1 | Lecture Note-Intro to Computing

UNIT 2| The Computer and Its Application

A. Learning Outcome:

At the end of the topic, the students must have:

• Appreciated how computers evolved until they reached their modern state.
• Familiarized with different computer classifications.
• Recognized the function of computers in different fields.

B. Pre-Test
a. Complete the time frame, and place the number of the corresponding device inside the circle.

1. Slide Rule 6. Hollerith Tabulating Machine

2. Leibniz Calculator 7. Intel 4004
3. Integrated circuit 8. Jacquard Loom
4. Analytical Engine 9. Atanasoff-Berry Computer
5. ENIAC 10. Difference Engine

1673 1822 1890 1944 1971

1621 1801 1834 1941 1958

b. Identify what computer generation of the following first appeared? Write only the letter of the correct answer in the
space provided.

1. Integrated Circuit A. 1st Generation

2. Operating System B. 2nd Generation
3. Vacuum Tube C. 3rd Generation
4. Machine Language D. 4th Generation
5. Artificial Intelligence E. 5th Generation
6. Microprocessor
7. Transistor
8. Compiler
9. Intel i7
10. Siri

C. Content

2.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTER

Like most inventions throughout history, computer technology evolved as inventors

tinkered with various devices. With so many pioneering efforts, historians cannot
pinpoint one development and say that it represents the first calculator or the first
computer. Keeping that uncertainty in mind, it is interesting, nonetheless, to trace the
development of computers. Knowing the history of computers helps you understand the
design and capabilities of today’s ever-expanding assortment of digital devices. It also
helps you understand how the computer industry of today came into being.

Unit 2| Subject Instructor: GENER M. CUPO, MBA, MSIT

2 | Lecture Note-Intro to Computing

What came before computers?

Even before recorded history, humans used counting aids, such as pebbles and notched
sticks, to keep track of quantities. Many transactions, however, required calculations. A Figure 2-1. Abacus
calculation is based on an algorithm—the step-by-step process by which numbers are
manipulated. Even simple paper-and-pencil addition requires an algorithm. The steps include
adding the rightmost digits first, carrying a 1 if necessary, and then moving left to any remaining
digits, where the process is repeated. Here are some devices used to help people do
calculations:
• Manual Calculator- It is a device that assists in the process of numeric calculations,
but requires the human operator to keep track of the algorithm.
o Abacus- An abacus uses beads to represent numbers. Using an algorithm,
the beads on an abacus can be manipulated to perform arithmetic operations.
o Napier’s Bones- The device consisted of several rods, divided into ten
squares, each labeled with two numbers. The rods were positioned according
to the numbers in a calculation, and the result was determined by adding
values shown in a specific location on the rods. This device was developed
by John Napier, the Scottish Laird of Merchiston. Figure 2-2. Napier’s Bone
o Slide Rule- Liked the one pictured in Figure 9-2, remained in use as
an essential tool for students, engineers, and scientists through the
1960s. The first slide rule was developed by an English
mathematician named William Oughtred in 1621, he used Napier’s
logarithms to construct it. Figure 2-3. Slide Rule
• Mechanical Calculators- implements algorithms autonomously. To work a
mechanical calculator, the operator simply enters the numbers for a calculation, and then pulls a lever or turns a wheel to carry
out the calculation.
o Schickard’s Calculator-Developed by Wilhelm Schickard in 1623. It has a series of interlocking gears, each of the
ten spokes on a gear represented a digit. Every time a gear completed a full circle, it moved the next gear one notch
to the left to “carry the 1.” A similar mechanism is used to advance the mileage on the odometers of vintage cars.
o Pascaline-A mechanical device that could be used to perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Developed by Blaise Pascal in 1642.
o Leibniz Calculator-was created by a German baron named Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz in 1673.
o de Colmar’s Arithmometer-the first mass-produced calculator created by Thomas de Colmar. These devices, unlike
today’s battery-powered calculators, operated under manual power by turning a crank or pulling a lever.

