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Surface forces are caused by the direct Strain Hardening. When yielding has
contact of one body with the surface of ended, an increase in load can be
another. supported by the specimen, resulting in
a curve that rises continuously but
A body force is developed when one body becomes flatter until it reaches a
exerts a force on another body without maximum stress referred to as the
direct physical contact between the ultimate stress.
bodies.
Necking. Up to the ultimate stress, as
Prismatic. All cross sections are the the specimen elongates, its cross-
same throughout its length. sectional area will decrease.
Homogeneous material has the same Ductile Materials. Any material that
physical and mechanical properties can be subjected to large strains
throughout its volume. before it fractures is called a ductile
Isotropic material has these same material.
properties Brittle Materials. Materials that
in all directions. exhibit little or no yielding before
failure are referred to as brittle
Load Factors reflect the probability materials.
that the total loading R will occur for
all the events stated. As a material is deformed by an
external load, the load will do
Resistance factors (𝜙) are determined external work, which in turn will be
from the probability of material stored in the material as internal
failure as it relates to the material’s energy. This energy is related to the
quality and the consistency of its strains in the material, and so it is
strength. referred to as strain energy.
If we select two line segments that are Modulus of Resilience. When the stress
originally perpendicular to one reaches the proportional limit, the
another, then the change in angle that strain-energy density is referred to as
occurs between them is referred to as the modulus of resilience.
shear strain.
Modulus of Toughness. This quantity
represents the entire area under the
stress–strain diagram, and therefore it
indicates the maximum amount of strain-
energy the material can absorb just
before it fractures.
Ductility Factor. The ratio of modulus
of toughness to the
modulus of resilience.
Creep. When a material has to support
a load for a very long period of time,
it may continue to deform until a
sudden fracture occurs or its
usefulness is impaired.
Fatigue. When a metal is subjected to
repeated cycles of stress or strain, it
Yielding. A slight increase in stress causes its structure to break down,
above the elastic limit will result in ultimately leading to fracture.
a breakdown of the material and cause
it to deform permanently. This behavior Plasticity. A condition where a
is called yielding. material break down and deforms
permanently even due to a slight
The stress that causes yielding is increase in stress above the elastic
called the yield stress or yield point, limit.
𝜎𝑌 , and the deformation that occurs is
called plastic deformation. Residual Stress. When the plastic
moment is removed from the beam then it
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will cause residual stress to be Damping. Rate at which natural

developed in the beam. vibration is absorbed.
Beams. Members that are slender and Seismometer. Instrument use to measure
support loadings that are applied the peak ground acceleration, which is
perpendicular to their longitudinal one of the most important
axis. characteristics of an earthquake.
Dilatation. The change in volume per Magnetometer. Instrument use to measure
unit volume is called the “volumetric the strain of rock under pressure.
strain” or the dilatation.
Focus (Hypocenter). The originating
Resonance. It occurs when a building earthquake source of the elastic waves
period coincides with the earthquake inside the earth which cause shaking of
period. ground due to earthquake.
Torsional Shear Stress. Occurs when the Epicenter. The point on the earth’s
structures center of mass does not surface directly above the focus.
coincide with the center of rigidity.
Story drift ratio. Story drift divided
Ground Displacement. Measured by a by the story height.
seismometer.
Intensity. A measure of the strength of
Rigidity of a Structure. Reciprocal of shaking during earthquake.
deflection
Magnitude. A measure of energy released
Story. It is the space between two in an earthquake.
adjacent floors.
Liquefaction. Is a state in saturated
Diaphragms. Rigid horizontal planes cohesionless soil wherein the effective
used to transfer lateral forces to shear strength is reduced to negligible
vertical resisting elements. value.
Shear wall. Wall designed to resist Earthquake. Is an oscillatory,
lateral forces acting on its own plane, sometimes violent movement of the
typically wind and seismic loads. ground’s surface that follows release
of energy in the Earth’s Crust.
Center of Gravity. It is the point
where the object “suffers” no torque by Shear Drift. The sideways deflection of
the effect of the gravitational force a building due to lateral (sideways)
acted upon it. loads.
Center of Rigidity. It is point through Chord Drift. The sideways deflection of
which the resultant of the resistance axial (vertical) loads.
to the applied lateral force acts.
Vertical Structural Irregularities
Center of Mass. It is point through 1. Stiffness Irregularity – Soft
which the applied seismic force acts. Storey
Eccentricity. It is the distance - A soft storey is one in which the
lateral stiffness is less than 70 % of
between the center of rigidity and
that in the storey above or less than
center of mass. 80 percent of the average stiffness of
Design seismic base shear. It is the the three stories above.
total design lateral force 2. Weight (Mass) Irregularity
- Mass irregularity shall be
Flexibility of a structure. Inverse of considered to exist where the
stiffness. effective mass of any storey is more
than 150 % of the effective mass of an
Story drift. It is the displacement of adjacent storey. A roof that is
one level relative to the level above lighter than the floor below need not
or below. be considered.
3. Vertical Geometric Irregularity
Story displacement. Lateral - Vertical geometric irregularity
displacement of the story relative to shall be considered to exist where the
the base. horizontal dimension of the lateral-
force-resisting system in any storey
is more than 130 % of that in an
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adjacent storey. One-storey 5. Non-Parallel Systems Irregularity

