Singh 2020

Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Materials Today: Proceedings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matpr
Powder bed fusion process in additive manufacturing: An overview

Riya Singh a, Akash Gupta a, Ojestez Tripathi a, Sashank Srivastava a, Bharat Singh a, Ankita Awasthi a,b,
S.K. Rajput c, Pankaj Sonia a, Piyush Singhal a, Kuldeep K. Saxena a,⇑
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA University, Mathura, U.P. 281406, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering and Technology, IILM, Greater Noida, India
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, B.I.E.T, Jhansi 284128, India
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Powder bed fusion process is one of the basic technique associated with additive manufacturing. It fol-
Received 7 February 2020 lows the basic principle of manufacturing the product layer by layer and their fusion. A heat source
Accepted 14 February 2020 focuses its heat over a powder base material and heats the selected cross section area. Sources like laser
Available online xxxx
beam, electron beam and infrared beam are used as heating tool. The process of heating allows the pow-
der to take the shape of the intended object. Powder bed fusion process is compatible to every engineer-
Keywords: ing material such as metals, ceramics polymers, composites etc. this technique is widely used in many
Sintering
industrial sectors such as aerospace, energy sector, transportation etc. A comprehensive overview on
SLS
Powder material
powder bed fusion process is presented in this review paper. Other popular techniques like selective laser
Additive manufacturing melting (SLM), selective laser sintering (SLS), and electron beam melting (EBM) are also reviewed.
Aerospace Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and of the scientific committee of the 10th International Conference of Materials Processing and
Characterization.
1. Introduction turing time of multi-layer PCB compared to any conventional man-

ufacturing techniques [9].
The up-to-date manufacturing techniques or technologies helps During the mass manufacturing processes, mechanical design-
a lot to develop the business market. It provides the fast response ers always think for limitation of designing. Therefore, manufac-
to variable demands. In the same context, industry 4.0 help to inte- turing of intricate shaped design are required to break into
grate the information systems and modern manufacturing tech- several small pieces [11]. But the introduction of AM, relaxed to
nologies to promote best and error free production capabilities designers as it does not contain traditional geometry constraints.
[1]. The smart manufacturing in modern manufacturing optimizes In AM, less or no assembly is required to produce component along
energy, labor and material to produce a high quality products, and with optimized design and enabling new assemblies. In additive
improves long term competitiveness. This all helps to provide a manufacturing, process and product development is based on
rapid and optimized response for demand and delivery [2]. In the few factors, wherein some of them are: alloy chemistries, powder
current industrial scenario, additive manufacturing (AM) is playing characteristics, powder bed processes and beam, powder interac-
a vital role in manufacturing of miniaturized as well as intricate tions, thermal and thermo mechanical post processes, and material
shaped components [3]. The components or products manufac- properties and performances, are some of the key elements of
tured by this process are not just prototypes but of actual net shape materials eco-system [12,15]. The selected materials and alloys
parts. Additionally, this process free form lubrication [4]. Thus, it used in AM processes are listed in Table 1.
brought revolution in design and production industries, and influ- Irrinki et al. [19] studied the influence of the powder character-
enced aerospace, energy, automotive, medical, tooling and con- istics and processing parameters on steel parts produced by PBF
sumer goods industries with a great extent [5–8]. Some products technique in terms of corrosion behavior. They found that the coar-
developed through AM for automobile industries are shown in ser water – atomized powders increases the density and conse-
Fig. 1. In electronics industries, AM help to reduce 80% of manufac- quently corrosion behavior of the parts developed using PBF
technique. In some studied the microstructure including sizes of
cellular grains and growth directions of columnar grains on the
⇑ Corresponding author.
nickel alloy 625. They found that the process parameters such as
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (K.K. Saxena).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.635
2214-7853/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and of the scientific committee of the 10th International Conference of Materials Processing and Characterization.
Please cite this article as: R. Singh, A. Gupta, O. Tripathi et al., Powder bed fusion process in additive manufacturing: An overview, Materials Today: Pro-
ceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.635
2 R. Singh et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 1. Processing map with essential elements of the material ecosystem in additive manufacturing processes [10].
Table 1
Various alloys used in different AM processes [16–18].
Aluminium Tool steels Titanium Stainless steel Refractory Super alloys

