Control surveying

1.1 Introduction

The determination of the precise position of a number of stations,

usually spread over a large area, is referred to as control surveying.
Control surveying can be horizontal or vertical.
The objective of horizontal control survey is to establish a network of
triangulation stations whose position is specified in terms of latitude
and longitude, whereas the objective of vertical control surveys is to
provide elevations of fixed bench marks with respect to the mean sea
level datum. These control points are located where other surveys can
be conveniently and accurately tied into them.
The results of the control surveys are used as a basis from which
surveys of smaller extent can be originated. Boundary surveys,
construction route survey, topographic surveys and others may be
involved.

1.2 Horizontal control survey

Horizontal control can be carried out by:

 precise traversing
 triangulation
 trilateration
 combination of these methods
The exact method used depends on the terrain, equipment available,
information needed and economic factor.

A. Traversing

With traversing, a series of horizontal distances and angles are

measured. This is generally cheaper due to shorter sights and
convenience to carry out under less favourable weather conditions
than the other methods. Its disadvantage is that there are fewer
checks available for locating mistakes in the work and the whole
system can easily sway or bend. To check a traverse it is necessary

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 to form a loop returning to its starting point or to tie it into
previously established control points.

B. Triangulation

A triangulation consists of a series of joined or overlapping

triangles in which an occasional line (called the base line) is
measured and all other sides of the triangles are calculated from
angles measured at the vertices of the triangles. The lines of a
triangulation system form a net work that ties together all the
triangulation stations at the vertices of the triangles. A
triangulation has the following advantages:
1) More redundancies or checks are available i.e. more than one
route can be followed to compute the length of a line.
2) There is little tendency for the system to sway or bend i.e.
azimuths can be easily and accurately carried or established
throughout the system.
3) Outstanding landmarks such as steeples, water tanks, etc. can be
located by establishing directions from different stations.
Its disadvantages are it needs long range intervisibility, which in
turn requires the erection of special towers and signals, making the
system the most expensive. Moreover, a good weather is required
to attain inter visibility.
Triangulation is probably the most expensive of the control
methods.

C. Trilateration

With trilateration, the length of the sides of series of joined or

overlapping triangles are measured (usually with EDM
equipment) and the angles are computed from the lengths. It has
the following advantages.
1) It is more accurate than the other two types due to the fact that
distances can be measured more accurately than angles.
2) It is generally less expensive than triangulation.
3) More checks available.
Unlike triangulation, it is not easy to position transmission towers,
steeples, water tanks, etc. by the EDM because to do so requires
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 reflectors on those landmarks. These landmarks can be located if
angular measurements are made to them.
In combined triangulation and trilateration systems, all sides and
angles in the joined or overlapping triangles are measured. This
method provides the strongest control networks.

1.3. TRAVERSE

1.3.1 Introduction

A traverse is a series of connected lines of known length related to

one another by known angles. The results of field measurements are
horizontal distances and angles. The results of office work are X, Y
coordinates of the new points.

1.3.2 Azimuth of a line

Azimuth of a line is the horizontal clockwise angle from the

north branch or meridian to the direction of the given line. Here
we will deal with the grid meridian as a reference.

Figure 1.1
Bearing of a line is the horizontal angle from the north (N) or the
south (S) end of the meridian to the direction of the given line. They
can be NE. NW. SE. SW.

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 figure 1.2

1.3.3 Type of traverses

The following types of traverses have to be distinguished:

a) closed route traverse (link traverse) with reference angles,

measured on coordinated points at the beginning and the
end
In figure 1.3 a traverse has been run from the known point Z
to another known point P and reference angles to the known
points R and S has been taken. Coordinates of points 1, 2, 3
has to be determined.

figure 1.3

b) closed route traverse (link traverse) with a coordinate closure

on both ends
In figure 1.4 a traverse has been run from the known point Z
to another known point P. Coordinates of points 1, 2, 3 has to
be determined.