penthouses need not be considered.
The vertical lateral-load-resisting
4. In-Plane Discontinuity In elements are not parallel to or
Vertical Lateral-Force-Resisting symmetric about the major orthogonal
Element Irregularity axes of the lateral force-resisting
systems.
-An in-plane offset of the lateral-
load-resisting elements greater than
the length of those elements. PAST BOARD EXAM OBJECTIVE
QUESTIONS (SEC)
5. Discontinuity In Capacity – Weak
Storey Irregularity
2012
-A weak storey is one in which the
storey strength is less than 80 % of Resultant
that in the storey above. The storey - Is the force which determines
strength is the total strength of all
whether the body will be in
seismic-resisting elements sharing
the storey for the direction under Equilibrium or will have a varying
consideration. state of motion

Horizontal Structural Irregularities Hooke’s Law

- The principle used in equations
1.Torsional irregularity (To Be related to the deformation of axially
Considered When Diaphragms Are Not
loaded material.
Flexible)
- That the stress is proportional to
-Shall be considered to exist when the the strain within the elastic
maximum storey drift, computed region.
including accidental torsion, at one
end of the structure transverse to an Poisson’s Ratio
axis is more than 1.2 times the - The ratio of the lateral to
average of the storey drifts of the the longitudinal strain is
two ends of the structure. constant.
2. Re-Entrant Corner Irregularity
Young’s Modulus
Plan configurations of a structure and
- It is the constant of
its lateral-force-resisting system
contain re-entrant corners, where proportionality that defines the
both projections of the structure linear relationship between stress
beyond a re-entrant corner are greater and strain.
than 15 % of the plan dimension of the
structure in the given direction. Column
- A structural member that has the
3.Diaphragm Discontinuity
ratio of its unsupported height to
Irregularity
its least lateral dimension of not
Diaphragms with abrupt less than 3 and is used primarily to
discontinuities or variations in support axial load.
stiffness, including those having
cutout or open areas greater than 50 % Kinetic Friction
of the gross enclosed area of the - Retarding force acting opposite
diaphragm, or changes in effective
of body in motion.
diaphragm stiffness of more than 50 %
from one story to the next. Proportional Limit
4. Out of Plane Offsets Irregularity - It is the term for the value
beyond which the stress is no
Discontinuities in a lateral force longer proportional to the strain.
path, such as out-of-plane offsets of
the vertical elements
Homogeneous
- Materials which have the same
composition/compression at any
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point. 2017
- Material has the same
Soft Story
elastic properties in all
directions. - One in which the lateral stiffness
is less than 70 percent of the
Ductility
stiffness of the story above is
- Property of a material enables it called .
to under large permanent strains
before failure. Story Drift
- Ability of a material to - A Lateral Displacement of one
deform/ defuse in the plastic level relative to the level above or
range without breaking. (2013 & below is called . (2021)
2016).
2018
Pre-Tensioning
“Liquefaction” is best described as
- It is described herein stressing
....
high strength steel wires before
concrete hardens. - A sudden drop in the shear
strength of a soil.
Post-Tensioning
- It is described herein stressing Which refers to the Rigidity of
high strength steel after the a Structure?
concrete has been cast and has - Deflection
attained sufficient strength. - Reciprocal of Deflection
Relaxation - Product of Stiffness and Deflection
- Is described herein loss of - Reciprocal of Stiffness
stress that takes place with the
Center of Mass
passage of time as concrete is
held at a constant strain. - It is the point through which
the applied seismic force acts.
Resilience / Modulus of Resilience
Reciprocal of Stiffness
- Ability of a material to absorb
energy in the Elastic Range. (2016) - Refers to flexibility of structure.

