Section – 4

Flow in Open Channels

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

4 FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS 4-1

4.1 Introduction 4-1
4.1.1 Addis Ababa Rivers 4-1

4.2 Open Channel Hydraulics 4-2

4.2.1 Basic Definitions 4-2
4.2.2 Flow Classification 4-4
4.1.2 Steady and Unsteady Flow 4-4
4.1.3 Uniform Flow and Non-Uniform Flow 4-4
4.1.4 Gradually-Varied and Rapidly-Varied 4-4
4.1.5 Summary of Flow Classifications 4-4
4.2.3 Governing Equations 4-5
4.2.4 Channel Rating 4-7
4.2.5 Channel Roughness 4-7

4.3 River Behaviour 4-9

4.3.1 General River Response to Change 4-10
4.3.2 Qualitative Prediction of Channel Response to Change 4-11

4.4 Roadside Drains 4-12

4.4.1 Channel Bends 4-15
4.4.2 Freeboard 4-16
4.4.3 Permissible Shear Stress 4-16

4.5 Computer Modelling 4-17

4.6 Worked Examples 4-17

4.6.1 Problem 1: Roadside Channel Lining 4-17
4.6.2 Problem 2: Maximum Capacity of Roadside Drain Protected by Grass 4-18

4.7 References 4-19

FIGURES
Figure 4.1. Terms in the Energy Equation 4-7
Figure 4.2: Nomograph for Calculation of Normal Depth 4-14
Figure 4.3: Permissible Shear Stress for Cohesive Soils 4-16

TABLES
Table 4.1: Principal Features of the River System in Addis Ababa 4-1
Table 4.2: Probable Flood Peak Discharges of Addis Ababa Rivers 4-1
Table 4.3: Channel Characteristics of Addis Ababa Rivers 4-2
Table 4.4: Values of Roughness Coefficient ‘n’ for Uniform Flow 4-8
Table 4.5: Impact of Changes in Sediment Supply 4-11
Table 4.6: Qualitative Response of Alluvial Channels 4-12
Table 4.7: Manning’s Roughness Coefficients for Roadside Drains 4-13
Table 4.8: Grass Cover Classification for Use of Table 4.9 4-13
Table 4.9: Permissible Shear Stress for Various Protective Material 4-15

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SYMBOLS used in SECTION 4

A = cross-sectional area of flow (m2)
A1 = cross sectional area at section 1 (m2)
A2 = cross sectional area at section 2 (m2)
Ai = cross-sectional area of subsection (m2)
At = total cross-sectional area of section (m2)
B = an increase in the product SQ¼ and a shift towards a braided condition
b = width of channel (m)
Cf = volumetric concentration of the fine sediment (mg/l)
d = hydraulic depth (m)
D50, d50 = median diameter of bed material, riprap size (m, mm)
E = specific energy (m)
Fr = Froude number
g = gravitational acceleration (9.807 m/s2)
h = stage (m)
h1 = upstream stage (m)
h2 = downstream stage (m)
hL=head loss due to local cross-sectional changes as well as boundary resistance (m)
K = channel conveyance (m3/s)
Ki = conveyance in subsection (m3/s)
Kt = total conveyance in section (m3/s)
M = a reduction in SQ¼
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
P = wetted perimeter (m)
Q = total discharge (m3/s)
Qs = sediment discharge (volume or weight/time)
R = hydraulic radius (m)
S = channel bed slope (m/m)
Sf = slope of the energy grade line (m/m)
T = channel top width at the water surface (m)
V = average flow velocity (m/s)
V1 = velocity at section 1 (m/s)
V2 = velocity at section 2 (m/s)
W = channel width (m)
y = flow depth (m)
α = velocity distribution coefficient
α1, α2 = kinetic energy correction coefficients
γ = unit weight of water (N/m3)
τo = boundary shear stress (N/m2)
τp = permissible shear stress (N/m2).
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4 FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS

4.1 Introduction
This chapter covers flow in open channels. Essentials of open-channel flow are presented in sufficient detail
to enable the designers to treat natural stream segment as well as man-made channels as part of road
drainage system. An otherwise wide subject of open-channel hydraulics has been tailored to meet specific
conditions of Addis Ababa city road drainage. In case of rivers, the hydraulic treatment is supplemented with
a general approach to assess the river response to human interventions. The open-channel principals
presented in this chapter fully apply to roadside drains which are also covered in Chapter 10 as part of road
surface drainage.

