EMT 1101: ENGINEERING DRAWING I

Bsc. Mechatronic Engineering

DeKUT

Lecture Notes

By

Inno Oduor Odira

October 2022
Table of contents

0.1 EMT 1101: ENGINEERING DRAWING I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

0.2 Prescribed text books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
0.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
0.4 Teaching methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
0.5 Grading Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1 Introduction to Graphic Communication 3

1.1 Graphics Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Artistic Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Technical Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Drawing Equipments and Their Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 Important Drawing Equipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Paper sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.1 Paper Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.2 Drawing layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.3 Title Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Lettering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.1 Technique Of Lettering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.2 LAB 1: LETTERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Line Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings) 15

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
iv Table of contents

2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.2.1 First Angle Orthographic Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.2 Third Angle Orthographic Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.3 LAB 2: FIRST ANGLE PROJECION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.4 Dimensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.5 LAB 3: THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.2.6 LAB 4: FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3 Pictorial Drawing (3D Projections/ Single views) 51

3.1 Axonometric Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2 Isometric projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2.1 Construction Techniques for Isometric Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.2 LAB 5: ISOMETRIC PROJECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.3 Oblique Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.3.1 LAB 6: OBLIQUE PROJECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.4 Perspective Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.4.1 LAB 7: PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
COURSE OULTLINE

0.1 EMT 1101: ENGINEERING DRAWING I

Course description

Various aspects of graphic language: Aesthetics, artistic and technical drawing. Technical drawings:
Technical drawing equipment or pencil work and ink work, drawing paper sizes, lettering and line
work. Introduction to orthographic projections. Three-dimensional views: isometric, perspective
and oblique. Free hand sketching, sketching materials, isometric grid paper, scaling and proportions.
Types of sketches: Isometric, oblique and perspective. One, two and multiview sketches. Aspects
of design. Construction of loci. Different types of thread forms. Cams and gear teeth profiles.
Various types of fasteners, shaft and couplings. Conventional representation of features including
British Standard (BS) 308, International Standard organization (ISO) 4500 and Kenya Bureau of
Standards (KBS) codes of drawing practice
2 Table of contents

0.2 Prescribed text books

1. Morling K. (1974) Geometric and Engineering Drawing, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2 Ed.

2. Eide A.R., Jenism R.D. & Mashaw L.H. (1995) Engineering graphics fundamentals, McGraw-
Hill, inc. 2nd Ed.

0.3 References

1. Thomas E.F., Jay D.H., Byron U. & Carl L. S. (1997) Mechanical drawing CAD-communications,Mc
Graw-Hill 11th Ed.
2. Giesecke F.E., Hill I.L., Norak J.E. & Mitchel A. (1991) Technical Drawing, Prenctice-
Hall,inc.

0.4 Teaching methodology

1. 2 hour lecture per week

2. 3 hour practice per week

0.5 Grading Policy

1. Continuous Assessment: 50%

(a) CATs: 20%
(b) Assignments/LABs: 30%
2. Written Exam: 50%
Chapter 1

Introduction to Graphic Communication

1.1 Graphics Language

Written language is essential for communicating ideas, concepts, meanings or feelings on the
things that do not have form, whereas things that have form are better explained or captured with
the graphic language. Just as a person must be literate in order to understand the written language,
visual graphics literacy is also important in order to understand information in graphic form.
Graphic communication involves using visual materials (graphics) to relate ideas, commu-
nicate thoughts and entertain. When one person sketches a rough map in giving direction to
another, this is graphic communication. Drawings, photographs, pictures, visual arts, diagrams
and sketches are all forms of graphic communication. Any medium that uses a graphic image to
aid in conveying a message, instructions, or an idea is involved in graphic communication.
The role of the graphics language is:
1. To communicate ideas
2. To communicate feelings
3. To convey information
Graphics are visual presentations on some surface such as a wall, paper, canvas, computer
screen, etc, to inform (communicate) or to entertain.
4 Introduction to Graphic Communication

1.2 Drawing

One of the most widely used forms of graphic communication is the drawing. A drawing is a
graphic representation of an object, or a part of it, and is the result of creative thought by an
engineer or technician. Technically, it can be defined as “a graphic representation of an idea, a
concept or an entity which actually or potentially exists in life".
Communication by use of drawing has developed along two distinct paths: Artistic and
Technical drawings.

1.2.1 Artistic Drawings

Artistic Drawings range in scope from the simplest line drawing to the most famous paintings. Re-
gardless of their complexity, Artistic drawings are used to express philosophical or other abstract
ideas. They can also be used to portray decorative aspects (aesthetic) , to express joy, sorrow,
political or religious beliefs. In order to understand an artistic drawing, it is sometimes necessary
to first understand the artist. Artists often take a subtle or abstract approach in communicating
through their drawings, which in turn gives rise to various interpretations. (see figure 1.1). It can
be carried out on almost any surface and allows many interpretations. Common tools for artistic
drawing are:
1. graphite pencils
2. inked brushes
3. crayons
4. charcoal
5. markers
6. waxed coloured pencils, etc.

1.2.2 Technical Drawings

The technical drawing, on the other hand, is not subtle, or abstract. It does not require an
understanding of its creator, only an understanding of technical drawings. A technical drawing is a
means of clearly and concisely communicating all of the information necessary to transform an
idea or a concept in to reality or for technical, architectural and engineering needs. Therefore,
1.2 Drawing 5

Fig. 1.1 Artistic drawings

a technical drawing often contains more than just a graphic representation of its subject. It also
contains dimensions, notes and specifications. (See figure 1.2) Aspects of a technical drawing
include:
1. shape
2. size
3. material
4. assembly
5. finish
Essential requirements for a technical drawing include:
1. Clear and unambiguous
2. Language independent
3. accurate
4. Conform to standards
5. suitable for duplication
There are three types of technical drawings:
1. Multi-view drawings (orthographic); one or more views (projections) systematically ar-
ranged.
2. Pictorial; one view drawn in 3D at a specified angle as it would appear in real life.
3. Schematic (diagrammatic); simplified functional drawing.
6 Introduction to Graphic Communication

Fig. 1.2 Technical Drawings

Drawing conventions (drawing grammar) allow people to communicate more effectively and
with clarity. These conventions are set by various standards organizations such as:
• ISO International Organization for Standardization
– ISO 128: Technical Drawings - General principles of presentation.
– ISO 129: Technical Drawings - Dimensioning
– ISO 3098/1: Technical Drawings - Lettering
– ISO 8048: Technical Drawings - Construction Drawings - Representation of views,sections,
cuts.
• KEBS Kenya Bureau of Standards
– KS 06-325. Year 1986. Title: Engineering drawing practice. scope: Specifies the
general principles of presentation and practice to be applied to engineering drawings.
Subject: Engineering drawings
– KS 06-1334 Year 1996. Title: Specification for engineer’s squares.
• ANSI American National Standards Institute
• BS British Standards
1.3 Drawing Equipments and Their Use 7

These standards ensure quality, safety and interchangeability of products and information.
Standards are updated periodically rendering the old ones obsolete.
Technical drawing is referred to as the universal language for Engineering since it can be
interpreted in any part of the world.