The Beginning of Computer

• 1801: In France, Joseph Marie Jacquard invents a loom (Jacquard Loom) that uses punched wooden cards to automatically
weave fabric designs. Early computers would use similar punch cards.
• 1822: English mathematician named Charles Babbage proposed a device called the Difference Engine that would operate using
steam power—cutting-edge technology during Babbage’s lifetime. The Difference Engine was intended to quickly and accurately
calculate large tables of numbers used for astronomical and engineering applications.
• 1834: Babbage began designing a new general-purpose calculating device, called the Analytical Engine. Although the Analytical
Engine was never completed, computer historians believe that its design embodies many of the concepts that define the modern
computer, including memory, a programmable processor, an output device, and user-definable input of programs and data.
Babbage proposed storing programs and data for calculations on punched cards, an idea that probably came from using
punched cards to control the color and patterns of yarns used in the Jacquard loom.
• 1890: Herman Hollerith designs a punch card system called Hollerith Tabulating Machine to calculate the 1880 census,
accomplishing the task in just three years and saving the government $5 million. He establishes a company that would ultimately
become IBM.
• 1936: Alan Turing presents the notion of a universal machine, later called the Turing machine, capable of computing anything
computable. The central concept of the modern computer was based on his ideas.
• 1937: J.V. Atanasoff, a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa State University, attempts to build the first computer
without gears, cams, belts or shafts.
• 1939: Hewlett-Packard is founded by David Packard and Bill Hewlett in a Palo Alto, California, garage, according to the
Computer History Museum.
• 1941: Atanasoff and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, design a computer that can solve 29 equations simultaneously. It is
called Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) which marks the first time a computer can store information on its main memory.
• 1943-1944: Two University of Pennsylvania professors, John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert build the Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). Considered the grandfather of digital computers, it fills a 20-foot by 40-foot room and has
18,000 vacuum tubes.
• 1946: Mauchly and Presper leave the University of Pennsylvania and receive funding from the Census Bureau to build the
UNIVAC, the first commercial computer for business and government applications.

Unit 2| Prepared by: URIEL M. MELENDRES

3 | Lecture Note-Intro to Computing

• 1947: William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain of Bell Laboratories invented the transistor. They discovered how
to make an electric switch with solid materials and no need for a vacuum.
• 1953: Grace Hopper develops the first computer language, which eventually becomes known as COBOL. Thomas Johnson
Watson Jr., son of IBM CEO Thomas Johnson Watson Sr., conceives the IBM 701 EDPM to help the United Nations keep tabs
on Korea during the war.
• 1954: The FORTRAN programming language, an acronym for FORmula TRANslation, is developed by a team of programmers
at IBM led by John Backus, according to the University of Michigan.
• 1958: Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce unveil the integrated circuit, known as the computer chip. Kilby was awarded the Nobel
Prize in Physics in 2000 for his work.
• 1964: Douglas Engelbart shows a prototype of the modern computer, with a mouse and a graphical user interface (GUI). This
marks the evolution of the computer from a specialized machine for scientists and mathematicians to technology that is more
accessible to the general public.
• 1974-1977: A number of personal computers hit the market, including Scelbi & Mark-8 Altair, IBM 5100, Radio Shack's TRS-80
— affectionately known as the "Trash 80" — and the Commodore PET.

