate: also called andesitic; 55-
65% silica; generally medium colored
(medium gray)
• mafic: also called basaltic; 45-55% silica; generally dark colored
• ultramafic: <45% silica; generally very dark colored; composed mainly of olivine and pyroxene
which are the major constituents of the upper mantle
Textures:
Slow cooling forms large Aphanitic texture: fine- Porphyritic texture: Vesicular texture: voids
interlocking crystals, a grained texture; minerals formed through two stages created by rapid cooling
texture called phaneritic. not visible to the naked of crystallization: magma which causes air bubbles
eye; relatively fast rates of partly cooled below the to be trapped inside.
cooling/solidification surface of the Earth,
prevented the formation of giving time for the large
large crystals. crystals to grow
(phenocrysts) before it is
extruded to the surface
forming the fine-grained
groundmass.

□ Sedimentary Rocks
▪︎Sedimentary Rocks are derived from sediments that are loose accumulation of uncontrolled
fragments.
- These sediments undergo lithification, which is a process of cementing and compacting these
loose materials.
- Sedimentary processes at or near the surface of the Earth include: weathering of rocks, sediment
transport and deposition, compaction and cementation

▪︎Factors in sedimentary processes: weathering and transport agents (water, wind ice)
▪︎Common sedimentary features: strata and fossils
 - Strata: >1cm is called bedding and anything less is called lamination; layering is the result of a
change in grain size and composition; each layer represents a distinct period of deposition.
- Fossils: remains and traces of plants and animals that are preserved in rocks

▪︎Palawan, as one of the islands in the Philippine archipelago, has numerous sedimentary rocks.
- In fact, we have those mesmerizing limestone forests. To name a few, we have one of the seven
new wonders of the world
- Puerto Princesa Underground River found at Sitio Sabang, Barangay Cabayugan
- Ugong Rock at Barangay Tagabinet
- the huge Karst mountain, also known as Elephant Cave.

▪︎These rock formations were shaped for a long time and witnessed the aging of our planet. Because of
the compaction and cementation of sediments, fossils were not unusual to be found in this type of rock.
- Sedimentary rocks can be identified according to its texture, nature and shape of the sediments
and presence of cements.

There are three main types of sedimentary rocks:

▪︎Clastic sedimentary or terrigenous rocks are derived from mechanical weathering which involves the
breakdown of rocks into smaller ones at the surface of the crust, accumulate as clasts then piled on top of
one another and lithified.
- Common examples are the sandstones, silts, and shales.
- These classes of rocks can be found here in our city such as in Barangay Irawan and Langogan.

▪︎Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed when dissolved materials precipitate from the solution.
- Examples are rock salt, iron ore and some limestone such as
- stalactite (hangs like an icicle from the ceiling or sides of caves) and
- stalagmite (like an inverted stalactite that is rising from the floor)

▪︎Organic sedimentary rocks. This sedimentary rock is similar with terrigenous rock in terms of
formation. The difference is, organic sedimentary rocks are formed by accumulated sedimentary debris
caused by organic processes.
- These rocks may contain fossils of plants or animals trapped in the sediments as rocks are
lithified.
- Examples are coals, some dolomites, and some limestones such as those rocks found in Puerto
Princesa underground river containing the 20-million-year old sea cow

□ Metamorphic Rock
- got its name from the Greek words “meta”, meaning change and “morph” which means form.
- rocks that form from the transformation of pre-existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic rocks) through the process of metamorphism.

▪︎In geology, it is an infinite fact that earth is dynamic and always undergo changes. These changes could
cause rocks to be pressed, bend or deeply buried under layers of other rocks leading to the increase of
temperature and pressure.
 - This increase could further lead to the physical and chemical change in the original rock, forming
a new one through the process of metamorphism.
- The product of this process is the metamorphic rock. This type of rock composed a large part of
the Earth’s crust and can be classified based on texture, chemical and mineral make-up.
Types:
▪︎Non-foliated metamorphic rocks are formed
when rocks are heated by intrusion.
- It shows colored bands that reflect
exceedingly small impurities for they have
uniform texture and do not have parallel
layered appearance. They are better
identified on their composition.