1.3 Drawing Equipments and Their Use

1.3.1 Introduction

To record information on paper instruments and equipments are needed. Engineering drawing is
entirely a graphic language hence instruments are essentially needed. Drawing must be clear, neat
and legible in order to serve its purpose. Hence it is extremely important for engineers to have
good speed, accuracy, legibility and neatness in the drawing work.
All drawings are made by means of various instruments. The quality of drawing depends to a
large extent on the quality , adjustment and care of the instruments.

1.3.2 Important Drawing Equipments

List of equipment for technical drawing:

1. Drawing board or drafting table (508 x 610)
2. T-square
3. Set of instruments (draughtsman set)
4. Triangle 45o − 45o − 90 ∗ o or adjustable sets square.
5. Triangle 30o − 60o − 90o
6. Protractor
7. Pencils HB, H, 2H, 4H
8. Eraser (Staedler)
9. Drafting tape (masking tape)
10. Drawing paper (A2)
Optional equipment:
1. Erasing shield
2. Irregular curve (French curve)
8 Introduction to Graphic Communication

3. Lettering guide
4. Ellipse template
5. Flexible curve
Requirements:
1. Accuracy - should convey the correct information
2. Speed - for productivity
3. Legibility - (clear and legible for communication)
4. Neatness
5. Use only one side of the drawing paper.

1.4 Paper sizes

1.4.1 Paper Sizes

In this course, we will adopt the ISO A standard drawing sheet sizes and inside borders. The ISO
A0 size is defined as having an area of one square meter (1m2 ). The sides are in proportions of
√
1 : 2. Each smaller sheet size is exactly half the area of the previous size, for instance
• an A0 sheet cut in half gives two A1 sheets
• an A1 sheet in half you get two A2 sheets
Figure 1.1 shows ISO A paper size series. The most commonly used smallest format is A4.

Fig. 1.3 ISO A Drawing paper sizes

1.4 Paper sizes 9

1.4.2 Drawing layout

The Inside border encloses the working area, including the title block and other tables. The border
shall be 20 mm wide on the binding edge and 10 mm wide on the other three sides, with resulting
working area sizes . The border on the binding edge allows for binding or hole punching for filing
purposes. The drawing layouts can be in two formats:
• portrait, the longer edge is vertical
• landscape, the longer edge is horizontal

1.4.3 Title Block

A title block is a system of labelling and cross-referencing drawings so that they may be stored
and when required, identified, located easily and efficiently. Title blocks are used to record all the
important information necessary for the working drawings. It contains general as well as specific
information. The basic requirements for a title block located at the bottom right hand corner of a
drawing are:
• Title of the drawing
• Drafters name and number
• Name of firm or organization
• Scale
• Date
• Dimensions (units of measurements) used
• Drawing number or projection symbol

Fig. 1.4 Sample title block

10 Introduction to Graphic Communication

1.5 Lettering

Lettering is used to give dimensions and other pertinent information of what is being drawn.
ANSI recommends that Single Stroke Gothic style be the accepted lettering standard due to the
following reasons:
• Most plain lettering style
• Written rapidly
• Highly legible
Single stroke lettering has all the strokes of uniform thickness, and each stroke is produced by
one movement of the pencil. Figure 1.5 shows sample lettering using Gothic style.

Fig. 1.5 Lettering using Gothic style

Guidelines for lettering in technical drawing:

• Use H or HB pencils when lettering
• Pencils should be sharpened to a conical point
• Good lettering requires the use of guidelines drawn using construction lines (4H pencil)
• Characters should have the simplest form possible
• Letter spacing - use uniform area between letters and not uniform spacing
• Word and sentence spacing - should be equivalent to the letter height
• Letter height
– 6 mm for upper case letters
– 4 mm for lower case letters
• For dimensions and notes, a character height of 3 mm should be used.
2
• Spacing between lines of letters should be at least 3 the letter height
• Lettering guides can be used (AMES lettering guide)
4
• fraction : 5 not 4/5
1.5 Lettering 11

1.5.1 Technique Of Lettering

“Any normal person can learn to letter if he is persistent and intelligent in his efforts.” There are
three necessary steps in learning to letter:
1. Knowledge of the proportions and forms of the letters,and the order of the strokes.
2. Knowledge of composition- the spacing of the letters and words.
3. Persistent practice, with continuous effort to improve.

Guide Lines

Extremely light horizontal guidelines are necessary to regulate the height of letters. In addition,
light vertical or inclined guidelines are needed to keep the letters uniformly vertical or inclined.
Guidelines are absolutely essential for good lettering, and should be regarded as a welcome aid,
not as an unnecessary requirement.

Fig. 1.6 Guide lines

Lower-case letters have four horizontal guidelines, called the cap line, waistline, and base line
and drop line. Strokes of letters that extend up to the cap line are called ascenders, and those that
extend down to the drop line, descenders. Since there are only five letters (p, q.g, j, y) that have
descenders, the drop lines are little needed and are usually omitted. In spacing guidelines, space
“a” may very from 3/5 to 2/3 of space “b”.

Single stoke lettering

The term single stoke or one stoke does not mean that the entire letter is made without lifting the
pencil. But the width of the stroke is the width of the stem of the letter. The salient features of this
type of lettering are:
12 Introduction to Graphic Communication

• Greatest amount of lettering on drawings is done in a rapid single stroke letter i.e. either
vertical, or inclined.

• The ability to letter and perfectly can be acquired only by continued and careful practice

• it is not a matter of artistic talent or event of dexterity in hand writing

Order of strokes

They are necessary to have legible and accurate letter styles. In the following description an
alphabet of slightly extended vertical capitals has-been arranged in-group. Study the slope of each
letter with the order and direction of the storks forming it. The proportion of height and width of
various letters must be known carefully to letter them perfectly.

