Complex Variables

Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao

Department of Mathematics
School of Advanced Sciences
VIT University, Vellore.

August 2, 2019

Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 1 / 19

Complex Numbers

The necessity for a complex

√ number is felt in equations such as
x2 + 1 = 0, i.e., x = ± −1. There is no real number x which satisfies
this equation, hence led to the introduction of complex numbers.
√
The imaginary unit −1 is named as i, with i2 = −1.
√ a number of the form z = x + iy is called
If x and y are real numbers, then
complex number, where i = −1.
Here, x is called the real part and y is called the imaginary part of z.
If z = x + iy, then z = x − iy is called the complex conjugate of z.
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 , then
z1 = z2 ⇒ x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .
z1 ± z2 = (x1 ± x2 ) + i(y1 ± y2 ).
z1 z2 = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 ).
   
z1 x1 x2 +y1 y2 x2 y1 −x1 y2
z2 = 2
x +y 2 + i 2
x +y 2 .
2 2 2 2

Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 2 / 19

Geometric representation of a Complex number
The method of representing a complex number by points in a plane is known
as Argand’s diagram.

Let z = x + iy be a complex number. By

definition z = f (x, y). This form suggests that z
can be represented by a point P whose
coordinates are (x, y) referred to a pair of
rectangular axes OX and OY in a plane.
p
From the figure we see that OP = r = x2 + y2 called the modulus
of a
complex number P, represented by |z| and the angle θ = tan−1 xy is called
the amplitude or argument of z. θ is positive when measured
counterclockwise from the postive real axis and negative when measured
clockwise. The choice of an argument θ that lies in the interval −π < θ ≤ π
is called the principal value of arg(z) which is unique.
Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 3 / 19
 Polar Form: Every complex number z = x + iy can be expressed in the
pθ + i sin θ ), by putting x =
r cos θ and y = r sin θ . Here
form r(cos
r = |z| = x2 + y2 and θ = tan−1 xy .
Note:
1 = cos 0 + i sin 0
−1 = cos π + i sin π
i = cos(π/2) + i sin(π/2)
−i = cos(−π/2) + i sin(−π/2)

Example 1
Find the modulus and amplitude of the following complex numbers:
√
1 3
(i) +i Answer: 1 and π3
2 2 √
(ii) −3 + 3i Answer: 3 2 and 3π 4
(iii) −3i Answer: 3 and −π2
√ Answer: 4 and π3
(iv) 2 + 2 3i √1 and 3π
Answer: 2 4
(v) 1+2i
1−3i
Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 4 / 19
De Moivre’s theorem
If n is an integer, then (cos θ + i sin θ )n = cos nθ + i sin nθ .
If n is a rational number, then cos nθ + i sin nθ is one of the values of
(cos θ + i sin θ )n .
nth roots of a Complex number:
If a complex number z(6= 0) has nth root ω, then ω n = z or
ω = z1/n
= {r[cos θ + i sin θ ]}1/n
= r1/n [cos θ + i sin θ ]1/n
= r1/n [cos(2kπ + θ ) + i sin(2kπ + θ )]1/n
    
1/n 2kπ + θ 2kπ + θ
=r cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1
n n
2kπ+θ
= r1/n e( n )i , k = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1.
The n distinct values of z1/n can be obtained by putting k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1.
Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 5 / 19
Neighbourhood of a point z0

The equation |z − z0 | = ε, where z = x + iy a complex variable, z0 = x0 + iy0 a

complex contant and ε a real constant will represents a circle with centre at z0
and radius equal to ε. |z − z0 | is the distance between the points z and z0 .
The inequality |z − z0 | < ε represents the points
inside the circle and inequality |z − z0 | > ε
represent the points outside the circle.
The neighbourhood of a point z0 in the complex
plane is the set of all points which satisfy the
inequality |z − z0 | < ε, ε > 0. This set is the open
disk of radius ε > 0 about z0 . Therefore,
neighbourhood of z0 = {z/|z − z0 | < ε}.
Let z0 be the point in the complex plane. If we exclude the point z0 from the
neighbourhood of z0 we get the deleted neighbourhood of z0 . Therefore,
deleted neighbourhood of z0 = {z/0 < |z − z0 | < ε}.

Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 6 / 19

Regions in the Complex Plane
A point z0 is said to be an interior point
of the set S, if there exists an
ε−neighbourhood of z0 that contains
only points of S.
A point z0 is said to be an exterior point
of the set S, if there exists an
ε−neighbourhood of z0 that contains no
points of S.
A point z0 is said to be a boundary point
of the set S, if z0 is neither an interior no
an exterior point S.
Open Set: A set S is said to be open if it contains only the interior points
of S.
Closed Set: A set S is said to be closed if it contains both interior and
boundary points.
Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 7 / 19
Connected Set: A set S is said to be connected if every pair of points z1
and z2 can be joined by a curve all of whose points lie in S.

Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 8 / 19

Domain: A non empty set is said to be a domain if it is open and
connected. For example, the unit disk |z| < 1 is a domain since it is open
and connected, while the closed unit disk |z| ≤ 1 is not a domain.
Region: A region is a domain together with some, none or all its
boundary points. For example, |z| ≤ 1 is a region because it is a domain
with all of its boundary points which is called closed region.
Bounded Set: A set D is said to be bounded if there exists a finite
positive number K such that |z| ≤ K for every z ∈ D. For example, the
rectangle z = |x| ≤ 2 and |y| ≤ 1 is bounded because it is contained
inside the circle |z| = 3. The set of complex numbers C is unbounded.

Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 9 / 19

Complex Function
If x and y are real variables, then z = x + iy is called complex variable. If
corresponding to each value of the variable z, there corresponds one or
more values of w, then w is called a function of z and is written as
w = u + iv = f (z) = f (x + iy), then u and v themselves are funtions of
real variables x and y, i.e., w = f (z) = f (x + iy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y).
If only one value of w corresponds to each value of z, we say that w is a
single–valued function of z. If more than one value of w corresponds to
each value of z, we say that w is a multiple valued function of z.
w = z2 is single valued function.
w = z1/2 is multiple–valued function of z since to each value of z, there
are two values of w.
We represent all the complex numbers w = u + iv, where u and v are real
on rectangular system of cartesian (u, v) coordinate plane. This is called
w−plane or (u, v) plane.
For each value of z = x + iy in the z−plane, there corresponds
f (z) = u + iv in the w−plane.
Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 10 / 19
Limit, Continuity and Differentiability
A function w = f (z) is said to tend to a limit L as z approaches a point z0 ,
if for every real ε, we can find a positive δ such that |f (z) − L| < ε for
0 < |z − z0 | < δ . Symbolically we write lim f (z) = L.
z→z0
Note: In real case x can approach x0 only along the real line either from
its left or from its right, whereas in the above definition z may approach
z0 from any direction in the complex plane.

Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 11 / 19

 Continuity: A function f (z) is said to be continuous at z = z0 if f (z0 ) is
defined and lim f (z) = f (z0 ) (OR)
z→z0
A function f (z) is continuous at a point z0 , if corresponding to each
positive number ε, a number δ exists, such that |f (z) − f (z0 )| < ε
whenever |z − z0 | < δ .
If f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) and z0 = x0 + iy0 , then the complex function f
is continuous at the point z0 if and only if both real functions u and v are
continuous at the point (x0 , y0 ).
Derivative of f (z) Let w = f (z) be a given function defined for all z in a
neighbourhood of z0 . If lim f (z0 +∆z)−f
∆z
(z0 )
exists, then the function f (z) is
∆z→0
said to be differentiable at z0 and the limit is denoted by f 0 (z0 ). f 0 (z) if
exists is called the derivative of f (z) at z0 . Taking z − z0 = ∆z, we notice
that f 0 (z) = lim f (z)−f
z−z0
(z0 )
z→z0

Note: Every differentiable function is continuous, but the converse need not
be true.
Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 12 / 19
Analytic Functions

If a functin f (z) possesses a unique derivative at a point z0 , in some

neighbourhood of z0 , then we say the f (z) is analytic at z = z0 .
If the function f (z) is differentiable at every point of a region R, then we
say that f (z) is analytic in the region R.
If the function f (z) is analytic at every point z on the complex plane f (z)
is said to be an entire function or Integral function.
A point at which an analytic function ceases to have a derivative is called
a singular point, i.e., if f 0 (z0 ) doesnot exist, then z = z0 is called a
singular point of f (z).
if f 0 (z) exists at every point in a neighbourhood of z0 but f 0 (z0 ) doesnot
exist, then z0 is said to be an isolated singular point of f (z). For example,
f (z) = 1/z is analytic at every point z 6= 0, but at z = 0, f 0 (z) doesnot
exist. Therefore, z = 0 is an isolated singular point of f (z).

Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 13 / 19

Cauchy–Riemann Equations
The necessary and sufficient condition for the derivative of the function
f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) to exist for all values of z in the domain R are
(i)
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
, , ,
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
are continuous functions.
(ii)
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= and =− .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
The relations (ii) are known as Cauchy-Riemann equations.
Further
∂u ∂v
f 0 (z) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂v ∂u
= −i .
∂y ∂y
Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 14 / 19
Example 2
Show that f (z) = log(z) is analytic everywhere except at the origin and find
dw
dz .

Example 3
Show that 2xy + i(x2 − y2 ) is not analytic

Example 4
Show that f (z) = z + 2z is not analytic anywhere in the complex plane.

Example 5
Show that xy + iy is everywhere continuous but not analytic .

Example 6
Find all the values of k such that f (z) = ex (cos ky + i sin ky) is analytic.

Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 15 / 19

Example 7
x3 (1+i)−y3 (1−i)
(
x2 +y2
; z 6= 0
Prove that the function f (z) defined by f (z) = is
0 ;z = 0
continuous and the C-R equations are satisfied at the origin, yet the f 0 (z) does
not exist.

Example 8
z
Show that the function f (z) = |z|2
is analytic everywhere except at the at the
point z = 0.

Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 16 / 19

Gradient Fields
In complex analysis two dimensional vector fields
F(x, y) = P(x, y)i + Q(x, y)j, defined in some domain D of the plane, are
of interest to us because F can be represented equivalently as a complex
function f (z) = P(x, y) + iQ(x, y).
Of particular importance in science are vector fields that can be written
as the gradient of some scalar function φ with continuous second partial
derivatives.
In other words, where field F(x, y) = P(x, y)i + Q(x, y)j is the same as
F(x, y) = ∇φ = ∂∂φx i + ∂∂φy j so that P(x, y) = ∂∂φx and Q(x, y) = ∂∂φy .
Such a vector field F is called a gradient field and φ is called a potential
function or simply potential of F.
Gradient fields occur naturally in the study of electricity and magnetism,
fluid flows, gravitation, and steady state temperatures.
In a gradient force field, such as a gravitational field, the work done by
the force along a closed path is zero. For this reason, gradient fields are
also known as conservative fields.
Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 17 / 19
In fluid mechanics a flow is said to be two-dimensional or a planar flow
if the fluid moves in planes parallel to the xy− plane and the motion and
the physical properties of the fluid in each plane is precisely the same
manner as it is in the xy− plane.
Suppose V = Vx + iVy is the two-dimensional velocity field of a
nonviscous fluid that is incompressible, that is, a fluid for which
divV = 0 or ∇ · V = 0, where Vx and Vy represent the components
velocity of the fluid at (x, y) in positive x and y directions respectively.
The flow is irrotational if curlV = 0 or ∇ × V = 0.
An incompressible fluid whose planar flow is irrotational is said to be an
ideal fluid.
The velocity field V of an ideal fluid is a gradient field and can be
represented by V = ∇φ = ∂∂φx i + ∂∂φy j, where φ is a real-valued function
called a velocity potential.

Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 18 / 19

The level curves φ (x, y) = c1 are called equipotential curves. Moreover,
φ satisfies Laplace’s equation because divV = 0 is equivalent to
∇ · V = ∇ · (∇φ ) = 0 or ∇2 φ = 0 and so φ is harmonic.
The harmonic conjugate ψ(x, y) is called the stream funcion and its level
curves ψ(x, y) = c2 are called streamlines.
Streamlines represent the actual paths along which particles in the fluid
will move.
The function Ω(z) = φ (x, y) + iψ(x, y) is called the complex potential
function of the flow.
Again V = Vx + iVy , where Vx = ∂∂φx = ∂∂ψy and Vy = ∂φ
∂y = − ∂∂ψx .
Then the Complex velocity of the flow is given by

dΩ ∂ φ ∂ψ
= +i = Vx − iVy
dz ∂x ∂x
dΩ
Therefore dz = Vx + iVy = V, the velocity field in Complex form.

Dr. R. Nageshwar Rao Complex Variables August 2, 2019 19 / 19