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 figure 1.4

c) polygon, loop or closed ring traverse

In figure 1.5 a traverse starts at station X and returns to the

same point X. Station X can be of known position.

figure 1.5

d) Open traverses

In figure 1.6 the traverse starts at a known point and finish at

an unknown point and therefore is not closed. In open
traverses there is no external check on the measurements.

figure 1.6

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1.3.4 Traverse computation and adjustment

a) Computation and adjustment of a closed-route traverse (link

traverse)

(A traverse with at least one measured reference direction, both

on the
starting point and on the coordinated end point.)

Order of computation:

1. Preparation of a computation sketch that must contain the

reference points, the reduced distances and the measured
traverse angles, taken from the angular measurement field
book.
2. Computation of the first azimuth (BA az) and the last azimuth
(CDaz) in the table "Azimuth and Distance".
3. Transfer of the coordinates of A and C and of the previously
calculated nominal(fixed) azimuths of BA and CD to the
respective locations of the table "Traverse Computation"
4. Computation of angular misclosure f .
the angular misclosure of link traverse is found by :
angular disclosure f = sum of left hand angles - (final
forward bearing – initial back bearing ) + (n – 1) (180o)

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 where n is the sum of left hand angles measured
(A+1+2+3+C ) measured traverse angles :
OR

angular disclosure f = actual (computed ) azimuth

of CD
- nominal (fixed) azimuth of CD

5. Computation of the allowable angular misclosure f :

Allowable f = 1' (18 mgon)

n= number of instrument stations (measured angles)

The allowable error should not be exceeded.

6. Computation of the corrections for each measured traverse

angle:

correction per angle "cor " =

n=number of instrument stations

7. Computation of the azimuths of each traverse side:

A1az=BAaz + "cor " + +/- 200 GON (180)

12az = A1az +"cor " + +/-200 GON (180)
23az =12az +"cor " + +/-200 GON (180)
etc.

Check: The actual azimuth of CD (CDaz) computed

now with the corrected traverse angles, has to
be equal to the nominal azimuth of CD (CDaz)
calculated in step 2.

8. Calculation of the nominal(fixed) coordinate differences,

based on the given coordinates of the points A and C:

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 nominal = X -X nominal = Y -Y

9. Calculation of each coordinate difference (departure and

latitude):

= DA1sin A1az = DA1cos

A1az = D12sin 12az = D12sin
12az
etc. etc.

10. Calculation of the sum of the actual (computed) coordinate

differences:

actual = actual =

12.Computation of closure of departure "cl " and

closure of latitude "cl "

closure of departure = actual - nominal

closure of latitude = actual - nominal

13.Computation of the error of closure f :

f =

14.Computation of the sum of all traverse sides = [d]

15.The allowable relative accuracy is computed as follows:

 1:5000

The allowable relative accuracy should not be exceeded.

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 13.Distribution of closure of departure "cl " and closure
of latitude "cl ",
by compass rule, "cl " and closure of latitude "cl
" are proportional to the length of each traverse side:

correction for each departure = - "cl " (respective d /

[d])
correction for each latitude = - "cl " (respective d /
[d])

The corrections are added to each respective departure and

latitude:

final departure= (step 9) + correction for departure

final latitude = (step 9) + correction for latitude

17.Computation of the final coordinates of each point, using

now the corrected coordinate differences:

X = X + final departure Y =Y + final

departure
X = X + final departure Y =Y + final
departure
etc. etc.

Check Finally, the calculated coordinates for the end

point (here point C), must be equal to the
given coordinates of point C !

b) Computation and adjustment of a loop traverse

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 The calculation is the same like for a closed route traverse. Since
a loop traverse starts and ends at the same point the following
changes have to be considered:

1 Computation of azimuth of 3A (3Aaz).

( azimuth CD does not exist!)