2013 Orthotropic
- The material has the same
Toughness / Modulus of Toughness composition at every point but the
elastic may not be the same in all
- Ability of a material to absorb
directions.
energy in the plastic range or
fracture point. (2016) - The composite material exhibits
elastic properties in one direction
Elasticity
different from that in the
- Property of a material which makes perpendicular direction.
it return to its original dimension
when the load is removed. Focal Depth
- Besides the Epicenter, it
Center of Rigidity
describes the location of the
- It is the point through which Earthquake.
the resultant of the resistance to
the applied lateral force acts. Actual Displacement or
(2018) Seismic/Earthquake Waves
- It is measured by a seismometer.
Eccentricity
- It is the distance between the Magnitude of Earthquake
Center of Rigidity and Center of - It is measured by the Richter Scale
Mass.
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2021 without breakage or the ability

to undergo considerable plastic
Fatigue deformation under tensile load
before actual rupture. *
- The material is subjected to
repeated cycles of stress or strain,
it causes the structure to breakdown Plasticity
ultimately leading to fracture.
- A property of a material where
Creep
if the specimen be unloaded,
- When a material has to support a it will not return to its
load for a long period of time, what original length, rather it
causes it to continue to deform will retain a permanent
until a sudden fracture occurs. elongation sometimes called a
permanent set. *
Plasticity
- Condition of a material when it Yield stress
breaks down and deforms permanently
even due to a slight increase in - The stress at which there occurs
stress above the elastic limit. a marked increase in strain
Resonance without an increase in stress

- It occurs when a building period Ultimate stress

coincides with the earthquake
period. - The max. stress a material is
capable of developing
Torsion/Torsional Shear Stress
- It occurs when the structure’s Rupture strength
center of mass does not coincide
with its center of rigidity. - The stress at which the specimen
actually breaks.
Additional Terms
Stiffness
Proportional limit
- The property of a material to
withstand high stress without
- The greatest stress a material great strain
is capable of developing without
Brittleness
deviation from straight line
proportionality between strain
- Implies the absence of any
and stress *
plastic deformation prior to
Elastic limit failure.

Malleability
- The greatest stress a material
is capable of developing without
- The property of a material
a permanent elongation remaining
enabling it to undergo
upon complete unloading of the
considerable plastic
specimen
deformation under compressive
Modulus of elasticity load before actual rupture.
Toughness
- Slope of the straight line
portion of the curve or the ratio - The property of a material
of stress over the strain enabling it to endure high-
impact loads or shock loads.
Ductility
- The ability of a material to Resilience
deform in the plastic range
- The property of a material
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enabling high impact loads Isotropic material

without inducing a stress in
excess of the elastic limit. - One having the same elastic
properties in all directions at
Factor of safety any one point of the body.

- Ratio of the failure stress to Seismograph

the allowable stress.
- Is a ground mounted – device
Failure which measures the actual
displacement of the ground with
- The condition that renders the respect to a stationary
load resisting member unfit for reference point.
resisting further increase in
loads. Intensity

Diagonal tension - It is the oldest useful measure

of an earthquake’s strength
- The tensile stress that develops which is based on the damage
on the diagonals surface. and other observed effects on
Poisson's ratio people, buildings and other
features.
- The ratio of lateral strain to Dynamic
axial strain for an unrestrained Forces generated by a body in
member. motion.

Dilatation

- Change of volume per unit

volume.

Ductile material "e"

- Is one having a relatively

large tensile strain up to the
point of rupture
Brittle material

- Is one having a relatively

small tensile strain up to
the point of rupture

Tangent modulus

- The rate of change of stress

with respect to strain

Specific strength

- The ratio of the ultimate or

tensile strength to specific
weight that is the weight per
unit volume.

Specific modulus

- Ratio of the Youngs modulus to

the specific weight.