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THE SCANDAL OF QUANTUM Take the much discussed case of a the quantum mechanical interference
MECHANICS beam of electrons passing through two terms between two macroscopic states
slits in an opaque screen and producing virtually cancel and only probabilities
The article by Nikolić1 with its interference stripes on a receiving survive. That is the explanation why
catchy title is a reminder of the scan- screen. There is no way to explain this our familiar macroscopic physics, con-
dalous fact that eighty years after the if one thinks of electrons as classical cerned with billiard balls, deals with
development of quantum mechanics particles even if dressed up with some probabilities rather than probability
the literature is still swamped by volu- quantum features 共except perhaps a amplitudes.10
minous discussions about what is Bohm potential of a very weird kind兲. Incidentally, this is also the answer
called its “interpretation.”2 Actually Bohr solved the problem by emphasiz- to the Schrödinger cat paradox. The
quantum mechanics provides a com- ing that the question, through which Hilbert space of the cat does not con-
plete and adequate description of the slit a particle had passed, is illegitimate sist of two eigenstates for life and
observed physical phenomena on the as long as one has no way of observing death, but of two macroscopic sub-
atomic scale. What else can one wish? that passage, and any set-up that makes spaces corresponding to life and death
共It is true that the connection with this observation possible destroys the and the interference terms between
gravity is still a problem, but that is interference. This can be checked by them cancel. Such a situation is not un-
outside this discussion.兲 The difficulty an explicit quantum mechanical treat- usual. We know that air and water con-
is that the authors are unable to adjust ment of both the observed system and sist of molecules, but in everyday life
their way of thinking—and the apparatus.7 we are dealing with their macroscopic
speaking—to the fact that phenomena A perennial bone of contention is the averages: wind and currents.
on the microscopic scale look different following “measurement problem.” Second, in order that a macroscopic
from what we are accustomed to in or- The evolution of a system is given in apparatus can be influenced by the
dinary life. That two electrons far apart terms of a complex wave function but presence of a microscopic event it has
may be entangled seems strange to one observes only probabilities given to be prepared in a metastable initial
someone who still thinks of electrons by its absolute square. Von Neumann,8 state—think of the Wilson camera and
as individual particles rather than as being a mathematician, introduced as the Geiger counter. The microscopic
manifestations of a wave function. an axiom that observation reduces the event triggers a macroscopically vis-
The inability to adjust one’s thinking wave function 共or “probability ampli- ible transition into the stable state. Of
to the new phenomena gave rise to the tude”兲 to a probability distribution. course this is irreversible and is ac-
idea of hidden variables, made popular Others concluded that an observation companied by a thermodynamic in-
by Bohm.3 He 共and many others兲 wrote splits the entire universe into many crease of entropy.
the Schrödinger equation in a form re- worlds,9 but this picture is not open to This is the physics as determined by
sembling the classical Hamilton– verification, nor does it solve the ques- quantum mechanics. The scandal is
Jacobi equation, concealing the tion. The fact that the observed state of that there are still many articles, dis-
counter-intuitive features of quantum a system is not sufficient to compute cussions, and textbooks, which adver-
mechanics in a “quantum potential.” its future, not even its probable future, tise various interpretations and philo-
That DeBroglie initially regarded the was regarded as unacceptable by Ein- sophical profundities. In the
wave function as a pilot wave is under- stein. seventeenth century Cartesians refused
standable, but the fact that he revived it The solution of the measurement to accept Newton’s attraction because
in 1957 only means that he refused to problem is twofold. First, any observa- they could not accept a force that was
accept the quantum mechanical tion or measurement requires a macro- not transmitted by a medium. Even
picture.4 Even a nonlinear interaction scopic measuring apparatus. A macro- now many physicists have not yet
with our consciousness has been scopic object is also governed by learned that they should adjust their
suggested.5 Ghirardi–Rimini–Weber6 quantum mechanics, but has a large ideas to the observed reality rather than
proposed to modify the Schrödinger number of constituents, so that each the other way round.
equation so as to make it agree with macroscopic state is a combination of
their ideas about how reality ought to an enormous number of quantum me- 1
Hrvoje Nikolić, “Would Bohr be born if
look. chanical eigenstates. As a consequence Bohm were born before Born?,” Am. J. Phys.

989 Am. J. Phys. 76 共11兲, November 2008 http://aapt.org/ajp © 2008 American Association of Physics Teachers 989
 76, 143–146 共2008兲. Mechanics, edited by B. S. DeWitt and N. electricity-generating panels on roof-
2
For ample literature see Nikolić, loc cit. or Graham 共Princeton U.P., Princeton, 1973兲.
Quantum Theory and Measurement, edited by 10 tops, because there will be a steady ac-
N. G. van Kampen, “Quantum statistics of ir-
J. A. Wheeler and W. H. Zurek 共Princeton reversible processes,” Physica 共Amsterdam兲 cident and death rate for the installers.
U.P., Princeton, 1983兲; V. Laloë, “Do we re- 20, 603–622 共1954兲. In Dennis Danielson’s collection3 of
ally understand quantum mechanics? Strange articles on cosmology, he quotes
correlations, paradoxes, and theorems,” Am. N. G. van Kampen
J. Phys. 69, 655–701 共2001兲. Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands George Bernard Shaw’s story of how
3
D. Bohm, “A suggested interpretation of the Albert Einstein went to a hospital to
quantum theory in terms of “hidden” vari- visit a carpenter who had fallen off a
ables. I,” Phys. Rev. 85, 166–179 共1952兲; “A roof. Einstein wanted to find out what
suggested interpretation of the quantum FALLS FROM A HEIGHT
theory in terms of “hidden” variables. II,” it felt like to be in free fall.
ibid. 85, 180–193 共1952兲. Rod Cross interestingly describes
4
L. de Broglie, La Théorie de la Mesure en
Méchanique Ondulatoire 共Gauthier-Villars, the physics of falling from a height.1 1
Rod Cross, “Forensic Physics 101: Falls from
1957兲. Interestingly, in December 2007, a a height,” Am. J. Phys. 76, 833–837 共2008兲.
2
5
E. P. Wigner, Symmetries and Reflections 共In- James Barron and Al Baker, “After a Window
window washer in New York City, Al- Washer’s 47-Floor Plunge, the Big Question
diana U.P., 1967兲, p. 171.
6
G. C. Ghirardi, A. Rimini, and T. Weber, cides Moreno, survived a fall of 47 Is: How Did He Survive?” New York Times,
“Unified dynamics for microscopic and mac- stories.2 He may have reached terminal December 12, 2007; http://www.nytimes.com/
roscopic systems,” Phys. Rev. D 34, 470–491 velocity, especially with the wind re- 2007/12/12/nyregion/12fall.html?_r⫽1&oref
共1986兲. ⫽slogin
7
N. G. van Kampen, “Ten theorems about
sistance from his platform. 3
Dennis Danielson, The Book of the Cosmos
quantum mechanical measurements,” Physica Professor Cross cites about 400 共Perseus Books, Cambridge, MA, 2001兲.
A 153, 97–113 共1988兲. people per year falling off flat-roofed
8
J. von Neumann, Mathematische Grundlagen houses in part of Turkey. The statistic
der Quantenmechanik 共Springer, Berlin, Jay M. Pasachoff
1932兲. gives pause to those pushing for the Caltech 150-21 and Williams College,
9
The Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum installation of solar water-heating or Pasadena, CA 91125

990 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 76, No. 11, November 2008 Letters to the Editor 990