4.1.1 Addis Ababa Rivers

The city of Addis Ababa is situated at altitudes varying from 2,350 to 2,700 meters. Undulating and flat
topography of city spreads to the southern slopes of Intoto Ridge. The urban land includes valleys formed by
five major river systems flowing towards south. Flat topography gradually slopes to the south easterly
direction.

Table 4.1: Principal Features of the River System in Addis Ababa

Source: JICA, 1998

River System Basin Area (km2) River Length (km) River Slope
West Akaki 172.2 35.6 1/50 – 1/100
Little Akaki 30.8 20.5 1/25 – 1/100
Kebena 59.8 23.9 1/20 – 1/100
(Upper Kebena) (54.8)
(Lower Kebena) (5.0)
Bantyiketu 29.3
(Bantyiketu) (5.4) 1/100
(Kechene) (13.6) 11.2 1/20-1/50
(Kurtume) (10.3) 9.3 1/20-1/50
Hanku 11.1 8.6 1/50 – 1/70

Flood runoff analysis was conducted by Nippon Koei and Associates (JICA, 1998) using rational method in
conjunction with the triangular unit hydrograph. River discharges for return periods ranging from 2- to 30-year
were computed. Table 4.2 presents the probable flood peak discharges for the river systems.

Table 4.2: Probable Flood Peak Discharges of Addis Ababa Rivers

Source: JICA, 1998

River System Flood Peak Discharge (m3/s)

2-yr 5-yr 10-yr 20-yr 30-yr
West Akaki 280 380 450 510 550
Little Akaki 110 145 170 195 215
Kebena 200 280 320 370 400
Bantyiketu
(Bantyiketu) 120 160 190 215 230
(Kechene) 65 90 105 120 130
(Kurtume) 50 70 85 95 100
Hanku 50 65 75 90 95

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Based on the river surveys and the hydraulic analysis Nippon Koei and Associates (JICA, 1998) computed
river channel characteristics. Channel widths and the river carrying capacities were among the important
information compiled. Table 4.3 presents the river channel characteristics.

Table 4.3: Channel Characteristics of Addis Ababa Rivers

Source: JICA, 1998

River Average Channel Width (m) Carrying

Slope Minimum 4.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1 Average Capacity
(m3/s)
West Akaki 1/100 15 40 400-800
Little Akaki 1/50 5 20 50-300
Kebena 1/50 5 25 150-800
Bantyiketu 1/120 10 20 30-150
Kechene 1/30 8 15 50-250
Kurtume 1/35 8 10 30-150
Hanku 1/160 5 10 20-150

Table 4.2 indicates that Addis Ababa rivers have steep bed gradient. The beds are generally composed of
volcanic rock (JICA, 1998). This would indicate quite stable beds.

4.2 Open Channel Hydraulics

Open channel flow can be comprehensively analyzed with proper application of the involved hydraulic
principals and procedures. The known variables consist of design discharge, the channel geometry and the
bed slope. The required output generally includes flow depth and velocity, shear force and related
parameters to assess the potential for bed scour and bank erosion and the sediment transport environment,
if required.

In simpler cases, the procedures can be used readily and without the help of computer programs. This
section covers such procedures. More involved cases of complex cross-sections of natural streams or the
unsteady nature of the flow, enormous amount of computations are required which require the use of
computers. This Chapter presents an overview of computer modeling for such complex cases.

4.2.1 Basic Definitions

(a) Total Energy Head

Specific energy head is the energy head relative to the channel bottom. The total energy head is the specific
energy head plus the elevation of the channel bottom with respect to some datum.

(b) Energy Grade Line

The locus of the energy head from one cross section to the next defines the energy grade line.