2.2 GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

Computer generations are based on when major technological changes in computers occurred, like the use of vacuum tubes, transistors,
and the microprocessor. As of 2020, there are five generations of computers.
• First-generation computers (1940-1956)
o This generation can be characterized by their use of vacuum tubes to store individual bits of data. A vacuum tube is
an electronic device that controls the flow of electrons in a vacuum. Each tube can be set to one of two states. One
state is assigned a value of 0 and the other a value of 1. Vacuum tubes respond more quickly than mechanical relays,
resulting in faster computations, but they also have several disadvantages. They consume a lot of power, much of
which is wasted as heat. They also tend to burn out quickly. ENIAC, the prototype for first-generation computers,
contained about 18,000 tubes, and every tube was replaced at least once in the first year of operation.
o In addition to vacuum tube technology, first-generation computers were characterized by custom application programs,
made to order for the specific task the computer was to perform. Programming first-
generation computers were difficult. As the computer era dawned, programmers were
forced to think in 1s and 0s to write instructions in machine language.
• Second-generation computers (1956-1953)
o Used transistors instead of vacuum tubes. First demonstrated in 1947 by AT&T’s Bell
Laboratories, transistors regulate current or voltage flow and act as a switch for
electronic signals. Transistors performed functions similar to vacuum tubes, but they
were much smaller, cheaper, less power-hungry, and more reliable. By the late 1950s,
transistors, such as those in Figure 2-3, had replaced vacuum tubes as the processing
and memory technology for most computers.
o This generation is also characterized by the operating system (OS), yes this Figure 2-3. Transistors
first sparked a revolution in
generation introduced OS. Early proprietary operating systems developed by IBM and the entertainment industry
other computer manufacturers were designed to work only on a particular computer by providing a small,
model. Each of these operating systems had a unique set of commands to call their power-efficient technology
for portable radios. Later,
routines. Early operating systems were a step in the right direction, but unfortunately, transistors were
learning to use each one was like learning a new and unique programming language. incorporated in computers
o In addition to operating systems, second-generation computers also ran programming to replace large, hot,
language compilers that allowed programmers to write instructions using English-like power hungry vacuum
tubes.
commands rather than machine language 1s and 0s or cryptic assembly language
commands. High-level languages, such as COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) and Fortran (Formula
Translator), were available for use on second-generation computers and remain in use today.
• Third-generation computers (`1964-1971)
o It became possible in 1958 when Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor
independently developed integrated circuits. Integrated circuit technology made it possible to pack the equivalent of
thousands of vacuum tubes or transistors onto a single miniature chip, vastly reducing the physical size, weight, and
power requirements for devices such as computers.
o In 1965, Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC) introduced the DEC PDP-8, the first commercially successful minicomputer.
Minicomputers were designed to be smaller and less powerful than mainframe computers while maintaining the
capability to simultaneously run multiple programs for multiple users. Thousands of manufacturing plants, small
businesses, and scientific laboratories were attracted to the speed, small size, and reasonable cost of the PDP-8.

Unit 2| Prepared by: URIEL M. MELENDRES

4 | Lecture Note-Intro to Computing

• Fourth-generation computer (1972-present)

o The technology for fourth-generation computers appeared in 1971 when Ted Hoff developed the first general-purpose
microprocessor. Called the Intel 4004, this microprocessor dramatically changed the computer industry, resulting in
fourth-generation microprocessor-based computer systems that were faster, smaller, and even less expensive than
third-generation computers.
o Today, microprocessors are a key component of all types of computers—ranging from PDAs to supercomputers. Intel
reigns as the world’s leading microprocessor manufacturer, although microprocessors are also produced by companies
such as Hitachi, Texas Instruments, Toshiba, Sun Microsystems, AMD, and Motorola.
• Fifth Generation computer (2010-present)
o The fifth generation of computers is beginning to use AI (artificial intelligence), an exciting technology that has many
potential applications around the world. Leaps have been made in AI technology and computers, but there is still room
for improvement.
o One of the more well-known examples of AI in computers is IBM's Watson, which was featured on the TV show
Jeopardy as a contestant. Other better-known examples include Apple's Siri on the iPhone and Microsoft's Cortana on
Windows 8 and Windows 10 computers. The Google search engine also utilizes AI to process user searches.

2.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be classified in many ranges, but basically, computers are classified according to purpose, data handling size, and
functionality.