Fig. 1.7 Order of strokes for capital letters

1.6 Line Types 13

Fig. 1.8 Order of strokes for inclined capital letters

1.5.2 LAB 1: LETTERING

Do four copies of the lettering in Fig. 1.7 and Fig. 1.8

1.6 Line Types

1. Thin Light lines drawn with a 4H pencil include: Guidelines used for lettering guide lines,
construction lines
2. Thin line lines that are dark, and drawn with 2H pencil include: centerlines, extension lines,
dimension lines, leader lines, section lines, hidden lines.
3. Thick lines that are dark and drawn with a HB pencil include; outlines, visible lines.
4. Very thick lines that are dark and drawn with a B pencil include: cutting plane lines, viewing
plane lines.
5. Dark features drawn with a HB pencil include: arrowheads, lettering
14 Introduction to Graphic Communication

Fig. 1.9 Types of lines

Chapter 2

Orthographic Projection (Multi view

Drawings)

2.1 Introduction

All technical drawings are projections. All projection theory is based on two variables: line of
sight (projecting lines) and plane of projection.
A line of sight (LOS) is an imaginary line between an observer’s eye and an object. A plane
of projection (i.e., an image or picture plane) is an imaginary flat plane upon which the image is
projected. The projection is produced by connecting the points where the lines of sight pierce the
projection plane. As a result, the 3D object is transformed into a 2D view.
If the distance from the observer to the object is infinite, then the projection lines are assumed to
be parallel, and the projection is called a parallel projection. Parallel projection is orthographic
if the plane of projection is perpendicular to the parallel lines of sight.
16 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings)

Fig. 2.1 Parallel Projections

Fig. 2.2 Projections

View comparisons

3-D projections are useful in that they provide an image that is similar to the image in designer’s
mind’s eye. But 3-D projections are often weak in providing adequate details of the object, and
2.1 Introduction 17

Fig. 2.3 View comparison

there is often some distortion of the object. For instance, a circular hole becomes an ellipse in an
isometric 3-D projection. Orthographic projection are used to overcome the weaknesses of 3-D
projections. Orthographic projections are a collection of flat 2-D drawings of the different sides of
an object.
18 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings)

2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections

A view of an object is known technically as a projection. Orthographic Projections is a technical

drawing in which different views of an object are projected on different reference planes observing
perpendicular to respective reference plane. Orthographic projections are a collection of flat 2-D
drawings of the different sides of an object. Technically, Orthographic projection is a parallel
projection technique in which the parallel lines of sight are perpendicular to the projection
plane(reference plane). Using this projection, even the most complex shape can be fully described.
The object is positioned in such a way that the principal face is parallel to the projection plane.The
projected view describes the exact shape of the object as seen in a specified direction (see Fig.2.4).

Fig. 2.4 Parallel Projection

Orthographic view depends on relative position of the object to the line of sight. It uses multiple
views of the object, from points of view rotated about the object’s center through increments of
90o .

Fig. 2.5 Parallel Projection through rotation

2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections 19

Reference Planes and Patterns

There are three planes for an orthographic projection (see Fig.2.6):

1. Frontal plane - plane on which the front view is projected.
2. Horizontal plane - plane on which the top or bottom view is projected.
3. Side or Profile plane - plane on which the end view is projected.

Fig. 2.6 Planes for orthographic projection

Fig. 2.7 Patterns of Planes for orthographic projection

20 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings)

Conventional types of orthographic projections

Orthographic projection is based on two principal planes — one horizontal (HP) and one vertical
(VP) — intersecting each other (see Fig.2.9):

1. 1st angle system

2. 3rd angle system

Fig. 2.8 Orthographic views

Fig. 2.9 Orthographic views

2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections 21

Views are projected onto the respective planes (see Fig.2.10):

Fig. 2.10 Projection of views

Once the views are projected onto the respective planes, the planes are opened out so that they
lie on the same plane. This produces a number of separate two-dimensional inter-related views
which represent faces that are mutually at right angles to each other (see Fig.2.11).

Fig. 2.11 Orthographic views

22 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings)

Several views of an object can therefore be shown simultaneously on a single drawing paper(see
Fig.2.12) .

Fig. 2.12 views arrangements

Projection Symbols (see Fig.2.13)

Fig. 2.13 Projection symbols

2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections 23

Methods of Orthogonal Projection

Figure 2.14 shows how views of an object are obtained by using projectors. If the planes of
projection are parallel to the principal faces of the object, they form a glass box. Note that the
object has three principal dimensions: width, height and depth. These are fixed terms used for
dimensions in these directions regardless of the shape of the object. Since it is required to show
the views of a solid or 3D object on at sheet of paper, it is necessary to unfold the planes so that
they all lie in the same plane. Since the glass box has six sides, we can have six views of the object
as shown in Figure 2.15.

Fig. 2.14 Projection of views on a glass box.

24 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings)

Fig. 2.15 Unfolded planes.

2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections 25

Visualizing the Views

The mental process of reading a reading a drawing in order to obtain the views is known as
visualizing the views. Figure 2.3 shows the process of visualization (see Fig.2.16).

Fig. 2.16 Visualization.

26 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings)

2.2.1 First Angle Orthographic Projection

Figure 2.17 shows an object positioned in the First quadrant. Views of the have been drawn on the
plane using projectors. The view on the frontal plane is called the elevation, that on the horizontal
plane the plan and that on the profile plane the end view, end elevation or side elevation. The
observer always looks through the object and to the planes of projection. To obtain the views, the
horizontal and profile planes are opened out (or rabatted) about the line of intersection with the
profile plane.

Fig. 2.17 First angle orthographic projection.

2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections 27

2.2.2 Third Angle Orthographic Projection

This is done by positioning the object in the third quadrant and projecting the views onto the planes
as shown in Figure 2.18. Since the planes now come between the observer and the object, they are
imagined to be transparent and the object is viewed through them. The views are the same in both
systems and the only ultimate difference between the two systems is the arrangement of the views.

Fig. 2.18 Third angle orthographic projection.

28 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings)

Projection Symbols

Since two systems of projection, 1st and 3rd angle are approved internationally, it is necessary to
indicate on the drawing which system has been used. This is done by a symbol consisting of the an
elevation and end view of a frustum of a cone. This symbols are shown in Figures 2.19 and 2.20.

Fig. 2.19 First angle projection symbol.

Fig. 2.20 Third angle projection symbol.

View selection guidelines

• The principle views should be chosen to show the most detail of the object and with the least
number of hidden lines.
• The most descriptive view should be selected as the front view
• Build up all the views together by projecting measurements from one view to another.
• Always allow enough space between the views on a drawing to accommodate dimensions
and notes without crowding.C ≥ 15mm.
2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections 29

• It may not be necessary to show all the six views to completely describe an object. Two views
are sometimes enough to completely describe an object. This convention is particularly
applied to symmetrical objects with less features. If a view does not shows any additional
features to the
rst two views, it should be excluded. If only two views are necessary and the top view and
right side view are equally descriptive, the combination chosen is that which spaces best on
the paper.

Example

Select suitable views for the object Fig. 2.21

Fig. 2.21 Block to be projected.

30 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings)

Comparison between First and Third Angle Projections

Fig. 2.22 First angle projection.