(c) Specific Energy

Specific Energy (E) is defined as the energy head relative to the channel bottom. If the channel is not too
steep (slope less than 10 percent) and the streamlines are nearly straight and parallel (so that the hydrostatic
assumption holds), the specific energy E becomes the sum of the depth and velocity head:

E = y + α (V2/2g) (4.1)

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Where,
y = flow depth (m)
α = velocity distribution coefficient
V = mean velocity (m/s)
g = gravitational acceleration (9.807 m/s2)

(d) Velocity Distribution Coefficient

Due to the presence of a free surface and also to friction along the channel boundary, the velocities are not
uniformly distributed in the channel section. As a result, the velocity head of an open channel is usually
greater than the average velocity head computed as (Q/At)2/2g. A weighted average value of the velocity
head is obtained by multiplying the average velocity head, above, by a velocity distribution coefficient, α,
defined as:
n

α = ∑(Ki3/Ai2)/(Kt3/At2) (4.2)
i=1.

Where,
Ki = conveyance in subsection (Section 4.3.3b)
Kt = total conveyance in section
Ai = cross-sectional area of subsection (m2)
At = total cross-sectional area of section (m2)
n = number of subsections

(e) Froude Number

The Froude number (Fr) is an important dimensionless parameter in open channel flow. It represents the
ratio of inertia forces to gravity forces and is defined by:

Fr = V/[(gd/α).5 (4.3)
Where,
V = mean velocity = Q/A (m/s)
d = hydraulic depth = A/T (m)
A = cross-sectional area of flow (m2)
T = channel top width at the water surface (m)
Q = total discharge (m3/s)
This expression for Froude number applies to any single section channel of nonrectangular shape.

(f) Critical Flow

The flow in open channels at which the energy content of the fluid is at a minimum.

(g) Critical Depth

Critical depth is the depth of maximum discharge when the specific energy is held constant. Froude number
at critical depth has a value of one. Following relation holds at critical depth:

αQ2/g = A3/T (4.4)

(h) Subcritical and Supercritical Flow

Depths greater than critical occur in subcritical flow and the Froude number is less than one. In this state of
flow, small water surface disturbances can travel both upstream and downstream, and the control is always
located downstream.

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In supercritical flow the depth is less than the critical depth and the Froude number is more than one. Small
water-surface disturbances are always swept downstream in supercritical flow, and the location of the flow
control is always upstream.

(i) Hydraulic Jump

A hydraulic jump occurs when the flow changes from supercritical to subcritical. This takes place as an
abrupt transition associated with dissipation of energy. There are significant changes in depth and velocity
before and after the jump. The hydraulic jump is often employed to dissipate energy and control erosion at
highway drainage structures.

4.2.2 Flow Classification

4.1.2 Steady and Unsteady Flow

A steady flow is one in which the discharge passing a given cross-section is constant with respect to time.
The maintenance of steady flow in any reach requires that the rates of inflow and outflow be constant and
equal. When the discharge varies with time, the flow is unsteady.

4.1.3 Uniform Flow and Non-Uniform Flow

A uniform flow is one in which the velocity and depth remain constant along channel length, while they vary
in non-uniform flow. Uniform flow can only occur in a prismatic channel, which is a channel of constant cross
section, roughness, and slope in the flow direction. However, non-uniform flow can occur either in a prismatic
channel or in a natural channel with variable properties.

4.1.4 Gradually-Varied and Rapidly-Varied

A non-uniform flow in which the depth and velocity change gradually in the flow direction, such that vertical
accelerations can be neglected, is referred to as a gradually-varied flow; otherwise, it is considered to be
rapidly-varied.

4.1.5 Summary of Flow Classifications

The classification of open channel flow can be summarized as follows:

Steady Flow

ƒ Uniform Flow
ƒ Non-uniform Flow
− Gradually Varied Flow
− Rapidly Varied Flow

Unsteady Flow

ƒ Unsteady Uniform Flow (rare)

ƒ Unsteady Non-uniform Flow
− Gradually Varied Unsteady Flow
− Rapidly Varied Unsteady Flow

The steady uniform flow case and the steady non-uniform flow case are the most fundamental types of flow
treated in highway engineering hydraulics.

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4.2.3 Governing Equations

The following equations are most commonly used to analyze open channel flow. For simpler cases a hand-
held calculator solution of these equations can serve the purpose while for complex cases they form part of
computer programs.

(a) Manning’s Equation

Manning’s Equation is the most widely used depth-velocity relation for the open-channel flow. For a given
depth of flow in a channel with a steady uniform flow, the mean velocity, V, can be computed with Manning’s
equation:

V=(1/n) R2/3Sf1/2 (4.5)

Where,
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius = A/P (m)
P = wetted perimeter (m)
Sf = slope of the energy grade line (m/m) (note: for steady uniform flow, Sf = channel bed slope)

The selection of Manning’s ‘n’ is generally based on observation; however, considerable experience is
essential in selecting appropriate ‘n’ values. The range of ‘n’ values for various types of channels and
floodplains is given in Table 4.4.