• According to purpose-There are some needs that are specified to a particular environment or a particular user whereas, many
needs are desired by every user of the computer.
o General Purpose Computer- Computers that can be used for all general needs of all environments and users. These
are versatile computers that can perform a variety of jobs for all types of environments. The programs or instructions
are fed to them and at the time of execution these computers process these instructions and produce meaningful
results. For example, a personal computer that is capable of calculating accounts data, preparing students to result,
designing broachers, writing letters, accessing the Internet or playing games is a general-purpose computer.
o Special Purpose Computer- Computers that are specially designed to perform a specific environment. These are
designed for performing a particular task and cannot perform other tasks. These computers are not versatile. The
instructions used by these computers are generally embedded in various automatic devices. For example, a computer
designed to display the path and trajectory of a missile can be only used for this purpose and we cannot use it for
playing games. A computer that has been designed to count the telephone call pulses and the amount to be paid can
only serve this purpose. We cannot use it for designing and word processing.
• Data Handling- There are essentially two different types of computer processing. Each is made possible by a different kind of
circuitry, and each is suitable for different purposes.
o Digital computers - Mainly general-purpose computers that represent and store data in discrete quantities or numbers.
In these computers, all processing is done in terms of numeric representation (binary digits) of data and information.
Although the user enters the data in decimal or character form, it is converted into binary digits (0s and 1s). For example
PC, Laptop etc.
o Analog computers- Special purpose computers that represent and store data in continuously varying physical
quantities such as current, voltage or frequency. These computers are programmed for measuring physical quantities
like pressure, temperature, speed, etc., and to perform computations on these measurements. Analog computers are
mainly used for scientific and engineering applications. For example analog thermometer and speedometer.
o Hybrid computers- Incorporate the technology of both analog and digital computers. These computers store and
process analog signals which have been converted into discrete numbers using analog to digital converters. They can
also convert the digital numbers into analog signals or physical properties using digital to analog converters. Hybrid
computers are mainly used in artificial intelligence (robotics) and computer aided manufacturing (e.g., process control).
For example, money counting machine and Automated Teller Machine (ATM).
• Size and Functionality-Computers are classified into different types depending on the memory size, cost and processing
speed. The performance of a computer involves speed of processing data, storage capacity and ability to handle input and
output devices.
o Wearables Computers- A computer for carrying on the body, for example, on the wrist. It allows you to work,
communicate, entertain right along ensuring mobility and hands-free and/or eyes-free access to the device. A clear
specification and standards for what is wearable computer are not available yet. Nevertheless, from our point of view,
the fundamental attribute of wearable computer is processing unit embedded into wearable device.
o Microcomputers- It is also called personal computers (PCs) and use microprocessor as its CPU, a memory unit, and
input device and an output device. They are small in size. Also, they do not have large storage capacities. The word
length of a microcomputer lies in the range 8-32. They can perform difficult task. They are used for general purpose
calculations, industrial control, home appliances, desktop publishing, graphics designing and project management.
Examples of this are Laptop, Desktop and Smartphones.

Unit 2| Prepared by: URIEL M. MELENDRES

5 | Lecture Note-Intro to Computing

o Minicomputers- These computers are faster and more powerful than microcomputers. Their word length is 32 bits
(word length means a number of bits in a computer word). These computers can perform more complex tasks and cost
more than microcomputers. They are larger and their storage capacity is small to medium. They are used for payroll
preparation, accounting and scientific computation, controlling and monitoring production processes. Few examples
are VAX 11, PDP11/42 and WIPRO LANDMARK 860 etc.
o Mainframes- These are more powerful than minicomputers. Their word length maybe 48, 60 or 64 bits. They have
high processing speeds and can store large amounts of data. They are used in research organizations, large industries,
large business and government organizations, banks and airline reservations where a large database is needed.
However, these computers consume more electricity. Few examples are IBM 2000 series and UNIVAC 1180.
o Super Computers- These are the largest and fastest computers. Their word length is 64-96 bit. They are also the
costliest. A super computer has a number of CPUs which operate in parallel to make it faster. They are used for massive
data processing and solving very sophisticated problems i.e., in the fields of science and defense, designing and
launching missiles, weather forecasting, biomedical research, aircraft design and automobile design. Few examples
are CRAZY 3, HITAC S-300 etc. India has a series of super computers called PARAM developed by C-DAC and
ANURAG. Wipro InfoTech has developed Supernova computers.