3 Transfer of the coordinate of A and of the previously calculated

nominal azimuth 3A (3Aaz) to the respective locations of the table
"Traverse Computation"

4 Computation of angular misclosure.

Sum of the angles should be : (n -2) (1800)
angular disclosure f = sum of measured angles - (n -2) (1800)
with: n= number of instrument stations
5 Computation of the allowable angular misclosure f :

6 Computation of the corrections for each measured traverse

angle:

correction per angle "cor " =

n=number of instrument stations
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 Adjust the angles

7. Compute the azimuths of each course starting with the known

direction by using the adjusted angles.
(32)az= 3Aaz + "cor " +3
(21)az = 32az +"cor " +2+/-200 GON (180)
(1A)az =21az +"cor " + 1 +/-200 GON (180)
etc.
8 Calculation of each coordinate difference (departure and
latitude):
9 Evaluate the misclosure for latitude and departure:
For loop traverse :
theoretically x = 0
y = 0
there fore error of closure for departure = x
error of closure for latitude = y
10 Computation of the error of closure f (total error):

f =

11 Adjust to x & y for each course.

12 Computation of adjusted latitude and departure
13 Compute station coordinate.
Beginning with the fixed coordinates of station A at the start of the
traverse, the coordinates of each station are computed by successive
algebraic addition of latitudes and departures.

UNIT TWO: TRIANGULATION

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2.1 Introduction

Triangulation as a form of horizontal control is applied when a

large area is to be surveyed and when the method of traversing
would not be expected to maintain a uniformly high accuracy over
the entire area. The methods of triangulation require a maximum
number of precise angle measurement and a minimum number of
distance measurement. The triangles are developed in to a net of
interconnected figures, and lines, called base lines, must be
measured with extreme precision in order to compute the sides in
the net.

(a) (b)
Fig.1.1 triangulation nets

In order to eliminate the effects of random errors as much as

possible , triangulation systems always include more than the
minimum number of measurements necessary to fix the positions
of the points in the net.

2.2 Application of triangulation surveys

Triangulation can be used for:

1. The establishment of accurately located control points for surveys
of areas.
2. The accurate location of engineering works such as the location of
large bridge structures, state and federal highways, dams, canals,
tunnels, and others in order to maintain the necessary accuracy
throughout the system.
3. The establishment of accurately located control points in connection
with aerial surveying.

2.3 Classification of triangulation systems

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 Triangulation systems are classified according to :
 The angular error of closure in the triangle of the
system
 The discrepancy between the measured length of a
base line and its length as computed through the
system from an adjacent base.
Accuracies required for horizontal control depend on the type of
survey and the ultimate use of the control points. There are three
orders of triangulation based on their uses: first order (primary),
second order (secondary) and third order (tertiary) triangulation.
First order (primary) triangulation is the highest accuracy. It furnishes
accurately positioned national control networks upon which small
surveys are based. Since it covers a large area, the effect of earth’s
curvature is to betaken into account- geodetic triangulation. It may
cover the whole country ( for small countries ) or primary grids may
be provided ( for large countries).
Second order (secondary) triangulation provides points at greater
density than first order triangulation. This network is adjusted to fit
its parent primary triangle or its surrounding primary control. Less
refinement is needed as the network is surrounded by the primary
control.
Third order (tertiary ) triangulation is used to establish control for
local developments and improvements , topographic and hydro
graphic surveys or other such projects for which they provide
sufficient accuracy.

STANDARD CLASSIFICATION
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 1ST 2nd order 3rd order
ORDER Class I Class II Class I Class II
Discrepa
ncy b/n 1 part 1 part in 1 part in 1 part in 1 part in
measure 100,000 50,000 20,000 10,000 5,000
d and
compute
d length
of
baseline
Triangle
angular 1” 1.2” 2” 3” 5”
error
Recomm Furnishe Area Area General control
ended s control control control surveys referred to
uses for strengthe which national network
primary ns the contribut and local control
national national es to but surveys.
net work network supplem
metropol ental to
itan area the
surveys, national
scientific net work

2.4 Triangulation Figures

Although triangles are basic figures in triangulation networks, they

are not allowed to exist alone because they do not provide sufficient
checks on measurements and subsequent computations. Triangles are
combined to form other geometrical entities.
There are several different triangulation systems which can be used
for particular survey. In each case a set of triangles which adjoin or
overlap each other are used. Four types of systems which are used in
triangulation are:

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 14

 A. Chain of single triangles
There are only one route to compute the unknown side. Because of
this it doesn’t provide the most accurate result. This type of
triangulation systems is employed in rather long and narrow surveys
of low precision. The means of check in this system is by comparing
the computed length of check base with the measured.