For a given channel geometry, slope, roughness, and a specified value of discharge Q, a unique value of
depth occurs in steady uniform flow. It is called the normal depth. The normal depth is used to design
artificial channels in steady, uniform flow and is computed from Manning’s Equation:

Q = (1/n) AR2/3 Sf1/2 (4.6)

If the normal depth computed from Manning’s Equation is greater than critical depth, the slope is classified
as a mild slope. Conversely, if the normal depth is less than critical depth, the slope is a steep slope. Thus,
uniform flow is subcritical on a mild slope and supercritical on a steep slope.

(b) Channel Conveyance

In channel analysis, it is often convenient to group the channel properties in a single term called the channel
conveyance K:

K = AR2/3 /n (m3/s) (4.7)

and then Manning’s Equation can be written as:

Q = KS1/2 (m3/s) (4.8)

The conveyance represents the carrying capacity of a stream cross-section based upon its geometry and
roughness characteristics alone and is independent of the streambed slope.

The concept of channel conveyance is useful when computing the distribution of overbank flood flows in the
stream cross section and the flow distribution through the opening in a proposed stream crossing.

(c) Shear Stress

The shear stress at the boundary (το) for steady uniform flow, determined by applying the conservation of
mass and momentum principles to the control volume is given by the following equation:

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το = γRSf (4.9)

Where, το = boundary shear stress (N/m2)

γ = unit weight of water (N/m3) = ρg
ρ = density of water (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.807 m/s2)
R = hydraulic radius (m)
Sf = slope of the energy gradeline (m/m)

(d) Continuity Equation

The continuity equation is the statement of conservation of mass in fluid mechanics. For the special case of
one dimensional, steady flow of an incompressible fluid, it assumes the form:

Q = A1V1 = A2V2 (4.10)

Where, Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to successive cross sections along the flow path.

(e) Energy Equation

The energy equation expresses conservation of energy in open channel flow as energy per unit weight of
fluid with a dimension of head, it is therefore called the energy head. The energy head is composed of
potential energy head (elevation head), pressure head, and kinetic energy head (velocity head). These
energy heads are scalar quantities that give the total energy head at any cross section when added. In
comparing an upstream open channel cross section designated 1 and a downstream cross section
designated 2, the energy equation is:

h1 + α1 (V12/2g) = h2 + α2 (V22/2g) + hL (4.11)

Where:
h1 and h2 = the upstream and downstream stages, respectively (m)
α1, α2 = kinetic energy correction coefficients (Section 6.3.3d)
hL = head loss due to local cross-sectional changes as well as boundary resistance, m

The stage ‘h’ is the sum of the elevation head ‘z’ at the channel bottom and the pressure head, or depth of
flow ‘y,’ i.e. h = z + y. The terms in the energy equation are illustrated graphically in Figure 4.1. The energy
equation states that the total energy head at an upstream cross section is equal to the energy head at a
downstream section plus the intervening energy head loss. The energy equation can only be applied
between two cross sections at which the streamlines are nearly straight and parallel so that vertical
accelerations can be neglected.

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Figure 4.1. Terms in the Energy Equation

Source: HIRE 1990

4.2.4 Channel Rating

Stage-discharge relation for open channels can be determined accurately from stream gauging records if
these are available. The alternative is a theoretical approach such as Slope-Area Method.

The Slope-Area Method is a single-section analysis method and essentially involves solution of Manning’s
Equation for normal depth of flow. The method presumes the existence of steady uniform flow. The
procedure employed by this method has been explained in the worked example in Section 6.8

4.2.5 Channel Roughness

Manning’s ‘n’ is affected by many factors and its selection in natural channels depends heavily on
engineering experience. Once the Manning’s ‘n’ values have been selected, it is highly recommended that
they be verified with historical high water marks and/or gauged stream flow data. In computer modelling, this
is done as main part of the calibrating process.

Manning’s ‘n’ values for artificial channels are more easily defined than for natural stream channels. Table
4.4 presents typical ‘n’ values for both artificial and natural stream channels.