2.4 USE OF COMPUTER IN DIFFERENT FIELDS

Computer is considered one of the most important inventions of the human generation. This era is also known as the computer era
which has eventually changed the living, behavior and working style of human beings. Here are some use of computers in different fields:
• Home: Computer can be used at home in the following ways.
o Home Budget-Computer can be used to manage Home Budget. You can easily calculate your expenses and
income. You can list all expenses in one column and income in another column. Then you can apply any calculation
on these columns to plan your home budget. There are also specialize software that can manage your income
and expenses and generate some cool reports.
o Intertainment- Modern computers drastically change the intertainment industry. Even at home, people can be
intertained, they can watch movies, listen to songs, and played games.
o Source of Information and Communication: People can find any type of information on the internet. Educational
and informative websites are available to download books, tutorials etc. to improve their knowledge and learn new
things. Also, thru mobile devices and computers, people at home can communicate to anyone. People can chat
with friends and family on the internet using different software like Skype, Zoom etc. One can interact with friends
over social media websites like Facebook, Twitter & Google Plus. They can also share photos and videos with
friends.
o Smart Home- A smart home refers to a convenient home setup where appliances and devices can be
automatically controlled remotely from anywhere with an internet connection using a mobile or other networked
device. Devices in a smart home are interconnected through the internet, allowing the user to control functions
such as security access to the home, temperature, lighting, and a home theater remotely.
• Education: As computers evolve, so does how computers are used in the education field. Below is a list of how a computer
can be used in education.
o Distance Learning - Distance learning is a new learning methodology. Computer plays the key role in this kind of
learning. Many institutes are providing distance learning programs. The student does not need to come to the
institute. The institute provides the reading material and the student attends virtual classroom. In virtual classroom,
the teacher delivers lecture at his own workplace. The student can attend the lecture thru Learning Management
System (LMS).
o Writing - Although reports can still be done using pen, pencil, or even a typewriter, a computer makes it easier to
write, format, save, share, and print reports.
o Keep Records - Computers track students scores, identify struggling students, and create a final report.
o Testing - Computers can assist students and teachers with the testing process by stepping the student through a
series of questions and keep track of the results.
• Business: The use of computer technology in business provides many facilities. Businessmen are using computers to
interact with their customers anywhere in the world. Many business tasks are performed more quickly and efficiently.
Computers also help them to reduce the overall cost of their business. Computer can be used in business in the following
ways.
o Marketing-An organization can use computers for marketing their products. Marketing applications provide
information about the products to customers. Computer is also used to manage distribution system, advertising
and selling activities. It can also be used in deciding pricing strategies. Companies can know more about their
customers and their needs and requirements etc.
o Stock Exchange-Stock Exchange is the most important place for businessmen. Many stock exchanges use
computers to conduct bids. The stockbrokers perform all trading activities electronically. They connect with the
computer where brokers match the buyers with sellers. It reduces cost as no paper or special building is required
to conduct these activities.

Unit 2| Prepared by: URIEL M. MELENDRES

6 | Lecture Note-Intro to Computing

• Medical Field: The medical field is another place where computers are vital and used every day. Below are examples of
how computers help those in the medical field.
o Medical records - More and more medical records are being digitally stored. Storing these files digitally allow for
quick access and transfer of medical information so doctors can know your history.
o Monitoring - Computers help with monitoring a patient and can alert staff in the case of an emergency.
o Research - A lot of the medical research is computer assisted. Without the assistance of a computer, it would
either not be possible or take too long to be viable.
o Diagnosis - Computers can assist in the diagnosis of a patient, from gathering a patient's history and conditions
to comparing that information against a database of existing information.
o Surgery - Although most surgery is still done with humans, it is becoming more practical and accessible for
computer robot-assisted surgery. After being programmed, these robots can make surgery more accurate, faster,
and less prone to human errors.
• Transportation: Computers also play an important part in transportation. Below are a few examples of how computers help
the transportation field.
o Cars - Most may not realize it, but all modern cars today have multiple computers that help control and manage
the vehicle.
o Traffic lights - The traffic lights that help control traffic are all run by computers.
o GPS - Cars that include a GPS mapping system have computers for display and calculating routes.
o Airplanes - The airplanes that help transport millions of people and goods every year are filled with computers
that help control the plane.
o Public transportation - Train, bus, subway, and all forms of public transportation are highly dependent on
computers to manage traffic flow, monitor operation, and handle payments.
o Self-driving cars - Although relatively new, self-driving cars are becoming increasingly popular and rely on a
computer to make all decisions on how to drive.
• Scientific Research: Computers have changed the ways in which scientific research is compiled and analyzed. Scientists,
engineers and researchers alike are able to compile vast amounts of data and leave it to the computer to work through the
data while focusing on another area of the research project. This creates research results with fewer errors and better-
engineered products.
o Complex Data Analysis-Computers used in scientific research have the ability to analyze data in ways and at
speeds not possible with the human eye. They are able to analyze percentages of materials present in a variety
of compounds from soil samples to chemicals and even the air you breathe. Additionally, computers used in this
manner can determine trends in data samples. For example, computer analysis of data in research could
determine the temperature at which certain chemical compounds break down or the percentages of improvement
patients show when administered a certain medication.
o Solving Mathematical Equations-Scientific research often requires that complex mathematical equations be
solved in order to determine if data is valid or if a certain structure of molecules will remain stable. Computers are
integral to this calculation process since scientists can write software programs specifically to provide answers to
such questions. This removes the element of human error, which can cost research institutions millions of dollars
in fixing a product that was created with even the smallest amount of flawed data.
o Prediction Modeling-Scientists and researchers are able to use computer programs to model how data might
manifest itself in the future. This ability is useful in predicting climate patterns, simulating how engineered products
might perform in the field, predicting the erosion rate of beaches, and anticipating the absorption rate of
medications in the body. Scientists and engineers are then able to adjust building strategies or chemical
compositions of products to ensure safe operation and consumption.