- Contact metamorphism —Heat as the

main factor: occurs when a pre-existing
rocks get in contact with a heat source
(magma)
- Occurs on a relatively small scale:
around the vicinity of intruding
magma

- Examples of this are marbles

which Romblon is abundant with
and quartzite where barangay
Langogan is rich with.
▪︎Foliated metamorphic rocks are formed within
Earth’s interior under extremely high temperature
and unequal pressure. This case of different pressure
causes the minerals in the original rock to reorient
themselves and gives the rock a layered band
appearance.
- Foliated rocks are better identified based on their
texture.

- Regional metamorphism
• Pressure as main factor: occurs in areas that have
undergone deformation during orogenic event resulting in
mountain belts
• Occurs in a regional/large scale
• Non-foliated rocks like marble also form thru regional
metamorphism, where pressure is not intense, far from
the main geologic event

- Some of the common foliated metamorphic rocks

found here in Puerto Princesa City are the slates
and phyllites.
▪︎Slate and phyllite show the difference in terms of texture because of the foliation or the repetitive
layering. Marble and quartzite on the other hand, are non-foliated but show differences in composition.
They are harder and recrystallized compared to the original rock which they were made from.

Module 4: Mineral Resources

》Our modern society depends on the availability of mineral resources extracted from the earth.
- Materials found in our homes and in any industrialized city reveal just how many minerals we
consume in our daily living.
- The television we often used for entertainment contains 35 different elements, the components of
our kitchen appliances like gas range, mixers, and oven toaster contain numerous amounts of
iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) especially those that use to make stainless steel.
- A cellphone contains about 13 different minerals; even moisturizing soap contains five (5)
different essential ingredients that come from mine.

▪︎The history of mineral application can be traced back to Ancient Egypt, minerals were used for cosmetic
and medical purposes.
- In Egypt metal-sulfide minerals like galena, pyrolusite, magnetite, and stibnite were pulverized
and used to create “kohl” or kajal, a black color use as makeup for the eyes.
- As for medical use, Egyptians believed that the mineral malachite could cure abdominal diseases
and dental problems as described in ancient medical scrolls.

▪︎Today, other applications include constructing building materials, developing weapons for defense,
machinery, making jewelry, synthesizing fertilizers, etc. The increasing need for these minerals has
brought advancement to science.
 Minerals and Their Uses
Aggregates Natural aggregates include sand, gravel, and crushed stone. Aggregates are composed of
rock fragments that may be used in their natural state or after mechanical processing, such
as crushing, washing, or sizing.

Recycled aggregates consist mainly of crushed concrete and crushed asphalt pavement.

Aluminum Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element in the Earth's crust. Bauxite ore is the
main source of aluminum.

Aluminum is used in automobiles and airplanes (36%), bottling and canning industries
(25%), building and electrical (14%), and in other applications (25%).

Halite Halite (salt) is used in the human and animal diet, primarily as a food seasoning and as
food preservation.

It is also used to prepare sodium hydroxide, soda ash, caustic soda, hydrochloric acid,
chlorine, and metallic sodium, and it is used in ceramic glazes, metallurgy, curing of hides,
mineral waters, soap manufacture, home water softeners, highway deicing, photography,
and scientific equipment for optical parts.

Calcium
The primary use of calcium is not in its silvery-white metal form but as calcium carbonate. It
is used in adhesives and sealants, cosmetics, foods, paint, paper, pharmaceuticals,
plastics, rubber, to produce lime, and as crushed stone in construction.

Dolomite Dolomite is the near twin-sister rock to limestone. Like limestone, it typically forms in a
marine environment but also has a primary magnesium component.

Dolomite is used in agriculture, chemical and industrial applications, cement construction,

refractories, and environmental industries.