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Table 4.4: Values of Roughness Coefficient ‘n’ for Uniform Flow

Source: ERA 2001

Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

EXCAVATED OR DREDGED
a. Earth, straight and uniform
1. Clean, recently completed 0.016 0.018 0.020
2. Clean, after weathering 0.018 0.022 0.025
3. Gravel, uniform section, clean 0.022 0.025 0.030
4. With short grass, few weeds 0.022 0.027 0.033
b. Earth, winding and sluggish
1. No vegetation 0.023 0.025 0.030
2. Grass, some weeds 0.025 0.030 0.033
3. Dense Weeds or aquatic plants in deep 0.030 0.035 0.040
channels 0.025 0.030 0.035
4. Earth bottom and rubble sides 0.025 0.035 0.045
5. Stony bottom and weedy sides 0.030 0.040 0.050
6. Cobble bottom and clean sides
c. Backhoe-excavated or dredged 0.025 0.028 0.033
1. No vegetation 0.035 0.050 0.060
2. Light brush on banks
d. Rock cuts 0.025 0.035 0.040
1. Smooth and uniform 0.035 0.040 0.050
2. Jagged and irregular
e. Channels not maintained, weeds and brush 0.050 0.080 0.120
uncut 0.040 0.050 0.080
1. Dense weeds, high as flow depth 0.045 0.070 0.110
2 Clean bottom, brush on sides 0.080 0.100 0.140
3. Same, highest stage of flow
4. Dense brush, high stage
NATURAL STREAMS
1 Minor streams (top width at flood stage < 30 m) 0.025 0.030 0.033
a. Streams on Plain 0.030 0.035 0.040
1. Clean, straight, full stage, no rims or deep 0.033 0.040 0.045
pools 0.035 0.045 0.050
2. Same as above, but more stones and
weeds 0.040 0.048 0.055
3. Clean, winding, some pools and shoals 0.045 0.050 0.060
4. Same as above, but some weeds and 0.050 0.070 0.080
stones 0.075 0.100 0.150
5. Same as above, lower stages, more
ineffective slopes and sections
6. Same as 4, but more stones
7. Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools
8 Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or 0.030 0.040 0.050
floodways with heavy stand of timber and 0.040 0.050 0.070
underbrush
b. Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel,
banks usually steep, trees and brush along 0.025 0.030 0.035
banks submerged at high stages 0.030 0.035 0.050
1. Bottom: gravel, cobbles, and few boulders
2. Bottom: cobbles with large boulders
2 Flood Plains
a. Pasture, no brush
1. Short grass
2. High grass

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Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

b. Cultivated area
1. No crop 0.020 0.030 0.040
2. Mature row crops 0.025 0.035 0.045
3. Mature field crops 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Brush
1. Scattered brush, heavy weeds 0.035 0.050 0.070
2. Light brush and trees in winter 0.035 0.050 0.060
3. Light brush and trees, in summer 0.040 0.060 0.080
4. Medium to dense brush, in winter 0.045 0.070 0.110
5. Medium to dense brush, in summer 0.070 0.100 0.160
d. Trees
1. Dense willows, summer, straight 0.110 0.150 0.200
2. Cleared land with tree stumps, no 0.030 0.040 0.050
sprouts
3. Same as above, but with heavy 0.050 0.060 0.080
growth of spouts
4. Heavy stand of timber, a few down 0.080 0.100 0.120
trees, little undergrowth, flood stage
below branches
5. Same as above, but with flood stage 0.100 0.120 0.160
reaching branches
3 Major Streams (top width at flood stage > 30
m). The n value is less than that for minor
streams of similar description, because banks
0.025 -- 0.060
offer less effective resistance.
0.035 -- 0.100
a. Regular section with no boulders or brush
b. Irregular and rough section
0.012- 0.020
4 Various Open Channel Surfaces
a. Concrete
0.020
b. Gravel bottom with:
0.023
Concrete
0.033
Mortared stone
Riprap
0.030
c. Natural Stream Channels
0.040
Clean, straight stream
0.050
Clean, winding stream
0.100
Winding with weeds and pools
With heavy brush and timber
0.035
d. Flood Plains
0.040
Pasture
0.050
Field Crops
0.070
Light Brush and Weeds
0.100
Dense Brush
Dense Trees

4.3 River Behaviour

Rivers are seldom in a state of perfect equilibrium. Some rivers achieve a state of practical equilibrium
throughout long reaches. The stable streams are also called "poised" by engineers and "graded" by
geologists. However, significant changes do occur over a short period of time or over a period of years even
is the stable streams.