D. Learning Activities

Activity 2.1 Aside from the field mentioned in the discussion, think of another field wherein computers can also be used. Make a short
video presentation about this.

REFERENCES

June Jamrich Parson and Dan O. (2014). New Perspective on Computer Concepts, Cengage Learning
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/php/php_variable_types.htm
https://www.livescience.com/20718-computer-history.html
https://www.computerhope.com/issues/ch001921.htm
http://cfeed.blogspot.com/2014/08/114-classification-of-computers.html
https://ecomputernotes.com/fundamental/introduction-to-computer/write-a-detailed-note-on-classification-of-computers
http://computer-concepts-tutorial.blogspot.com/2008/02/classification-by-type-of-data-handled.html
https://teslasuit.io/blog/what-is-wearable-computer-simple-guide/
https://www.chtips.com/computer-fundamentals/uses-of-computer-in-different-fields
https://www.techwalla.com/articles/uses-of-computers-in-scientific-research

Unit 2| Prepared by: URIEL M. MELENDRES

7 | Lecture Note-Intro to Computing

ACTIVITY RUBRICS

Developing Accomplished Distinguished

1- 5 6 - 10 11 - 15
Content & Organization Portions may be poorly Fairly well documented and
The program shows a
Is your project organized and documented and/or organized. The format is easy to
continuous progression of
documented? organized. Hard to follow the follow. A good explanation
ideas and tells a complete,
progressions of the story. shows good effort. easily followed story. Well
Explanation shows some documented and organized.
effort. Excellent, well thought out
explanation shows superior
effort.
Usefulness – The project demonstrated the The project is focused and The project is focused and
Does your video stay focused development of computer informative; promotes the use of very informative; promotes the
on an informative topic? technology; has problems computer technology to create use of computer technology to
Does it promote the use of staying focused on the topic. the video to deliver information. create the video and makes
technology to inform the others want to use the same
audience about the topic? type of format in delivering
information to an audience.

Creativity & Elements of Minimal use of design Good use of graphics and/or Excellent sense of design.
Design – Is your video elements. No transitions. other design elements. Some Effective camera techniques
interesting? Did your choice Sound is lacking or transitions are inappropriately are used for the video and
of elements such as film inappropriate or scratchy. placed. The sound quality is OK. pictures. Video and pictures
clips, pictures, backgrounds, Some pictures or video clips Video clips or pictures are clear are I focus and of good quality.
and transitions enhance the may be out of focus or and in focus. Smooth transitions are
project? “shaky”. appropriate and aid in the
delivery of the presentation.
Oral Presentations Skills – Some difficulty Fairly fluid delivery. Well-rehearsed. Voice, eye
Did you respond to the communicating ideas. Poor Communicates ideas with proper contact, and pacing hold the
questions by the students voice projections; some eye voice projection; perhaps one interest and attention of the
and instructor with ease? contact; no introduction; mispronounced work; made eye audience; introduced self and
mispronounced a few words; contact; introduced self and project. Responded easily to
long pauses; somewhat project. Respond to questions. questions.
confused.