Al-Si-Mg H13 Ti-6Al-4 V 420 Ta-W IN718
6061 Cermets CP Ti PH 17–4 CoCr Stellite
Y-TiAl 316 & 316L Alumina IN625
ELI Ti 347 MoRe
scan velocity, laser power, hatch distance, and scan strategy that in each layers of process [28]. Effects of repeated thermal cycling
produce various solidification cooling rates and thermal gradients on metallurgical structure development and a thorough under-
during the process, which also contribute to resultant microstruc- standing of aspects such as powder characteristics, liquid and solid
ture [20–22]. A prototype of turbine blade made up of Inconel 718 phase transformations will be required to efficiently apply a design
at a predesign stage before production in some studies, wherein for additive approach. Due to versatile application area of AM pro-
room temperature as well as high temperature tensile test were cesses, it is now well applied in various industries [4,29]. Fig. 2
conducted [23–25]. shows a detailed description of AM processes in various sectors
In this review paper, focus is made to describe the role and sup- with their impact. Few specialized areas where AM is delicately
port of additive manufacturing in three main industries such as used are explained in following sections.
automobile, aerospace and biomedical. Later on the various AM Aerospace- Aerospace companies are some of the first to adopt
processes/techniques and their working methodology with advan- additive manufacturing, which is considered as one of the toughest
tage, disadvantages and limitations. More emphasizes is given to industry. As 3D printing delivers complex shapes and parts with
one of the most popular AM process/technique i.e. powder bed high strength and consolidated in design, developed with less
fusion (PBF) with their application areas, limitation, raw materials amount of raw material. In results, overall weight reduction which
used and advantages/disadvantages. is one of the most important factor required in aerospace indus-
tries. It is also used in the field of aerospace for combining and
repairing or developing the various parts and components for com-
2. Present role of additive manufacturing and its application mercial and military aircraft, as well as outer space vehicles. AM
areas technologies are commonly used to fabricate metallic parts. As ear-
lier AM was used in the aerospace industry just for prototyping but
Many industries are being revolutionized by additive manufac- nowadays, it is used for manufacturing of propulsion system,
turing technologies to make design of modern components. Which structural components and fuel nozzle for aerospace [31,32]. Some
leads to an evolution in material science and engineering. Proper of the components produced using AM techniques for aerospace
understanding of the materials ecosystem in additive manufactur- industries are shown in Fig. 3.
ing is required for successful adoption. The relationships among Energy- Success in the energy sector hinged on the ability to
processes, powder characteristics, final part performance and quickly developed critical components that can stand in extreme
materials chemistry are some key concepts in additive manufac- conditions. The advancement of additive manufacturing helped a
turing technologies [26]. Evolving the microstructure through the lot in the production of very light weight components with envi-
additive manufacturing process, subsequent metallurgical post- ronmental friendly concept [35,36].
processing and powder characteristics are mainly responsible for Transportation- Life in the fast lane means ‘‘endurance to tough
material performance [27]. Among various methods of additive environments” like extreme speed & heat. The transportation
manufacturing, Powder bed fusion (PBF) processes includes laser industries need various parts that can stand up to very harsh test-
and electron beam melting processes are basically based on con- ing with light in weight, which help to avoid the unnecessary drag.
trolling the solid to liquid and liquid to solid phase transformations Vehicle manufacturing have been at the forefront of implementing
R. Singh et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx 3
Fig 2. The use of additive manufacturing in the different sectors [30].
Fig. 3. Products developed using additive manufacturing for aerospace industries; (a) Jet engine propeller and (b) fuel nozzle of aeroplane [33,34].
additive manufacturing technology. Some large manufacturer of Role of AM in biomedical sector: Additive manufacturing process
the world having the distinct prototyped parts with 3D printers. considered variety of biomaterials, acellular and cellular in terms
Beyond prototyping, automotive manufacturing are now is contin- of both printability and cell-compatibility. It develops plastic and
uously increasing and dragging itself into use for actual produc- resins models with the help of directly 3-D printing and rapid pro-
tion. AM technologies have made wonders to bring new shapes totyping. Thus, it is becoming very useful for orthopedics, facial
to life with more lighter with intricate structure at the best possi- reconstruction and plastic surgery, oral and dental applications.
ble cost [37,38]. Some of the core product of automotive industry is Additive manufacturing systems are broadly classified into three
shown in Fig. 4. categories, depends upon the initial state of material.
Fig. 4. Products developed using additive manufacturing for automobile industries; (a) Eco-friendly tyre and (b) Metallic rim [39,40].
Liquid based Sheet Lamination