B. Chain of Quadrilaterals formed with overlapping triangles

The most common triangulation system best adopted to rather long
and narrow surveys where the high degree of precision is required.
The sides can be computed with different route as well as different
triangles and angles offering excellent checks on the computation.

C . A chain of central point figures

This type of triangulation system is used when horizontal control
is to be extended over a rather wide area involving number of
points. It is very strong and quite easy to arrange.

D .Central Point figure with extra diagonal

The central point figure is further strengthened by using diagonal
as shown.
The most common figure used is the braced quadrilateral (fg 1.2b)
below. It is best suited to long narrow systems. Brace
polygons(fig1.2c) can also
be used in the case of wide systems.

Fig 1.2 triangulation figures (a) chain of triangles; (b) chain of

quadrilaterals; (c) chain of polygons.

2.5 Triangulation procedure

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1. Reconnaissance, select the location of stations;
2. Evaluation of the strength of figure;
3. Erection of signals, and in some cases, towers for elevating the
signals and /or instruments
4. observation of directions or angles;
5. measurement of base lines;
6. Astronomic observation at one or more locations;
7. computations including reduction to sea level, calculation of the
lengths of all sides and coordinates for all stations

2.6 Reconnaissance

The success of any triangulation depends on the reconnaissance,

which is the most difficult and exacting task of the extensive survey.
Reconnaissance consists of selection of sites for stations,
determination of shape and size of the resulting triangles, the number
of stations to be occupied, the number of angles and directions to be
measured, inter visibility, and accessibility of stations, usefulness of
stations in later works, the cost of the necessary signals and /or
towers, and the convenience of base line measurements. In order to
acquire the information, available maps, survey information and
aerial photographs of the area are used. Field inspection and rough
measurements may also be carried out to supplement the study, select
favourable location for stations and checks suitability.
Heavily wooded country is the most difficult in which to carry
triangulation. A valley of proper width, with peaks on either side, is
the most favourable. Stations are located on higher points, provided
that their locations will give the best shaped triangles. The ideal
condition is one in which no or low towers are used and no clearing is
required. A most important and difficult part is to determine the
height of towers necessary to make the sight between any two of the
stations clear of obstruction.
A mistake on the part of the person may lead to a delay of the work,
especially in the first and second order triangulation work where
observation is done after dark.

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2.6.1 Inter visibility of stations intervened by ground profiles

The elevations and the horizontal distances of the intervening peaks

likely to obstruct the line of sight must be accurately ascertained
during reconnaissance. A comparison of their actual elevation with
the reduced level of the proposed line of their positions will decide
weather the triangulation station are inter visible or not.

C
B
A

h2
S-d
h1
S+d
2S

Fig inter visibility stations

Captain G.T.Mc CAW formula
Let h1 = elevation of station A
h2 = elevation of station B
2S = distance between stations A & B
(S +d) = distance of C from station A
(S-d) = distance of C from station B
h = elevation of line of sight at station C

The value of h may be obtained as under:

h = ½(h2+h1) + ½( h2-h1)d/s –(s2-d2)(0.06735)

Example
Two triangulation stations A and B 110km apart have elevations of
320m and 950m respectively. The intervening ground at point D,
60km from station A has an elevation of 475m. Find out whether
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stations A & B are inter visible. If not, calculate the height of the
signal at station B assuming station A as a ground station. The line of
sight should not pass nearer than 5m to the ground.