Fig. 2.23 Third angle Projection.

2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections 31

Two View Mechanical Drawing

Figure 2.24 shows orthographic views of a object that requires only two views to completely define
the object.

Fig. 2.24 2- view orthographic drawing of a support arm.

32 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings)

2.2.3 LAB 2: FIRST ANGLE PROJECION

Figure 2.25 shows an anchor bracket used in a ship. Draw in First angle orthographic projection,
a front view as seen from direction A, an end view as seen from direction B and a top view. Show
the projection symbol.

Fig. 2.25 Anchor bracket.

2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections 33

2.2.4 Dimensioning

Dimensioning is the process of defining the size, form and location of geometric features and
components on an engineering drawing.
Before an object can be built, complete information about both the size and shape of the object
must be available. The exact shape of the part or assembly is shown by the different views in the
drawing sheet. Dimensions are added to the two-dimensional views (not to the 3D view) in the
drawing sheet such that it will show all the size and location details of the part.
• In metric drawings, generally, dimensions are in millimeters. To avoid having to specify
’mm’ after every dimension, a label such as ’all dimensions in mm’ or’unless otherwise
stated all dimensions are in mm’ is usually contained in the title block.
• If the dimension is less than one a leading zero should be used before the decimal point (e.g.,
0.5).
Dimensions used in drawings can be categorized as:
• Size dimensions - define size of features (radius, diameter, length, width, thickness, etc).
• Location dimensions - define location of part features (such as holes).

Fig. 2.26 Dimensions categories.

34 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings)

Dimension Lines and Extension Lines

Extension (or Projection) lines are used to indicate the extrem-

ities of a dimension. They are generally drawn up to 1 mm from
the outline of the object.
Dimension lines are used to label a particular dimension. They
have one or more arrowheads.

Dimensions are usually placed between extension lines. But

when there is no enough room to accommodate the dimension,
either the dimension value or the dimension lines can be located
Fig. 2.27 Lines used in dimen-
outside the extension lines as illustrated.
sioning.

Fig. 2.28 Location of Dimensions.

Types of Dimensions

Dimensions may be divided into three different types; Linear dimensions, Angular dimensions,
and Leader dimensions.
Linear Dimensions - they are either
horizontal or vertical to the dimensioning
plane.
Angular Dimensions - they are usually
specified in decimal degrees (e.g.,27.50 ).
Also they can be specified using de-
grees and minutes or degrees, minutes
and seconds (e.g.,270 30′ or 00 15′ 40”
).

Fig. 2.29 Types of Dimensions.

2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections 35

Leader Dimensions - they are usually

used to specify a diameter or a radius where a leader line is used to point towards the feature being
dimensioned.

Dimensioning Methods

Two methods of dimensioning are in common use.

• Unidirectional, The dimensions are written horizontally.
• Aligned, The dimensions are written parallel to their dimension line. Aligned dimensions
should always be readable from the bottom or the right of the drawing.

Fig. 2.30 Dimensioning Methods.

Dimensioning formats

Chain Dimensioning (dimensioning from

feature to feature) is commonly used
and easy to insert. Chains of di-
mension should only be used if the
function of the object won’t be af-
fected by the accumulation of the toler- Fig. 2.31 Chain dimensions.
ances.
36 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings)

Baseline (or Ordinate) Dimension-

ing is used when the location of fea-
tures must be controlled from a com-
mon reference point or plane. It
is used to ensures that tolerances (or
errors) in manufacturing do not add
Fig. 2.32 Baseline dimensions.
up.

Overall Dimensions: When several dimensions make up an overall length, the overall dimen-
sion can be shown outside these component dimensions. When specifying an overall dimension,
one or more non-critical component dimensions must be omitted.

Fig. 2.33 Overall Dimensions.

Dimensions not to Scale: Dimensions that are not to

scale are underlined.

Fig. 2.34 Dimensions not to Scale.

Dimensions not Complete: When a dimension line
cannot be completely drawn to its normal termination
point, the free end is terminated in a double arrowhead.

Fig. 2.35 Dimensions not Complete.

2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections 37

Dual Dimensions: Working drawing are usually drawn with all metric or all US dimensions.
Sometimes the object manufacturing requires both metric and US measuring system and in such
case dual dimensioning may be necessary. The optional secondary units are normally displayed in
brackets [ ].

Fig. 2.36 Dual Dimensions.

Dimensioning Rules

Some of the most important rules for dimensioning are as follows:

• Dimension figures should never be crowded or in any way that make them difficult to read.
• Each feature should be dimensioned.
• Dimensions should be placed outside the part when possible.
• Dimensions should be evenly spaced and grouped.
• Dimensions should not be duplicated or the same information given in two different ways
(except when dual dimensioning is to be used) and no dimensions should be given except
those needed to produce or inspect the part.
• Dimensions should be placed in the views where the features being dimensioned are shown
in true shape.
• Dimensioning to hidden lines should be avoided wherever possible (section views may be
used to show the shape and dimensions of internal features).
• The longer dimensions should be placed outside all intermediate dimensions so that dimen-
sion lines will not cross extension lines.
• Dimension lines should not cross, if avoidable.
• Dimension lines and extension lines should not cross, if avoidable (extension lines may
cross each other).
38 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings)

• Extension lines and object lines should not overlap.

• Detail dimensions should "line up" in chain fashion.
• Leaders should slope at 450 , or 300 , or 600 with horizontal but may be made at any convenient
angle except vertical or horizontal.
• Center lines or marks should be used on all circles and arcs.
• In general, a circle is dimensioned by its diameter, an arc by its radius.
• Cylinders should be located by their center lines.
• Cylinders should be located in the circular views, if possible.
• A cylinder is usually dimensioned by giving both its diameter and length in the rectangular
view when possible

Fig. 2.37 Avoid aligning dimension lines with object lines.

Fig. 2.38 Adequate space between dimension lines.

2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections 39

Fig. 2.39 Extension lines.

Fig. 2.40 Termination symbol or arrowhead.

Fig. 2.41 Small Dimensions.

40 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings)

Fig. 2.42 Do not cross dimension lines.

Fig. 2.43 Extension lines from same view point.

2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections 41

Fig. 2.44 Text size and Font.

42 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings)

Fig. 2.45 Position of Dimension values.

2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections 43

Fig. 2.46 Unnecessary Dimensions.

Fig. 2.47 Share the dimensions.

44 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings)

Fig. 2.48 Dimensioning methods.

Fig. 2.49 Circular Dimensions.

2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections 45

Fig. 2.50 Radii and Chamfers.

Fig. 2.51 Spherical Dimensions.

Fig. 2.52 Incomplete and section views.

Fig. 2.53 Recurring equal elements.