Solid based Direct energy deposition
Powder based
VAT Photopolymerization: VAT Photopolymerization a process in
The materials generally used for such type of techniques can be which a vat of liquid photopolymer resin, this process uses a liquid
polymers, ceramics, composites and metals. Each material can be to form an object, out of which a layer by layer model is con-
used in specific technique for biomaterials development structed with the help of an ultraviolet light. This process is having
[12,13,30]. Few examples of medical industries are shown in Figs. 5 a high level of accuracy & gives good finish. A product developed
and 6. through this technique is shown in Fig. 8.
Material jetting: Material jetting creates object in a similar
3. Classification of AM processes method to an inkjet printer. The material jetting process uses poly-
mer & plastic with the solution of sodium hydroxide. The material
There are various individual processes that vary in their method is jetted onto the build surface in the form of droplets with the help
of layer manufacturing. Depending upon the material and machine of nozzle. A product developed through this technique is shown in
technology, there is individual processes that may use in AM pro- Fig. 9.
cesses. It formulated with a set of standards that classify the range Binder jetting: The Binder jetting process uses ta powder based
of additive manufacturing processes into the following seven cate- material as a binder, the binder is used as an adhesive between
gories, which are also shown in Fig. 7. powder layers. The binder is usually in the form of liquid and the
build material is in the form of powder but due to the binding char-
VAT photo polymerization acteristic this technology is not suitable for structural parts. Metals
Material jetting (stainless steel), polymers and ceramics can be used with binder
Binder jetting jetting process, by using this method parts of different colours
Material Extrusion can be developed. A schematic diagram and a developed product
Powder bed fusion of this is shown in Fig. 10.
Fig. 5. AM in the field of biomedical, (a) An artificial heart & (b) An artificial hand [41,42].
Fig. 6. Bio-fabricated auricular implant (a) microscopic appearance & (b) magnified view [43].
Fig. 7. Classification of AM processes [44].
Fig. 9. Developed product through Material Jetting in additive manufacturing