Solution
D
A
B

h1 60
h2
110

h1=320m ½(h2+h1)=635
h2=950m ½(h2-h1)=315
S+d=60km S2-d2 =(S+D)(S-D)
2S=110km =60 * 5
S=55 =3000
d=5km
So, the height of line of sight at station D above sea level is:
h=635 +315(5/55) – 3000(0.06735)
= 635 + 28.64 - 202.05
= 461.59m

 This indicates that the line of sight is below the ground

level i.e. it fails to clear station D by
475 – 461.59 = 13.41m

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 so, we should have to raise the height of line of sight at point
D by 13.41 +5 =18.41m
the minimum height of signal at point B = 18.41 * 110/60 = 33.75m

2.6.2 Strength of Figures

The term refers to the effect of the proportions of a triangle on the

accuracy with which the lengths of the sides can be computed. When
small errors in angle measurement affect the computed distances very
little, the figure is said to be strong.
In triangulation the lengths of triangle sides are computed with the
low of sines. When triangles are used that contain small angles, the
best results may not be obtained because of the fact that the rate of
change of the sines of angles near 00 or 1800 is quite large compared to
the rate of change for angles near 900. Thus angles near 900 are the
optimum ones to use, with those from 300 to 1500 being acceptable.
It is not correct to say that small angles should always be avoided-
rather, they should not be used where they will weaken the system.
For instance, in calculating the length of a given side of a triangle
there are two angles that are used: the angle opposite the known side
and the angle opposite the side whose length is to be determined.
c
B

a A

C b
A
In figure above, the length b is assumed to be known and it is desired
to determine the length c. With the sine law only the angles B and C
are used, and as a result the angle A has no direct effect on the
calculations and thus can be quite small without affecting the strength
of the figure.
Therefore, the strongest chain of triangle is the one whose distance
angles are near 900.There is a method of testing by which the strength
of figure is measured. The measure of the strength of figure with
respect to length is evaluated quantitatively in terms of a factor R
based on the probability.
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 R = { (D - C) / D } [ Σ{ δA2 + δAδB + δB2} ]

where, C = no of conditions to be satisfied

= (n` - S` + 1) + (n –2S + 3)
n = total number of lines in the figure including
baseline
n` = no of lines observed in both directions including
baseline if observed.
S = no of total stations
S’ = no of occupied stations
D = no of directions observed (fore and /or backward
excluding the baseline)
δAδB = respective logarithmic difference of sines
expressed in units of the sixth decimal place corresponding to a
change of 1 in the distance angle A and B in the triangle.
The distance angles are the angles in each triangle opposite to
known side and the required sides.

Example
Compute the strength of the fig. given below:

C D
a = 40
a h b = 60
c = 40
g d = 40
b e = 40
f = 50
g = 50
c f h = 40
d e

B
A

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Compute the length of side CD.

Solution

For the given figure the length of CD can be obtained in four different
ways.

Case triangle known comp. dist. Angle Σ{ δA2 + δAδB + δB2} R

I ACB AB AC 60 40 11
ACD AC CD 40 40 19
30 0.6*30=18

II ABD AB AD 90 50 3
ACD AD CD 100 40 6
9 0.6*9=5.4

III ABC AB CB 80 60 2
CBD CB CD 90 50 3
5 0.6*5=3

IV ABD AB BD 50 40 14
CBD BD CD 50 40 14
28 0.6*28=16.8

Therefore the length of side CD is best computed if the 3rd case is

chosen. Accordingly:
CB = AB sin 80 / sin 60
CD = CB sin90/sin 50 = [ AB (sin 80)( sin90)] / [(sin 60)( sin
50)]
Use R1= 3 to compute the sides
R2= 5.4 to check the computed.

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2.7 Triangulation stations

The points forming the triangulation stations are selected on the basis
of visibility as for example on the top of hills or church steeples, or
radio towers, or water tanks. As a result, the points are not uniformly
spaced. Some of the points are obviously inaccessible and it is
necessary to establish eccentric stations from them and to determine
the distance and direction s from the main stations to the eccentric
stations.
Sometimes it is necessary to build special towers for making the
observations. These towers contain one tower built inside another so
that the towers supporting the instrument operator are independent.
For triangulation of lower accuracy, a small pole signal about 2m high
guyed in place, or an object already in place might be used for
sighting. As most triangulation works of higher accuracy are carried
out between late afternoon or an automobile headlight may be used
as signal. Signals should be free from phase.
In general, the types of signal used depend on the length of the line
accuracy required whereas its form depend s on the locality and
availability of materials.
Triangulation stations should be marked and referenced very
carefully for use at later days. The signal used must permit centring
the instrument if the station is to be occupied
(for instance, an iron pipe set vertically so that a pole can be inserted
in to it for sighting and this pole can be removed when centring the
instrument over the station).
When towers are required due to flat terrain, heavy timber or other
factors, it is necessary to determine the minimum height of the towers
required from the equation for the earth’s curvature and atmospheric
refraction.