 Figure 8.56 Representation of Fillets and Rounds
Fillets and rounds indicate that surfaces of metal objects have not been machine finished; therefore, there are rounded corners.
et
Fill

und
Ro

Projected to
adjacent view to
locate line

Figure 8.57 Representing Fillet and Rounded Corners

Lines tangent to a fillet or round are constructed and then extended, to create a sharp corner. The location of the sharp corner is
projected to the adjacent view to determine where to place representative lines indicating a change of planes.

No!
No!

Yes!
Yes!

Figure 8.58 Examples of Representations of Fillet and Rounded Corners

Lines are added to parts with fillets and rounds, for clarity. Lines are used in the top views of these parts to represent changes of
planes that have fillets or rounds at the corners.
8.7.8 Runouts
A runout is a special method of representing filleted sur-
faces that are tangent to cylinders. (Figure 8.61) A runout Figure 8.62. If a very small round intersects a cylindrical
is drawn starting at the point of tangency, using a radius surface, the runouts curve away from each other. (Figure
equal to that of the filleted surface with a curvature of ap- 8.62A) If a large round intersects a cylindrical surface,
proximately one-eighth the circumference of a circle. Ex- the runouts curve toward each other. (Figure 8.62C)
amples of runout uses in technical drawings are shown in CAD Reference 8.12

Figure 8.60 Examples of Internal and External Chamfers

Chamfers are used to break sharp corners on ends of cylinders and holes.

Point of
tangency

A Detail A

Line

No fillets No fillets No fillets No fillets

No line Runout No line

Runout

Fillets Fillets Fillets Fillets

Figure 8.61 Runouts

Runouts are used to represent corners with fillets that intersect cylinders. Notice the difference in the point of tangency with and
without the fillets.
 Flat Flat Rounded Rounded

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Flat Rounded Flat

(E) (F) (G)

(H) (I) (J) (K) (L)

Figure 8.62 Examples of Runouts in Multiview Drawings

2.2 Multi-view Orthographic Projections 49

2.2.5 LAB 3: THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION

Figure 2.54 shows a turret lathe fixture. Draw its orthographic projections in Third angle projection
and add Dimensions.

Fig. 2.54 Turret lathe fixture.

50 Orthographic Projection (Multi view Drawings)

2.2.6 LAB 4: FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION

Figure 2.55 shows a robot arm holder. Draw its orthographic projections in First angle projection
and add Dimensions.

Fig. 2.55 Robot arm holder.

Chapter 3

Pictorial Drawing (3D Projections/ Single

views)

3.1 Axonometric Projection

Axonometric projection - is a parallel projection technique used to create a pictorial drawing (Three-
Dimensional View) of an object by rotating the object on an axis relative to a projection or picture
plane to show its all three dimensions.

Fig. 3.1 Development of Axonometric Projection

1. They show the three principal dimensions of an object in a single view.

2. Pictorial drawings consist of visible object faces and the features lying on the faces. The
internal features of the object are largely hidden from view. Hidden lines are usually omitted
in pictorial drawings, except where they aid clarity.
3. They tend to present images of objects in a form that mimics what the human eye would
see naturally; images that bear physical resemblance to the real or imagined object. Non
technical personnel can interpret them because they are generally easy to understand.
52 Pictorial Drawing (3D Projections/ Single views)

Pictorial drawings are excellent starting point in visualization and design and are often used to
supplement multiview drawings.
The differences between a multiview drawing and an axonometric drawing are that, in a
multiview, only two dimensions of an object are visible in each view and more than one view is
required to define the object; whereas, in an axonometric drawing, the object is rotated about an
axis to display all three dimensions, and only one view is required.

Types of axonometric projections

The distinguishing feature of axonometric projection, as compared to multi view projection, is

the inclined position of the object with respect to the plane of projection (Principal planes of
the object are not parallel to plane of projection). Since the principal edges and surfaces of the
object are inclined to the plane of projection, the lengths of the lines, the sizes of the angle, and
the general proportions of the object vary with the infinite number of possible positions in which
the object may be placed with respect to the plane of projection.
Consider the cube in Fig. 3.1. In these cases the edges of the cube are inclined to the plane
of projection, and therefore foreshortened. The degree of foreshortening of any line depends on
its angle with the plane of projection; the greater the angle the greater the foreshortening. If the
degree of the foreshortening is determined for each of the three edges of the cube which meet at
one corner, scales can be easily constructed for measuring along these edges or any other edges
parallel to them. It is customary to consider the three edges of the cube which meet at the corner
nearest to the observer as the axonometric axes.
There are three types of axonometric projections depending up on the number of scales of
reduction required;
1. Isometric projection; In isometric views the two edges of the view make 300 angles with
the horizontal and that makes the three angles between the view axes to be equal to 1200
and requires only one scale since all principle edges are proportionately foreshortened.
2. Dimetric Projection; In diametric views the angles may vary but two of the three angles
between the view axes are equal and requires two scales.
3. Trimetric Projection; In trimetric views all three angles between view axes are different and
requires three scales.
3.2 Isometric projection 53

Fig. 3.2 Types of Axonometric Projection

Isometric drawings are the most popular and are easier to construct than the others. Since
they are the most widely used method of axonometric projection , we will only consider isometric
projection in detail.

3.2 Isometric projection

Isometric means equal measure. An isometric projection

is produced by placing the object so that its principle edges
or axis make equal angles with the plane of projection.
In this position, the edges of a cube would be projected
equally and would make equal angles with each other
(1200 ). The edges of the object are inclined to the plane
of projection and are therefore foreshortened. Therefore
to obtain the full size view, an isometric scale is used.
When the view is prepared with an ordinary scale, it is an Fig. 3.3 Isometric projection.

isometric drawing, when prepared with an isometric scale,

it is an isometric projection. Isometric drawings are much easier to execute and are satisfactory for
all practical applications.
The three principal edges meeting at the nearest point and making 1200 angles with each other are
termed Isometric Axes.
The lines parallel to these axes are called Isometric Lines.
54 Pictorial Drawing (3D Projections/ Single views)

The planes representing the faces of of the cube as well as other planes parallel to these planes are
called Isometric Planes.

Isometric scale, Scale used to measure

the isometric length .