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River reaches react to interventions like bridge, culverts or training works. Engineering design must consider
the possible impact of the proposed interventions to enhance the natural tendency of the stream toward
stable conditions. To do so, an understanding of the direction and magnitude of change in channel
characteristics caused by the actions of man and nature is required. Following factors contribute to this
understanding:

1. Knowledge of rivers in natural conditions;

2. Knowledge of the sediment and water discharge;
3. Being able to predict the effects and magnitude of man's future activities; and
4. Knowledge of geology, soils, hydrology, and hydraulics of alluvial rivers.

A large numbers of variables are interrelated and can respond to changes in a river system. Precise
prediction of the river behaviour is a complex task. Some useful methods have been developed to predict the
response of channel systems to changes both qualitatively and quantitatively. Quantitative methods are
computer based and depend on fairly advanced techniques of hydrodynamics and sediment transport which
makes them irrelevant to this Manual. However, the following description covers the qualitative approach
which is quite useful for predicting in general terms the response of a river to external changes particularly
where limited data precludes quantitative analysis.

4.3.1 General River Response to Change

Usually the data are not sufficient for quantitative estimates, and only qualitative estimates are possible.
Qualitative assessment aims to predict general river behaviour from the observed changes in the watershed,
evolving morphology or construction of hydraulic structures. Research supports the following general
statements (HIRE, 1990):

1. Depth of flow is directly proportional to water discharge and inversely proportional to sediment
discharge;

2. Width of channel is directly proportional to water discharge and to sediment discharge;

3. Shape of channel expressed as width-depth ratio is directly related to sediment discharge;

4. Meander wavelength is directly proportional to water discharge and to sediment discharge;

5. Slope of stream channel is inversely proportional to water discharge and directly proportional to
sediment discharge and grain size; and

6. Sinuosity of stream channel is proportional to valley slope and inversely proportional to sediment
discharge.

The above statements apply to natural rivers and not necessarily to artificial channels with bank materials
that are not representative of sediment load. The relations will, however, help to determine the response of
water conveying channels to change. One proportionality generally supported by the research data is QS ~
Qs D50, where Q and Qs are water and sediment discharge respectively; S is the channel bed slope.

Research has lead to the conclusions (HIRE, 1990) the response of a river system to changes in variables
can be stated in terms of variables given in Table 4.5. Cf is volumetric concentration of the fine sediment, W
is the channel width, yo is the channel depth and V is the average velocity while other variables used in Table
4.5 have been defined above. A plus (+) sign signifies an increase in the value of the variable and a minus (-)
sign signifies a decrease in the value of the variable. The letter B indicates an increase in the product SQ¼
and a shift toward a braided condition and the letter M indicates a reduction in SQ¼ and a shift toward the
meandering condition. No attempt is made here to determine whether or not the channel braids or meanders.

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Table 4.5: Impact of Changes in Sediment Supply

Source: HIRE 1990

hor Meander

4.3.2 Qualitative Prediction of Channel Response to Change

As discussed in Section 4.3.1, the proportionality QS ~ Qs D50 can be used to predict changes in channel
profiles caused by changes in water and sediment discharge. From what is known on the subject, it is
possible to talk qualitatively about changes in channel profile, changes in river form and changes in river
cross section both at a station and along the river channel using the other relations presented above. Table
4.6 presents impact of independent variables of discharge; sediment load and vegetation etc can have on
river form, flow regime and channel stability.

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Table 4.6: Qualitative Response of Alluvial Channels

Source: HIRE 1990

4.4 Roadside Drains

The principles described in Section 4.2 fully apply to the roadside drains. These drains are usually provided
with some kind of bed and bank protection. Table 4.7 lists typical values of Manning’s roughness for the
range of material likely to constitute channel periphery in Addis Ababa City environment. Solution of
Manning’s Equation is invariably the basic design requirement in case of open channels. Nomograph for
normal depth calculation is included in Figure 4.2.

