Unit II Modern

Approach to Axiomatics
BSEM30
MODERN GEOMETRY
Definition
A mathematical definition of a term.
A detailed and comprehensive
explanation of a mathematical term's
meaning. It defines a word's meaning
by listing all of its attributes, but only
those that must be true.
ex.
Definition 6.1: A statement is
a sentence that is either
true or false–but not both.
Theorem example

A remark that has been demonstrated to

be valid. A mathematical assertion Theorem 10.1: N, considered as
backed by appropriate mathematical a subset of R, is not bounded
logic. The term theorem is commonly above.
used in a mathematical work to refer to
relevant conclusions.
Lemma A true statement that is used to prove the
truth of other true claims (that is, a less
important theorem that is helpful in the
proof of other results). A trivial finding that
exists solely to aid in the proof of a theorem.
It acts as a guideline in proving a theorem.

Angle in the Semicircle Theorem

example

an angle inscribed in a
semicircle is always a right
angle.
 Corollary
Vertical Angle Theorem
A concise deduction from a theorem
or proposition yields a true claim. A
conclusion in which the (typically
brief) proof primarily depends on a example
particular theorem. Corollary 1.1: where two lines intersect, the angles
opposite each other are equal (a=c and b=d in the
diagram)
 Proposition
example

A finding that has been

proven and is frequently
intriguing, but is less Proposition 10.4 : For each
significant than a theorem. ∈
ε > 0, there exists n N
A accurate statement that such that 1 n < ε.
is less significant yet
nonetheless fascinating.
 example

Conjecture
Poincaré conjecture:

every simply connected,

A statement that we think to be true closed, three-dimensional
but cannot prove. (a statement that is manifold is topologically
suggested to be true). A claim that equivalent to S3,
hasn't been proven but is widely
assumed to be true.
 An statement that is then supported by
evidence. It's frequently used as an informal
lemma. It is frequently less than a lemma in
size. It might exist in a proof to assist
structure it, or it could appear in exposition. It
can be set officially using a claim

Claim environment or simply by utilizing language

like "We claim that..."

example
The limit as x goes to infinity of the integral
from 1 to x of 1/t dt diverges.
Axoim/ example

Postulate
If m and n are integers, then m + n = n + m.

A mathematical situation's
underlying assumption. (We take it
for granted that this assertion is
correct.) a statement that is
considered to be true even when it
hasn't been proven. All theorems
are proven using these fundamental
building components.
 Indentity
a mathematical phrase that proves two
(frequently variable) values are equal. An
equality is a relationship between two
mathematical expressions A and B in which A
and B generate the same value for all values
of the variables within a given validity range.

example
(x+y)^2 = x^2 + 2xy + y^2
 Paradox
a statement that can be proven to be both true and untrue using a set of
axioms and definitions. Paradoxes (Russell's paradox) are frequently used
to demonstrate the flaws in a defective hypothesis. Informally, the term
paradox is used to describe a startling or paradoxical conclusion that
arises from a set of principles. Even though every step in the logic is
correct, a mathematical result so surprising that it is difficult to accept.

example
Cramer's paradox: The number of points of intersection of two higher-order
curves can be greater than the number of arbitrary points needed to define
one such curve.
5 Postulates
1.
A straight line segment can be drawn given any
two distinct point (endpoints)
2.
Any finite line segment can be extended
indefinitely into a straight line.
3.
Given a line segment, a circle may be drawn
having the line segment as a radius and with
center at one of the endpoints of the line
segment.
4.
All right angles are congruent.
5.
If a third line falls on a given pair of lines such that
the sum of the angles formed on one side of the
line is less than two right angles, then the pair of
lines if extended far enough will eventually meet.
5'.
Playfair's Axioms: Given a line ℓ and a point P not
on ℓ, there exists exactly one line through P that A
is parallel to ℓ. B
α
β
B

δ
α+β+δ=π C
Principle of
duality
Let ζ be a set of points and Σ be a set of lines.
Define the relation * from ζ to Σ as follows.