Construction of isometric scale. From

point A, with line AB draw 300 and 450
inclined lines AC & AD respectively on
AD. Mark divisions of true length and from
each division-point draw vertical lines upto
AC line. The divisions thus obtained on
AC give lengths on isometric scale.
Fig. 3.4 Isometric scale.

cos 450
Isometric length = True length ×
cos 300

Fig. 3.5 Characteristics of Isometric Projection

3.2 Isometric projection 55

3.2.1 Construction Techniques for Isometric Drawing

It is quite easy creating isometric lines on isometric planes. This is done by drawing the lines
parallel to isometric axes. However, creating non-isometric lines and angles must be done with
care. In general, angles of non-isometric lines are drawn by creating line segments between the end
points of the locations that form the angle. On isometric planes, circles in principal orthographic
views turn to isometric ellipses and arcs appear as partial isometric ellipses. Irregular curves are
created from intersections of projection lines from isometric planes.
There are two common techniques generally used for isometric drawings. These are the box and
the centerline layout techniques, but the box technique is the most common construction technique.
The box technique is also known as the coordinate technique. In the approach, a bounding (B)
box is first made with guide lines using the principal dimensions object. The principal dimensions
may be designated as W for width, H for height, and D for depth. It may be necessary to add up
dimensions along the principal axes to get the principal dimensions of an object. The faces on the
objects are then created after the B-box is ready. Each feature on the object is properly located
and created within the B-box. This technique is good for drawing objects with angular and radial
features or objects that have irregular shapes or form. The general steps in the box technique are:

1 Define the origin of and create the isometric axes.

2 Create the bounding box using the principal dimensions.

3a Use dimensions from top and front view to mark out faces.

3b Or use dimensions from top and side views to mark out faces.

4 Locate and create all features on the faces.

5 Finish and check the drawing.

56 Pictorial Drawing (3D Projections/ Single views)

Box Technique: Object with Normal Faces

Draw the isometric view of the object, the multi view projection of which is shown Fig 3.6.

Fig. 3.6 Multi view Projection

Fig. 3.7 Sketch the box.

3.2 Isometric projection 57

Fig. 3.8 Measure on the axes and trace the details in construction lines.

Fig. 3.9 Carry out the final layout.

Box Technique: Objects with non-isometric lines

Lines on an object which are located by angles are non-isometric lines. Angles cannot be laid
off directly on an isometric drawing as they do not appear in their true sizes. Lines positioned by
angles are drawn by fixing their ends using isometric lines as shown in figure 3.5.
58 Pictorial Drawing (3D Projections/ Single views)

Make an isometric drawing of the ob-

ject shown in Fig. 3.10 with corners A at
the bottom

Fig. 3.10 Multi view drawing.

• Draw the principal box and construct
basic shape
• Transfer dimensions x and y to the
isometric drawing and draw isomet-
ric lines
• Connect the relevant points with
lines
• Draw visible lines

Fig. 3.11 Isometric projection development.

3.2 Isometric projection 59

Circles in isometric projection

Any circle on an isometric drawing will

appear as an ellipse which may be drawn in several ways:

Fig. 3.12 circle construction by circumscribing square method

Fig. 3.13 Approximate circle construction

60 Pictorial Drawing (3D Projections/ Single views)

Box Technique: Objects with circular features

Make an isometric drawing of the object shown

in Fig. 3.14 with corners A at the bot-
tom

• Draw the principal box and construct basic

Fig. 3.14 Multi view drawing.
shape
• Transfer dimensions x and y to the isometric
drawing and draw isometric lines
• Construct Isocircle Squares and create the
isocircle
• Connect the relevant points with lines
• Draw visible lines

Fig. 3.15 Isometric projection development.

3.2 Isometric projection 61

Box Technique: Object with Irregular Curves

Make an isometric drawing of the object shown

in Fig. 3.16 which is an object with irregular
curve

• Draw the principal box and construct basic

shape
Fig. 3.16 Multi view drawing.
• The dimensions shown on the top view of
Fig. 3.16 are used to mark out the key points
on the curve. It is like dividing the curve
into segments so that enough key points can
be generated to be used to approximate the
curve.
• shows the creation of the irregular curve.
• Draw visible lines

Fig. 3.17 Isometric projection development.

62 Pictorial Drawing (3D Projections/ Single views)

Centerline Technique for Isometric Drawings

The centerline technique is better for objects with many circular and arc features. This method
begins with a construction of all the centerlines in the object using the top or bottom face as
reference. The center points of all the circles and arcs are located and the circles and arcs are
created. Other features are added to complete the drawing. Steps are as follows

Step 1: Create the center lines

All centerlines in the object are created aligned with isometric axes. The size of the object
will determine the length of the center lines. Either the top or bottom face of the object can
be used as reference. The bottom face was used as reference in Fig. 3.18.

Step 2: Create Isocircle Squares

On the center lines drawn in Step 1, locate the centers of the isocircles. Using the dimensions
available; draw the squares for the isocircles on one face as shown in Step 2 of Fig. 3.18.

Step 3: Create Arc Centers for Isocircle on One Face

Using the four-center ellipse technique create the centers of the arcs for the isocircles on one
face

Step 4: Create the Isocircles on One Face

Once the centers of the arcs for the isocircles are finalized in Step 3, create the arcs for each
isocircle.

Step 5: Create Isocircles on the Other Faces

Repeat Steps 2 to 4 for other faces.

Step 6: Finish and Check the Drawing Complete the drawing by creating connecting features to
the isocircles and removing lines and arcs that are hidden. Check that the drawing is correct.
3.2 Isometric projection 63

Fig. 3.18 Center line method for isometric drawing.

Isometric Annotations

Isometric annotations consist of textual information added to isometric views for complete docu-
mentation. These include dimensions, notes, tables, etc. Annotations should be placed on isoplanes
and dimension lines should be parallel to isometric axes. As much as is possible, keep all dimen-
sions outside of view and show dimensions between points on the same plane only. Arrowhead
heel should be parallel to the extension lines and dimension value should be parallel with extension
lines. The front (for width dimensions) and right (for depth dimensions) isoplanes are preferred
for annotations. Fig. 3.19a shows a box dimension with the preferred format, however, Fig. 3.19b,
shows the same box dimension with the width and depth sizes on the top isoplane. This is also a
common format for isometric dimensioning. The height dimensions are placed vertical and could
64 Pictorial Drawing (3D Projections/ Single views)

be on the front or right isoplane. The dimension value can be placed aligned with the dimension
line or placed horizontally. Though the aligned placement is recommended by ANSI, the horizontal
placement is common, perhaps due to relative easy when drawing manually or sketching freehand.

Fig. 3.19 Isometric annotations.

3.2 Isometric projection 65

3.2.2 LAB 5: ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

Q1 FIGURE 3.20 shows the primary views of a geometric model. Draw an isometric drawing
of the model. Make ’P’ the lowest point. No hidden detail is necessary. [12 marks]

Fig. 3.20 Third angle Projection

66 Pictorial Drawing (3D Projections/ Single views)

Q2 FIGURE 3.21 shows the primary views of a geometric model. Draw an isometric drawing
of the model. Make ’P’ the lowest point. No hidden detail is necessary.