process [46].
sheet material (paper, plastic) being rolled can be used but the
Fig. 8. Product developed through Vat Photopolymerization technique in additive
manufacturing process [45].
most common material used in this process is A4 sheet. LOM is
the first AM process created and uses a variety of sheet material.
Fig. 12 shows a picture of sheet lamination process.
Material Extrusion: One of the most common material extrusion Direct Energy Deposition: Direct Energy Deposition (DED) con-
process is Fused Deposition Method (FDM). In this process a mate- sists of a nozzle mounted on a multi axis arm which deposited
rial is drawn through a nozzle & heated after that deposited layer melted material on the surface where it solidifies. Generally, tita-
by layer. In this nozzle can moves horizontally and platform can nium and cobalt chrome is used in this process and this process
move ups and down vertically after each layer of deposition. The is not suitable for polymers or ceramics. This technique has an abil-
material generally used in this process is polymers and plastics. ity to control grain structure at high degree. A schematic diagram
A schematic diagram and a developed product of this is shown in and developed product is shown in Fig. 13.
Fig. 11. Powder Bed Fusion: Additive manufacturing has seven different
Sheet Lamination: Sheet laminated process included the two techniques based on application and material used. Among all
types of processes Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM) and seven different techniques, Powder bed fusion (PBF) is one of the
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM). In LOM, effectively any most applied techniques used in Additive Manufacturing (AM).
Fig. 10. Binder jetting process of additive manufacturing; (a) Schematic diagram machine, (b) a full colour object and (c) a metal part made through binder jetting [47,48].
Fig. 11. Material Extrusion Process in additive manufacturing process [49].
Powder bed fusion process has widely grown in the last few years used in PBF process, which includes laser fusion, thermal fusion
because of its low-cost quality, that’s why PBF is most common and Electron Beam fusion. However, laser fusion also sub-divided
interest of researchers. In powder bed fusion process there is no into Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) and Selective Laser Melting
or minimum support is required as the powder acts like a support (SLM). SLS process is capable to fuse for only plastic parts whereas,
structure. Powder bed fusion process also allows selecting different SLM is for metal. The SLM also known as Direct Metal Laser Sinter-
materials including plastics, glass, metals and its alloys. Recyclable ing. In PBF, heat is directly applied through a heat source to the bed
is one of the best qualities of PBF process. Powder used in process where the powder is stored, which continuously goes down as new
can be recycled to produce more parts. Fig. 14 shows a picture to layer of powder spray over the bed when the old one is completed
represent the PBF process. [1,12,53].
In PBF, a heat source is required to fuse powder to form material Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) uses laser or electron beam for fusion
to produce or make a new 3D (three dimensional) products. The and melting of the powder material. EBM (Electron Beam Melting)
various heat sources available in PBF technique are thermal, elec- can be used for plastic as well as for metals but it required a vac-
tron or laser. Therefore, some different type of fusion technique uum chamber to create the functional parts. PBF is the process of
powder across the platform [54]. In some printer where EBM tech-
nique is used the above process is done inside a vacuum box filled
with inert gases to prevent from corrosion in molten metal. Pow-
der and build chambers can move on a linear z-axis to provide a
suitable height to product which is perpendicular to the horizontal
plane [55–57]. The PBF requires certain steps in a proper
sequences, which are list as follows:
1. A 3D cad model is converted into object cross section and saved