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Example :
Determine the height of a tower to permit seeing the surface of the
earth at a distance of 10 km.

Solution

h=0.0675d2 where d is the distance in km

h is the height of the tower in m.

h = 0.0675 * (10)2 = 6.75m

2.8 Baseline and angle measurement

a) Base line measurement

Since the computed sides of triangulation system can be no more

accurate than the baselines, every precaution to ensure accuracy is
taken in measuring these lines. The length of any baseline is
determined primarily by the desirability of strong figures in the net.
Ordinarily, the longer the baseline , the easier it will be found to
secure strong figures. Short baselines are connected to the
triangulation system through a basenet.

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Fig. 1.5 Base net
Because of errors in angular measurements, the accuracy of the
computed lengths will decrease as the distance from the baseline
increases. On extensive triangulation the accuracy is maintained by
measuring additional base lines.

Base lines can be measured either by tapes or by EDM equipment. For

measurement of higher precision, invar tape is always used. Some of
the activities required while taping are:
 Clear obstructions along the baseline;
 Setting stakes on line at distances apart equal to the length of
the tape to be used;
 Fastening copper stripes to the top of these stakes for making
the tape lengths;
 Providing support for the tape;
 Running levels to determine difference in elevation where
required;
 Recording field temperature and pull and applying systematic
corrections; etc.
Once systematic corrections have been applied to the measured
lengths, the remaining step is to reduce all the triangle lengths to
equivalent sea level distances in all extensive triangulation surveys.

In the figure, A and B are two points on

the earth’s surface at an average
elevation of h above sea level. Since the
lengths of the arcs are proportional to
their radii,

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 Where S= sea level length, m
Fig 1.6 Reduction to sea level D = measured length at
average elevation of h above sea
level
R=6,372,200m

Example
The elevation of measured base line is 540m above mean sea level.
The recorded length of the base line is 1035.407m. Compute the length
of the base line at sea level

Solution
S = RD / (R+h)
= (6372200* 1035.407) / (6372200+540)
= 1035.319m

b) Angle measurement

The instruments to be used for measuring angles for triangulation

depend on the accuracy desired in locating the positions of the
triangulation stations. If first-order work is desired, directional
theodolites should be used with which directions can be read directly
to 0.2”. For second-order work, it is necessary to use instruments
capable of being read to 1”. For third –order triangulation, engineer’s
transits that can be read to 20” or 30” may be used if the angles are
measured by repetition.
When the directional theodolites is used, it is set up over a particular
station and pointed to each of the desired stations. For first-order
triangulation the set of readings is repeated from 8 to 16 times , while
for second order work they are repeated from 4 to 8 times.

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2.9 Triangulation Adjustment

Before the length computation begin, it is necessary to make

triangulation adjustments.

2.9.1 Adjustment of Chain of Single Triangles

When chain of single triangles are used, it is necessary to make the
following adjustments.
A) Station adjustments: the sum of the angles around each point
should exactly be 3600.
B) Figure adjustments: the sum of the angles in each triangle
should exactly be 1800.
For the angles about a point the difference between the sum of
measured angles and 3600 is balanced equally between the numbers
of angles.
In the same fashion the difference between the sum of the measured
angles in each triangle and 180 is balanced equally between the
angles.

Example
1. For the triangles shown, the measured angles are given . Make
station and figure adjustment to the angles.