An important aspect of the design of the roadside drains is the assessment of their stability, for which it is
essential to know the shear stress to which a given bank or bed material can be safely subjected to. Table
4.9 presents the allowable shear stresses for various protection measures.

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Table 4.7: Manning’s Roughness Coefficients for Roadside Drains

Source: ERA 2001

Lining n-Value With Depth Range

Category Type 0-0.15m 0.15–0.6 m > 0.6m
Rigid Concrete 0.015 0.013 0.013
Grouted Riprap 0.040 0.030 0.028
Stone Masonry 0.042 0.032 0.030
Soil Cement 0.025 0.022 0.020
Asphalt 0.018 0.016 0.016
Unlined Bare Soil 0.023 0.020 0.020
Rock Cut 0.045 0.035 0.025
Temporary Woven Paper Net 0.016 0.015 0.015
Jute Net 0.028 0.022 0.019
Fiberglass Roving 0.028 0.022 0.019
Straw with Net 0.065 0.033 0.025
Curled Wood Mat 0.066 0.035 0.028
Synthetic Mat 0.036 0.025 0.021
Gravel Riprap 25 mm D50 0.044 0.033 0.030
50 mm D50 0.066 0.041 0.034
Rock Riprap 150 mm D50 0.104 0.069 0.035
300 mm D50 -- 0.078 0.040

Note: Values listed are representative values for the respective coefficients, n, varying with the flow depth.

Table 4.8: Grass Cover Classification for Use of Table 4.9

Source: ERA 2001

Category Condition
A Taller than 750 mm (Excellent Stand)
B 300 – 600 mm (Good Stand)
C Uncut 150 – 300 mm (Good Stand)
D Uncut 50 – 150 mm (Good Stand)
E Cut to 40 mm (Good Stand)

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Figure 4.2: Nomograph for Calculation of Normal Depth

Source: HEC15 1988

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Table 4.9: Permissible Shear Stress for Various Protective Material

Source: ERA 2001

τp (Pa)
4.1.5.1.1.1.1 Protective Cover 4.1.5.1.2 Category
Vegetation Class A 177
Class B 101
Class C 48
Class D 29
Class E 17

Temporary Woven Paper 7

Jute Net 22
Straw W/Net 69
Curled Wood 74
Synthetic Material 96

Gravel: D50 = 25 mm 19
D50 = 50 mm 4.1.5.1.2.1.1 38

Rock: D50 = 150 mm 120

D50 = 300 mm 4.1.5.1.2.1.2 239
Gabions 1676
Geoweb 479
Soil Cement >2155
Concrete Blocks, Granular Filter Under Layer >958
Wedge-shaped Blocks with Drainage Slot >1197

4.4.1 Channel Bends

Due to the centrifugal force induced by the flow, the water surface at the outer bend experiences a super
elevation. The super elevation can be computed by the following equation:

V 2T
SE = (4.12)
gR c

Where,
SE = super elevation (m)
V = mean velocity (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.807 m/s2)
Rc = mean radius of the bend

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4.4.2 Freeboard

An important factor in design of road side channels is the vertical distance from the water surface to the top
of the channel known as the freeboard. It should be sufficient to prevent waves or fluctuations in the water
surface from overflowing the sides. For road side drains a minimum free board of 0.15 m should be used
(HEC15 1988). Steep gradient channels should have a higher freeboard with a maximum equal to the depth
of design flow. This is to prevent the overflow caused by splashing and surging. The lining material should
extend to the freeboard.

4.4.3 Permissible Shear Stress

Table 4.9 presents permissible shear stresses for a range of protective material. The following simple
relation provides guidance to select minimum rock size for the riprap (HEC 15):

τp = 628.3d50 (4.13)

Where, τp = permissible shear stress (N/m2)

d50= mean riprap size (m)

For cohesive soils, Figure 4.3 can be used to determine the permissible stress.

Figure 4.3: Permissible Shear Stress for Cohesive Soils

Source: HEC15 1988

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4.5 Computer Modelling

There are many models in market dealing with open channel flow. A model prepared by Hydrological
Engineering Center of US Corps of Engineers is particularly suited for open channel flow computations of the
drainage environment addressed by this manual. The model is called Hydrological Engineering Center’s
River Analysis System (HEC-RAS). The model is window based, easy to use and readily available, free of
cost, at the web site www.hec.usace.army.mil.