in suitable file format i.e. stereo lithographic file (.STL file)
2. By using a desktop or printer software the part or parts in the
STL file is loaded and correctly placed on the bed of the printer.
3. At a time, the bed can be filled by multiple copies of a part or
different parts to increase the productivity.
4. Powder chamber filled with powdered material by manually or
automatic process.
5. Next, by using heat source either laser or electron beam or ther-
mal to fuse the powder.
Fig. 12. Sheet laminated process in additive manufacturing process [50].
6. Coating roller or blade then spread a thin layer of powder (gen-
spreading the new layer of powder on the previous layer, there are erally 0.1 mm) on the platform as per the 2D cross-sectional
various types of mechanisms are available to do this, like blade or a data from the STL file.
roller. Powder bed fusion printers have two chambers one is Pow- 7. Again, a new layer of powdered material is added or spread
der and another is Build Chamber (or simply table or platform on upon the previous layer. This process repeats until the whole
which the product is build) with a roller or blade to spread the product is created.
Fig. 13. Direct energy deposition process in additive manufacturing process [51].
Fig. 14. Powder Bed Fusion Process in additive manufacturing process [52].
Fig. 15. Selective Laser Sintering process in PBF of additive manufacturing [60].
Fig. 16. Electron beam melting process in PBF of additive manufacturing process [63].
8. The final part is produced; now remove the parts from the plat- 4. Classification of PBF methods
form by different machining means.
9. The remaining or unused powder remains in chamber and used AM is best suited manufacturing technology but among all the
to produce other new parts. AM techniques PBF is widely used. PBF is sub-divided into these
following techniques.
On proper following the proper steps and parameters (i.e. scan-
ning speed, layer thickness and build temperature) of PBF tech- Selective Laser Sintering(SLS)
nique, it can assume that the developed product may be correct Electron Beam Method (EBM)
and defect free. This technique is relatively less expensive process, Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
suitable for visual models and prototypes, capable to integrated Direct Laser Metal Sintering
support structure, integrate technology on small scale and can be
used varieties of materials. But, this process is very time- Selective Laser Sintering (SLS): SLS is a process of combining
consuming process, because it needs pre heat powder, vacuum powder material to form solid piece by the application of heat
generation, build time is very high. Structural properties of parts and pressure. Fig. 15 shows a diagram to represent the SLS tech-
are not very good as compared to other manufacturing process. nique of PBF. This technology was first developed at the University
As structural property, surface property is also poor due to layer of Texas in Austin and introduces in market in 1992, the material
by layer manufacturing. used in this method may be nylon, thermoplastic, polystyrene.
SLS is a highly flexible technique which can generate complex controlled by coil, it also uses a computer controlled electron gun
geometry having high quality direct from CAD model. SLS can used to develop a 3D object from metal powder like the other AM tech-
wide range of powder material, it is a layer by layer process per- niques. A schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 16. It developed a
formed with the help of electron laser beam. A layer of powder is layer by layer process, as it is a rapid manufacturing method and
laid down and a CO2 laser sintered at the points selected on 2D widely used in aerospace, medical or orthopedic implant industries
cross-section of the model (XY-Plane). The platform gradually des- and automotive industries, using EBM with titanium and a layer
cends (Z-Plane) in accordance with the height of the layer defined. thickness of 0.1%, can give better results in a faster time and can
This technique has the precision between ±0.3% (min. ±0.3 mm), reduce the cost up to 35% [54,61,62].
minimum thickness of layer is 0.08 mm and maximum model size Selective Laser Melting (SLM): This process was first introduced
700 380 580 mm. Polyamide (PA), Glass filled polyamide (PA- by Germany in 1999. Fockele and Schwarze (F&S) developed this
GF) and alumide is used in this process to develop any component. technique with the help of Fraunhofer Institute of Laser Technol-
This method is highly suited for biomedical applications such as ogy. Compared to SLS, this technique SLM is faster but requires
pre-surgical planning, prosthetics and bone scaffolds for tissue inert gases for laser. Same as the SLS process this process also fab-
engineering [27,58,59]. Therefore, it has certain advantages, which ricated products layer by layer with the help of high energy laser
are list below. This process of PBF is fast and accurate, superior beams on a powder bed. In this method powder is melted rather
quality surface is obtained, No need of mould or other tools and than sintering. It is currently a very popular method for fabrication
to design jigs & fixtures with minimum material wastage. of metal parts. In SLM, a laser is fitted on the top with the set of
Electron Beam Melting (EBM): Electron beam melting (EBM) is a lenses focused on the powdered material for the solidification of
type of Additive Manufacturing and was introduced first in 1997. It the layer. Once a layer is sintered the build platform goes down
is one of the latest technologies, the energy source for the melting and the recoated arm makes a new layer on the top of the bed, this