Zinc Zinc is used as a protective coating on steel, like die-casting, as an alloying metal with
copper to make brass, and as chemical compounds in rubber and paint.

Additional uses include galvanizing iron, electroplating, metal spraying, automotive parts,
electrical fuses, anodes, dry-cell batteries, nutrition, chemicals, roof gutters, cable wrapping,
and pennies.

Zinc oxide is used in medicine, paints, vulcanizing rubber, and sunblock lotions.

Basalt
Basalt is an extrusive igneous rock.

Crushed basalt is used for railroad ballast, aggregate in highway construction, and is a
major component of asphalt.
 Cement Cement is used for building materials, stucco, and mortar. Cement is a mixture of powdered
lime, clay, and other minerals that crystallize to form a hard solid when water is added
(hydraulic cement) or as a binding material in concrete"

Fluorite Fluorite is used in the production of hydrofluoric acid, which is used in the pottery, ceramics,
optical, electroplating, and plastics industries.

It is also used in the metallurgical treatment of bauxite, as a flux in open-hearth steel

furnaces, and in metal smelting, as well as in carbon electrodes, emery wheels, electric arc
welders, and toothpaste as a source of fluorine.

Diamond Industrial diamonds are those that cannot be used as gems. Large diamonds are used in
tools and drilling bits to cut rock and small stones.

Small diamonds, also known as dust or grit, are used for cutting and polishing stone and
ceramic products.

Gold Gold is used in dentistry and medicine, jewelry and arts, medallions, coins, and ingots.

It is also used for scientific and electronic instruments, computer circuitry, as an electrolyte
in the electroplating industry, and in many applications for the aerospace industry.

》It is important to know that mineral resources are nonrenewable and once extracted, they are exhausted, and
another source must be found. Mineral resources are continuously created by the different geologic processes
happening in the earth’s interior, but it may take millions of years to form.

Terms:
▪︎Mineral Occurrence – concentration of a mineral that is of scientific or technical interest
▪︎Mineral Deposit – mineral occurrence of sufficient size and grade or concentration to enable extraction
under the most favorable conditions
▪︎Ore Deposit – a mineral deposit that has been tested and known to be economically profitable to mine.
▪︎Ore – naturally occurring material from which a mineral or minerals of economic value can be extracted.

》Mineral resources can be divided into two major types this includes metal ore and nonmetallic minerals.
▪︎Ore is a rock sufficiently enriched in one or more minerals to be mined profitably. Geologists usually use
the term to refer to a metallic mineral deposit and it is commonly accompanied by the name metal, for
example, iron ore or silver ore (gold, copper, platinum, and aluminum).

▪︎Nonmetallic mineral resources are useful rocks or minerals that are not metals such as salt, sand,
stone, clay, talc, limestone, and gravel.
》The geologic processes involved in the rock
cycle play a major role in the accumulation and
concentration of valuable elements/ minerals.

》The Plate tectonics theory states that the

Earth’s crust is broken into a dozen or more
plates of different sizes that move relative to one
another (lithosphere).
- These plates are moving slowly on
top of a hot and more mobile
material called the asthenosphere.

Mineral resources can be classified

according to the mechanism responsible for
concentrating the valuable substance:

1. Magmatic Ore Deposits

- Valuable substances are concentrated within an igneous body through magmatic processes such
as crystal fractionation, partial melting, and crystal settling.
- Magmatic processes can concentrate the ore minerals that contain valuable substances after
accumulating elements that were once widely dispersed and in low concentrations within the
magma.

Examples
▪ Crystal settling — As magma cools down, heavier minerals tend to crystallize early and settle at the
lower portion of the magma chamber.
- From a basaltic magma, chromite (FeCr2O4, magnetite (Fe3O4), and platinum (Pt) can be
concentrated through crystal settling.