Fig. 3.21 First angle Projection

3.3 Oblique Projection

A projected view in which the lines of sight are parallel to each other but inclined to the plane of
projection is called an oblique projection . For practical purposes, the principal face is placed
parallel to the plane of projection, thus making it and parallel faces show in true shape.
In all forms of oblique projection, the
receding axis may be drawn in any direc-
tion (Fig. 3.22). By changing the axis an-
gle and he choice of front face, any orien-
tation required to exhibit he part properly
and clearly can be attained.
Oblique drawings are similar to isomet-
ric drawings. However, they are produced Fig. 3.22 Axis Choice for Oblique Projection.
from parallel projectors that are not per-
3.3 Oblique Projection 67

pendicular to the projection plane. The primary difference lies in the use of only one receding axis
and the ability to draw one surface as true shape and size in the front plane.
There are three versions of oblique projection,
differing only in the comparative scales used along
the receding axis and the angle of the receding axis
(Fig. 3.23).The receding axis is typically drawn at
60, 45, or 30 degrees.
An oblique projection on which the lines of
sight make an angle of 45° with the plane of projec-
tion is called a cavalier projection [Fig. 3.23(a)].
The front is drawn full scale and true shape, as
with all forms of oblique projection. The same
scale is used on all axes: therefore, the receding
faces are drawn full scale (but not true shape). An
oblique projection in which the lines of sight make
an angle of between 63° and 26° with the plane
of projection is called a cabinet projection [Fig.
3.23(b)]. The scale on the receding axis is one-half
of the scale on the other axes.
An oblique projection in which the lines of
sight make any angle other than 45° or 63° to
26° is called a general oblique. The scale on the Fig. 3.23 Types of Oblique Projection.

receding axis should be something between full

scale and one-half scale of the horizontal and vertical axes, as shown in Figure 3.23(c). The choice
of the receding angle (1 ° to 89°) is determined by the shape of the object and the most descriptive
view orientation.
The distortion often noticeable in oblique projection may be decreased by reducing the scale
on the receding axis. Cylinders and cones should have their axes on the receding axis to reduce
distortion and to make it possible to draw circles with a compass or template.
68 Pictorial Drawing (3D Projections/ Single views)

Oblique projection is most commonly used for objects that have a series of circles, curves, or
irregular outlines in the same or parallel planes. By placing curved outlines in the front face, they
can be drawn true shape and full scale without distortion. A standard circle template or a compass
can be used in the construction. In other words, the front face of an oblique projection is exactly
the same as the front view of a part drawn in a multiview projection.

Oblique construction

Objects that are drawn with oblique projection

should be oriented so the surface with curved lines
lies in the front plane bounded by the axes that arc
at 90°. Since all surfaces that lie on the front plane
or that are parallel to it are drawn true shape and
size, this orientation lessens drawing time. Circles
and arcs are therefore true projections.
Oblique construction is started the same as a
multiview or an isometric drawing-by blocking
in the overall dimensions. The drawing is started
by establishing the width and the height of the
front and the rear face. Next, the depth of each
face is established, and then the part’s edges arc
constructed. Circular features are then located and
their dimensions blocked in. Finally, the part is
darkened. Figure 3.24 shows four steps in this
process.
The front face of the part in Figure 3.24 (with
all curved features) is drawn true shape and size,
and all measurements on this front face are true
length. The measurements are taken from the front
view in (a) and transferred to (b). The angle for
Fig. 3.24 Step-by-Step Construction of
the receding axis is then determined. (The most Oblique Drawing .
3.3 Oblique Projection 69

common angle for the receding axis is 45°.) After

the angle is determined, the rear face of the part is blocked in. The features of the rear face can
then be drawn, as in Figure 3.24(c). Because the front and the rear faces are parallel and therefore
identical, only the portions of the rear face that show along the receding face need to be drawn.
The receding edge lines are drawn parallel to the receding axis between the part’s corners and
tangent to the curved feature on the top edge Fig. (3.24(c)); the part is completed by darkening in
the visible edges (Fig. 13.24(d)).
When the object to be drawn is placed
so that the curved features do not fall in the
front face or two or more faces have curved
features, offset measurements must be
used to establish the curves. After the fea-
ture’s points are plotted, an irregular curve
is employed to draw the curve. The curved
features are divided vertically and horizon-
tally with construction lines (Fig. 3.25(a)).
The intersection of vertical construction
lines with related horizontal construction
lines establishes points on the curved fea-
ture. Fig. 3.25 Offset Dimensions for Curves Not in or
Parallel to the Front Face of the Part .
The oblique projection is started by es-
tablishing a front face. The choice of front
face in this example was made solely on the need to demonstrate this procedure. The construction
lines are transferred to the oblique view and the points plotted in Figure 3.25(b). A smooth curve
is drawn through the points using an irregular curve. Since the opposite portion can be mirrored,
only half of each hole needs to be plotted.
The projection is completed by drawing the end lines parallel to the axes and tangent to the
curves in Figure 3.25(c), and darkening in the lines in (d). If a cabinet drawing is involved, the
depth dimensions are halved and the same procedure used in its construction.
70 Pictorial Drawing (3D Projections/ Single views)

The construction process for oblique projection with slanted, inclined lines and inclined planes
is similar to that for isometric drawings. Their endpoints are located along lines that are parallel to
one of the axes.

3.3.1 LAB 6: OBLIQUE PROJECTION

Q1 FIGURE 3.26 is drawn in First Angle projection. Make Cabinet oblique drawing of the
object positioning the drawing according to the receding axis given. [8 marks]

Fig. 3.26 First angle Projection

3.3 Oblique Projection 71

Q2 FIGURE 3.27 is drawn in First Angle projection. Make Cavalier oblique drawing of the
object positioning the drawing according to the receding axis indicated. [8 marks]

Fig. 3.27 First angle Projection

72 Pictorial Drawing (3D Projections/ Single views)

3.4 Perspective Projection

A pictorial drawing made by the intersection of the picture plane with lines of sight converging
from points on the object to the point of sight that is located at a finite distance from the picture
plane is called a perspective. The plane of projection is placed between the observer and the
object and collective piercing points in the plane of projection of all the projectors produces the
perspective.
Perspective drawings are pictorials that
appear similar to photographs. The use
of perspective projection gives the illustra-
tion a photolike realism. The observer is
stationed at a fixed position relative to the
object being drawn, as with a photograph.
Perspective projection provides illus-
trations that approximate how a particular
object looks to the human eye or as a cam-
era would record the object on film. Since
a perspective drawing approximates how
an object really looks, it is not dimension-
ally correct and cannot be scaled. The only
lines that can be scaled are those lines on
the object that actually lie in the picture
plane.
Technical illustrations for advertise-
ments, sales catalogues, technical manuals,
and architectural renderings make exten-
sive use of this form of pictorial projection.
Fig. 3.28 Types of Perspective .
All lines in perspective drawings con-
verge at one, two, or three points on the horizon (vanishing points) and, therefore, are not parallel,
as in oblique and axonometric projection. This creates three basic categories in perspective
projection: parallel, angular, and oblique as shown in (Fig. 3.28).
3.4 Perspective Projection 73

Understanding perspective projection

Fig. 3.29 Parallel vs Perspective projection .