processes an electron beam emitted from a tungsten filament and whole process will repeat until the whole part is not produced
Fig. 17. (a) Process schematic diagram of SLM, (b) Products of SLM [68,69].
[64,65]. The minimum thickness of powder material layer is By now the concept of DMLS technique for implantation biomate-
0.020 mm (Fig. 17). rial manufacturing is well accepted, there is still modest data avail-
Recently, high power laser with the development of fibre optics able on DMLS titanium implant [70–73] (Fig. 18).
are also added in SLM to process different type of metallic materi-
als such as tungsten, copper & aluminium. Therefore, various types
of metallic materials can be sintered on SLM. This enabled many 5. Post processing of PBF
research opportunities are developed in SLM for composite and
ceramic materials. This methods has the advantages to produce PBF Process-Induced Defects: Defects occurs in the part produced
high precision and high quality products [66,67]. by PBF process are often similar to the welding defects. Mani et al.,
Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS): Direct metal laser sintering defined various number of controllable process parameters having
(DMLS) was first developed by EOS firm, Germany in 1995. DMLS is a complex influence over the thermal behaviour of melt pool
a laser based AM technique, in which an object is developed with resulting in unexpected defects like cracking, high roughness on
the use of metal (not plastic) powders. Similar to SLS, it is a layer surface, unintended anisotropic mechanical and physical proper-
by layer process with computer controlled laser technique. Basi- ties also anisotropic shrinkage. One of the most common factors
cally, the machine produces the object on a movable platform by for these defects is wrong heat input rates or segregation issues
applying incremental layers of the pattern material, each layer during high temperature solidification. Surface defects or surface
has an equal thickness of approximately 0.1 mm. A high power roughness is also one of the major defects of the PBF process. These
laser is directly supplied on the powder bed and fuse the metal defects occur because of high cooling rates and repeated thermal
according to CAD file. This process continues, layer by layer until loading [77–79].
the object is fabricated completely as per the design. With the sup- Metallurgical Techniques: In the heat treatment process, it is very
port of DMLS, it is possible to control the porosity of each layer but important to discover the concluding microstructure. Usually, they
cannot eliminate completely. Titanium and its alloys are widely affect the mechanical properties of metal at a great extent. The
used for various implants in the orthopedic and dental field thermal treatment is required to heat-treat the material to reduce
because of its good corrosion resistance and mechanical strength. the porosity and other defects. When material comes out of an AM
Fig. 18. (a) Process schematic diagram of DMLS, (b) DMLS Titanium Dental implant [74–76].
process, there are some steps that are used to develop a fabricated production. In the same context, a lot of challenges and opportuni-
part into an end. In general, the heat treatment processes include ties are involved in developing the material-process-structure-pr
hot isostatic press (HIP), stress relief, alloy specific solutions, operty (MPSP) include machine learning integrated with real time
quench, age- tempering processes, if required. In the case of EBM modelling, response sui with real time modelling is an area of
parts, due to the higher processing temperature, there is little need scope to explore. Another aspect of opportunities are response sur-
for stress relief, but some of the material may still benefit from HIP face development to gather required information at macro/micro
in heat treatment process to get a more optimal microstructure. level beyond just grain size and porosity percentage by taking
Solution, Quench, Age and Temper Heat Treatments: For precipi- the help of machine learning’s automated characterization.
tate hardened material, a solution heat treatment is required to
dissolve the material with as usual quenching is required. These
steps are required, where the processing of material does not result Declaration of Competing Interest
in an optimum structure for meeting the requirements for the part
which is in use. The solution treatment should be long enough to The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
dissolve the precipitate but at the same time should be short cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
enough to limit the grain growth. These processes (Solution, to influence the work reported in this paper.
Quench, Age and Temper Heat Treatments) tend to be alloy speci-
fic, but gives the different starting condition of AM materials rela-
tive to cast and wrought materials even for the same alloy, where a References
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Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Today: Proceedings

Powder bed fusion process in additive manufacturing: An overview

1. Introduction turing time of multi-layer PCB compared to any conventional man-

Aluminium Tool steels Titanium Stainless steel Refractory Super alloys

Fig 2. The use of additive manufacturing in the different sectors [30].

Liquid based Sheet Lamination

Fig. 7. Classification of AM processes [44].

Fig. 9. Developed product through Material Jetting in additive manufacturing

Fig. 11. Material Extrusion Process in additive manufacturing process [49].

1. A 3D cad model is converted into object cross section and saved

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