The current version (version 3) of HEC-RAS supports one dimensional steady and unsteady flow water
surface profile calculations. It is designed for interactive use in a multi-tasking, multi-user network
environment. The current version can be used for steady flow water surface profiles and unsteady flow
computations. The future versions will include mobile boundary sediment transport calculations.

The steady flow computations yield water surface profiles for gradually varied flow. It can handle single river
reach, dendritic system or a full network of channels. Hydraulic design of bridges and culverts, so often
treated in city drainage systems like that of Addis Ababa are also built in the model. The model out put
options includes a range of variables used in design of lining of the road side drains and also for scour and
erosion protection measures around bridges and culverts.

The unsteady flow capability of the model can be used to track variations of the flow field in time and space.
The input includes flow hydrograph at an upstream point and the out put consists of a water levels, flow
velocities and other parameters along river length in time.

Because of its universal acceptance and applicability of its hydraulic features to the road drainage, HEC-RAS
is recommended for computation of open-channel flow and other related aspects.

4.6 Worked Examples

Worked examples given in this section illustrate the application of basic principles in design of open
channels.

4.6.1 Problem 1: Roadside Channel Lining

Given: A roadside drainage channel is trapezoidal with a bottom width of 1.22 m and 1V:4H side
slopes. The bed slope is 0.01 m/m and the design flow rate is 0.28 m3/s.
Find: Calculate the design depth of flow and the required diameter (D50) of a gravel riprap that is to
be used as a permanent channel lining.
Solution:
(1) Solve for normal depth of flow, y, using Fig. 4.2 Nomograph
n=0.03 (Given in Fig. 4.2 Example). Alternatively use Table 4.7 (n=0.033 for 25
mm D50 and depth 0.15-0.6 m)
Q(n) = 0.0084
y/B = 0.14
y = 0.18 m
(2) Determine permissible shear stress for D50 = 25 mm

Then τp = 19 Pa (Table 4.9)

(3) Calculate maximum bed shear stress, τd

τd = 9810 yS = 9800 (0.18)(0.01) = 17.7 Pa

Now because τd < τp, accept D50 of approximately 25 mm. Otherwise repeat with
another riprap diameter.

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4.6.2 Problem 2: Maximum Capacity of Roadside Drain Protected by Grass

Given: A drain lined with a good stand of native grasses (approximately 0.2 m in height). The drain is
trapezoidal with a bottom width of 1.2 m and side slopes of 1V:4H. The ditch slope is 0.010 m/m.

Find: The maximum discharge for which this lining will be stable and the corresponding flow depth.

Solution:
(1) From Table 4.9 , the native grass has is Category C and from the permissible shear stress is:

τp = 48 Pa

(2) The allowable depth can be determined by assuming τp = τd:

y = τp/(9800 S) = 48/(9800 x 0.01) = 0.49 m

(3) Now determine the flow area A and hydraulic radius R:

A = y(b+zy) = 0.49 (1.2 + (4 x 0.49)) = 1.55 m2

P = b+2y(1+z2)1/2 = 1.2 + (2 x 0.49)(1 + 15)1/2 = 5.24 m

R = A/P = 1.55/5.24 = 0.30 m

(4) Finally determine the Manning’s n value from Table 4.4 and solve for Q from Manning’s equation:

n = 0.030 and

Q = (1/n) A R2/3 S1/2

Q = (1/0.030)(1.55)(0.30)2/3 (0.01)1/2 = 2.31 m3/s

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4.7 References
Ethiopian Road Authority (ERA - 2001), “Drainage Design Manual”, Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.

HDS 1 (1978)- Federal Highway Administration, “Hydraulics of Bridge Waterways”, US Department of

Transportation.

HEC 15SI (1988) - Federal Highway Administration, ”Design of Roadside Channels with Flexible Lining”, US
Department of Transportation.

HEC-RAS (2001), “Hydrologic Engineering Center River Analysis System – version 3”, US Army Corps of
Engineers.

HIRE (1990) - Federal Highway Administration “Highways in River Environment”, US Department of

Transportation.

Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA – 1998), “The Study on Addis Ababa Flood Control Project in
the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia – Volume II Main Report”, Nippon Koei Co., Ltd and Nikken
Consultants, Inc.

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