If P ∈ ζ and ℓ ∈ Σ , then P * ℓ implies ℓ

P is incident to ℓ
P lies on ℓ
P*ℓ
P is on ℓ P
P is contained in ℓ
P
ℓ passes through P -(P * ℓ)
ℓ contains P
etc. ℓ
Definition
Projective Plane
The triple (ζ, ∑, *) is called a projective plane if the
following postulates and axioms are satisfied.

P1. Two distinct points lie on a unique line

P2. Two distinct lines pass through a common point
P3. A line lies at least three points
P4. There exists three non-collinear points
Theorem: Let ( ζ, ∑, *) be a projective plane.
Then the following are lines
T1. ζ is nonempty
T2. Two distinct lines pass through exactly one point
T3. A point lies at least three lines
T4. There exists three non concurrent lines

Proof:
1. T1 follows from P4
2. Let ℓ and ℓ' intersect at P.
suppose Q is another point common to both ℓ
and ℓ'. By P1, we can form the line PQ. Thus, ℓ
∴
= PQ = ℓ'. But ℓ and ℓ' is distinct (s/v) P=Q
Theorem: Let ( ζ, ∑, *) be a projective plane.
Then the following are lines
Proof:
3. Let P, Q, R be non-collinear points (P4).
By P1, we can form lines PQ and PR, and QR
We show
P
By P3, there is a 3rd point on QR.

Form the line PS. Then P is contained the

lines PS, PQ, and PR - distinct lines
Q R
S
Theorem: Let ( ζ, ∑, *) be a projective plane.
Then the following are lines
Proof:
4. By P4,∃ non-colinear points, P, Q, R.
We can draw the lines PQ, RP, and QR to show the lines
are non concurrent.

Suppose they all meet at E.

There PQ ∩ ∩
PR QR = E
Then PQ ∩ PR ∩ QR = E by T2
Also, PQ ∩ QR = Q = E by T2 (ζ/2)
Thus, contradicts the fact that P and Q are distinct.
Thus, the line formed are non concurrent
PRINCIPLE OF DUALITY
Principle of Duality
In a projectile plane, if a statement involving points and
lines, then a valid statement is obtained by interchanging
the words.
points and lines ( and consequently other pairs of words
like collinear and concurrent, sides and vertices, lies and P3 → T3
contains, etc.
P1 → T2
P4 → T4

Example
The dual of "not all points lie on the same line" is "not all lines contain the same point"
From the point on any statement is true implies another called
statement which is the dual of the original

Statement Dual

The set of all points on a line. The set of all lines through a point.

A pair of lines and a point on A pair of points and a line, not

neither line. passing through either point.
In projective geometry, we shall find this symmetry
very often and are going to establish a principle,
called the principle of duality.

Two kinds of principles of duality

a two-dimensional (planar) principle of duality,
a three-dimensional principle of duality.
A two-dimensional (planar) principle of duality
It remains true and every definition keeps making sense, if we exchange the words
“straight line” and “point”. Possibly, also other exchanges can be necessary, e.g.
replacing the words “collinear” by “concurrent”, “meets” by “joins”, etc.

A three-dimensional principle of duality

every theorem remains true and every definition keeps making
sense, if we exchange the words “planes”, “straight lines” and
“points” by “points”, “straight lines” and “planes”, respectively.
 ∈
Theorem: Let n≥3, n N. In a projective
plane, the following are equivalent:

1. there exists a line with n points

2. every line has exactly n points
3. the number of points in the plane is n²-n+1
 ∈
Theorem: Let n≥3, n N. In a projective
plane, the following are equivalent:

1. there exists a line with n points

2. every line has exactly n points
3. the number of points in the plane is n²-n+1
 ∈
Theorem: Let n≥3, n N. In a projective
plane, the following are equivalent:
1. there exists a line with n points Proof: (1) → (2)
2. every line has exactly n points
3. the number of points in the plane is n²-n+1 suppose ℓ is a line in the projective
plane with n points and let ℓ' be
A ℓ another line such that ℓ≠ℓ'
A

def. the function

Q f: {points on ℓ → points on ℓ'}
by f(A) = AQ⋂ ℓ' = A'
A' ∈
for any A ℓ
A'
ℓ'
 ∈
Theorem: Let n≥3, n N. In a projective
plane, the following are equivalent:
1. there exists a line with n points By T4, we can find a third line ℓ''
2. every line has exactly n points such that ℓ'' does not contain ℓ'⋂ℓ
3. the number of points in the plane is n²-n+1

A ℓ
By P3, there is a 3rd point Q on ℓ''
A
different from ℓ⋂ℓ'' and ℓ'⋂ℓ''

A'
A'
ℓ'
 ∈
Theorem: Let n≥3, n N. In a projective
plane, the following are equivalent:
1. there exists a line with n points
2. every line has exactly n points
3. the number of points in the plane is n²-n+1

we show that f is a bijection

(i) 1-1 A, B, Q, R - collinear

f(A) = f(B) ∈
(A, B ℓ)
AQ ⋂ℓ' = BQ⋂ℓ' = R
AQ = QR = BQ
ℓ⋂AQ = ℓ⋂BQ
A=B
 ∈
Theorem: Let n≥3, n N. In a projective
plane, the following are equivalent:
1. there exists a line with n points
2. every line has exactly n points
3. the number of points in the plane is n²-n+1
C ℓ
we show that f is a bijection

(ii) unto
Q
Let C' be a point on ℓ'
If C' = C'Q⋂ℓ'
C = CQ⋂ℓ' C'
Then f(C) = CQ⋂ℓ', by definition ℓ'
= C'Q⋂ℓ' since CQ = C'Q
= C' ℓ''
 ∈
Theorem: Let n≥3, n N. In a projective
plane, the following are equivalent:
1. there exists a line with n points
2. every line has exactly n points
3. the number of points in the plane is n²-n+1

Therefore, f is a bijection.
If f is a bijection, the number of points n equal to the
number of points on ℓ'. Since ℓ' is arbitrary, any other
line in the projective plane has exactly any points
 ∈
Theorem: Let n≥3, n N. In a projective
plane, the following are equivalent:
1. there exists a line with n points
2. every line has exactly n points
3. the number of points in the plane is n²-n+1
(2) → (3)
Suppose every line has n points, by P
duality, every point P is contained in
exactly n lines.

Exactly P, each of the n lines has n-

1 points. Thus the number of points by P, all points must
is given by n(n-1)+1 = n²-n+1 connected with lines
 ∈
Theorem: Let n≥3, n N. In a projective
plane, the following are equivalent:
1. there exists a line with n points
2. every line has exactly n points
3. the number of points in the plane is n²-n+1

(3) → (1)
Assume that the number of points in the plane is n² - n+1.
Let ℓ be a line for which ℓ has n point

since, we're shown that

(1) → (2) → (3), then the number of points in the plane is m²-m+1,
Hence, m²-m+1 = n²-n+1,
 ∈
Theorem: Let n≥3, n N. In a projective
plane, the following are equivalent:
1. there exists a line with n points
2. every line has exactly n points
3. the number of points in the plane is n²-n+1

since, we're shown that

(1) → (2) → (3), then the number of points in the plane is m²-m+1,
Hence, m²-n+1 = n²-n+1,
we get m²-m = n²-n ↔ m²-n²(m-n) = Q
↔ (m-n)(m+n-1) = 0 ↔ m-n > 0 or m-n = 1

But m,n ≥ 3 so that m + n ≠ 1

Therefore, m = n
 A
Fano's Plane (n=3)

D F
G

B C
E
Triangles
Definition:
A triangle is a configuration consisting of 3
non-collinear points together with the three
lines that pairs of three points determined
Triangles
Definition:
A triangle is a configuration consisting of 3
non-collinear points together with the three
lines that pairs of three points determined

a triangle is self-dual

A triangle is a configuration consisting of 3 non-concurrent lines together with

the three points that pairs of three lines determined