▪ Fractional crystallization — The residual melt contains a high percentage of water and volatile
substances that are favorable for the formation of pegmatites.
- Pegmatites are enriched in lithium, gold, boron, rare elements, and some other heavy metals.
- This can also form pegmatites (large crystals of quartz, feldspars, and muscovite) which may
contain semi-precious gems such as beryl, topaz, and tourmaline.

2. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits

- The concentration of valuable substances by hot aqueous (water-rich) fluids flowing through
fractures and pore spaces in rocks.

- Hydrothermal solutions are hot, residual watery fluids derived during the later stages of magma
crystallization and may contain a large number of dissolved metals.
- These can also originate from the groundwater circulating at a depth that is being heated up by
cooling and solidifying igneous bodies or along depths with known geothermal gradient.
Examples
▪ Vein type deposits — A well-defined zone of mineralization, usually inclined and discordant and typically
narrow.
- Most vein deposits occur in fault or fissure openings or in shear zones within the country-rock.
- Sometimes referred to as (metalliferous) lode deposits, many of the most productive deposits of
gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and mercury occur as hydrothermal vein deposits.

▪ Disseminated deposits — Deposits in which the ore minerals are distributed as minute masses (very low
concentration) through large volumes of rocks.
- This occurrence is common for porphyry copper deposits

▪ Massive sulfide deposit (at oceanic spreading centers) — Precipitation of metals as sulfide minerals
such as sphalerite (ZnS) and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) occur when hot fluids circulated above magma
chambers at oceanic ridges that may contain sulfur, copper, and zinc come in contact with cold
groundwater or seawater as it migrates towards the seafloor.

▪ Stratabound ore deposits (in a lake or oceanic sediment) — This deposit is formed when the dissolved
minerals in a hydrothermal fluid precipitate in the pore spaces of unconsolidated sediments on the bottom
of a lake or ocean.
- Such minerals may contain economic concentrations of lead, zinc, and copper, usually in sulfide
form like galena (PbS), sphalerite (ZnS), and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2).

3. Sedimentary Ore Deposits

- Some valuable substances are concentrated by chemical precipitation coming from lakes or
seawater

Examples
▪ Evaporite Deposits — This type of deposit typically occurs in a closed marine environment where
evaporation is greater than water inflow.
- As most of the water evaporates, the dissolved substances become more concentrated in the residual water
and would eventually precipitate. Halite (NaCl), gypsum (CaSO4∙2H20), borax (used in soap), and sylvite
(KCl, from which K is extracted for fertilizers) are examples of minerals deposited through this process.

▪ Iron Formation — These deposits are made up of repetitive thin layers of iron-rich chert and several
other iron-bearing minerals such as hematite and magnetite.
- Iron formations appear to be of evaporite type deposits and are mostly formed in basins within
continental crust during the Proterozoic (2 billion years or older).

4. Placer Ore Deposits

 - Deposits are formed by the concentration of valuable substances through gravity separation
during sedimentary processes.

Examples
▪ gold, platinum, diamonds, and tin
▪ Usually aided by flowing surface waters either in streams or along coastlines.
▪ Concentration would be according to the specific gravity of substances, wherein the heavy minerals are
mechanically concentrated by water currents and the less-dense particles remain suspended and are
carried further downstream.
- Usually involves heavy minerals that are resistant to transportation and weathering.

5. Residual Ore Deposits

- A type of deposit that results from the accumulation of valuable materials through chemical
weathering processes.
- During the process, the volume of the original rock is greatly reduced by leaching

Examples
▪ bauxite
▪ The principal ore of aluminum is derived when aluminum-rich source rocks undergo intense chemical
weathering brought by prolonged rains in the tropics, leaching the common elements that include silicon,
sodium, and calcium through leaching.
▪ nickeliferous laterites or nickel laterites
▪ Are residual ore deposits derived from the laterization of olivine-rich ultramafic rocks such as dunite and
peridotite.
- Like in the formation of bauxite, the leaching of nickel-rich ultramafic rocks dissolves common
elements, leaving the insoluble nickel, magnesium, and iron oxide mixed in the soil.