Fig. 3.30 Terminologies in perspective projection .

74 Pictorial Drawing (3D Projections/ Single views)

One-Point Perspective Projection

Station point (SP) The assumed position

of the observer
Picture plane (PP) A vertical plane that
is 900 to the line of sight from the station
point (SP). The picture plane is usually
placed between the object and the station
point.
Horizon line (HL) The line of intersec-
tion made by a horizontal plane located
at eye level and the picture plane. The
horizon line is raised or lowered as the ob-
server is raised or lowered. The horizon
line remains in a horizontal position.
Ground line (GL) The intersection of Fig. 3.31 One-Point Perspective Projection .

the ground surface plane and the object or

structure contacting the ground surface.
Vanishing point (VP) A point located in space where the ground line appears to intersect with
the horizon line. The number of vanishing points depends on the type of perspective. There will
be either one, two, or three vanishing points (in this figure there is one).
Height line (HL) A vertical line in the plane of sight that falls on the line of sight on which
measurements of height
The picture plane is passed through the front face of the part. In other words, the edge view of
the picture plane and the edge view of the front face are along the same line. The horizon line is
drawn according to the desired eye level and whether the part is to be viewed from eye level, below
eye level, or above eye level. The ground line is drawn last. The distance between the ground line
and the horizon line determines how far above or below eye level the part will be observed by the
viewer.
The front view is drawn second [ig. 3.31(b)]. The distance between the picture plane line in
the top view and the station point is drawn two times (or more) the width of the part (dimension D
3.4 Perspective Projection 75

in this figure). The location of the vertical line (line of sight) will be determined by which side the
part is to recede to and how much of the part’s side needs to be shown. Here, the vertical line is
drawn on the right of the part, so the perspective recedes to the right. Dimension D establishes this
distance. The line of sight is to the right of the part at a distance equal to dimension D. The farther
to the side this line is drawn, the more the right side will show. The front view is then drawn using
the width dimensions projected from the top view and completing the front face’s features. The
vanishing point is at the intersection of the line of sight (vertical line) and the horizon line.
Lines are then drawn from every point on the front view to the vanishing point (VP) in Figure
3.31(c). A line drawn from the station point to the back corner of the part in the top view intersects
the picture plane (PP) to establish point A. A line is then drawn vertically from point A to the
receding lines, which extend from the front view toward the VP. This will establish point B and the
back vertical edge of the part. A horizontal line is then drawn from point B to the left to establish
the back edge. All other features are drawn by the same procedure to establish points along the
picture plane and to project to the front view [Fig. 3.31(d)].
The one-point (parallel) perspectives use a frontal plane that is parallel to the front face of
the part (Fig. 3.31). The frontal plane is perpendicular to the line of sight. On solid objects,
one-point perspectives more nearly resemble oblique pictorial drawings. The frontal surface of the
pictorial box is perpendicular to the lines of sight (axis of vision) and shows height and width in
true distance. The depth lines of the object converge toward a common vanishing point (CV). The
top, front, and side faces are drawn first with full-scale dimensions. Height dimensions are taken
from the side view for the front face.

Two-Point Perspective Projection

Figure 3.32 shows a two-point perspective of the same part as in Figure 3.31. Note the differences
and similarities of the procedure and the finished illustration. Two-point perspectives require more
work and the end result is more realistic.
Start by drawing the picture plane line (PP), as shown. The top view is then drawn with one
of its corners touching the picture plane line. This will also establish the center of vision (CV).
The front face is drawn at an angle of 300 to the PP, as shown. Other angles can be used. To show
enough detail, the side with the most features should be at the smaller angle to the PP. The line
76 Pictorial Drawing (3D Projections/ Single views)

of sight is drawn as a vertical line extending from the intersection of the part’s front comer (the
one touching the PP) in Figure 3.32 (a). The horizon line, the ground line, and the station point
are established as in Figure 3.31. Draw lines SP-A and SP-B from the station point parallel to
the edges of the part to where they intersect the PP and establish points A and B [Fig. 3.32(b)].
Vanishing point left (VPL) and vanishing point right (VPR) are drawn by dropping vertical lines
from points A and B to the horizon line.

Fig. 3.32 Two-Point Perspective Projection .

The right or left side view is then drawn with its base on the ground line, as in Figure 3.32(c).
Height lines are established in the perspective view by projecting each vertical dimension from
the side view to the line of sight. The intersection of each line projected from the side view to the
line of sight establishes points. Draw a line from each point to the VPL and the VPR. Draw lines
from the SP to the corners of the top view at points 1 and 2. The intersection of these projectors
and the PP establishes the outside limits of the perspective view when they are drawn vertically
until they intersect their corresponding receding projectors. The parts outside dimensions have
now been determined. By repeating the previous two steps, every feature of the part is established
by projection. The perspective is then darkened, as in Figure 3.32(d).
3.4 Perspective Projection 77

Class example

Fig 3.33a shows plan and front view of an object in First angle orthographic. Draw the angular
perspective of it when the object is resting on the ground plane oriented to the picture plane as
shown in Fig.3.33b keeping the face inclined 300 to and the edge P 20mm behind the picture plane.
The station point is 120 mm in front of the picture plane, 80mm above the ground plane and lies in
the central plane which passes through the edge P.

Fig. 3.33 First angle Projection

Class example Solution

78 Pictorial Drawing (3D Projections/ Single views)

Fig. 3.34 Angular Perspective Projection

3.4.1 LAB 7: PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION

Q1 Fig 3.35a shows First angle orthographic views of machined block. draw a neat two point
perspective view of the machined block. Point A is situated in line with the centre of vision
and up against the picture plane with the orientation as shown in Fig.3.35b. The distance of
the eye in front of the picture plane is 120 mm and 120mm above the ground plane and lies
in the central plane which passes through the edge A. [12 marks]
3.4 Perspective Projection 79

Fig. 3.35 First angle Projection

Q2 Fig 3.36a shows Third angle orthographic views of machined block. draw a neat two point
perspective view of the machined block. Point A is situated in line with the centre of vision
and up against the picture plane with the orientation as shown in Fig.3.36b. The distance of
the eye in front of the picture plane is 100 mm and 100mm above the ground plane and lies
in the central plane which passes through the edge A. [12 marks]

Fig. 3.36 Third angle Projection