A Measured angles
3 41 16 10
D
1 53 33 20
2 9 265 07 45
10 91 16 10
268 43 30
35 07 00
78 42 30
5 4 246 11 00
7 60 01 05
B 6
8 249 59 15

solution
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 a) station adjustment

Station angle measured adjusted

1 41 16 10 41 16 05
A 2 53 36 20 53 36 15
3 265 07 45 265 07 40
 360 00 15 360 00 00
4 91 16 10 91 16 20
B 5 268 43 30 268 43 40
 359 59 40 360 00 00
6 35 07 00 35 06 50
C 7 78 42 30 78 42 20
8 246 11 00 246 10 50
 360 00 30 360 00 00
9 60 01 05 60 00 55
D 10 299 59 15 299 59 05
 360 00 20 360 00 00

b) Figure Adjustment

Triangle angle Angle value Angle value

after station after figure
adjustment adjustment
2 53 36 15 53 36 27
ABC 4 91 16 20 91 16 32
6 35 06 50 35 07 01
 179 59 25 180 00 00
1 41 16 05 41 16 18
ACD 7 78 42 20 78 42 34
9 60 00 55 60 01 08
 179 59 20 180 00 00

N.B. give the larger correcting factor, to large measured

angle.
Check the station
A= 1 + 2 + 3 = 3600 00’ 25’’
Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 27
 Adjust angle 3 =2650 07’ 40’’ – 000 00’ 25’’ = 2650 07’ 15’’

2.9.2 Adjustment of a quadrilateral

When a chain of quadrilaterals are used, there are two
condition which must be satisfied.
a) Geometric condition: the sum of the interior angles must
equal to (n-1)*1800 ; where n is the sum number of
sides of the figure.
b) Trigonometric condition: The sine of each angle must be
proportional to the opposite side of that triangle.
Consider the diagram below;

A
a b
h c

g d
f e

Base line D

Let AD be the base line and angles a to h be measured angles.

A. Adjustment of quadrilateral by approximate method

a) Geometric condition
1) the sum of interior angles of a triangle should be 1800.
For ABC ; a + b + c + d = 180
For BCD; c + d + e + f =180
For ABD; a + b + h + g =180
For ACD ; h + g + f + e = 180
2) The sum of interior angles of quadrilateral should be 3600.
a + b + c + d + e + f + g + h = 360
3) The sum of opposite angles ( at the intersection of the diagonal)
should be equal.
a+b=e+f
c+ d = g + h
Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 28
 b) Trigonometric condition
Log { (sin a) ( sin c) ( sin e) ( sin g ) } – log{ ( sin b)( sin d)( sin f)( sin h)}
=0
Logsina+ Logsinc+ Logsine+ Logsing = Logsinb + Logsind + Logsinf +
Logsinh
This geometric condition to be satisfied for quadrilateral adjustment
Steps in the adjustment of quadrilaterals
1. Correct each of the eight angles so that their sum will be exactly
360.
2. Adjust the vertically opposite angles so that their sum should be
equal.
3. Record the log sines for every alternate angles
4. For each angle record the tabular logarithmic sine difference for
1” opposite each logarithm.
5. Find the average required change (α ) in log sines by dividing
the differences between the sums by eight.
6. Find the average difference () for 1”.
7. The ratio of (α/) gives the number of seconds or arc to be
applied as a correction . this correction is added to each of the
four angles whose sum of log sines is the smaller and subtracted
from each of the other four angles whose sum of log sines is
the larger, and thus the correct value of angles are obtained.

Example
1.Make the necessary adjustment for the following quadrilaterals.

B
A Measured angle
b c a = 38 44 06
a d b = 23 44 38
c = 42 19 09
d = 44 52 01
e = 69 04 21
f = 39 37 48
g = 26 25 51
h = 75 12 14
h e
g f  = 360 00 08
C

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 29

Solution
Step 1. Diff. = 08” correction = 08”/8 = 1”
0
Step 2. b + c = 66 03’ 45’’
F + g = 660 03’ 37’’
= 08”/4 = 02” (angle f and g should be increased by 2” and
angle b and c are decreased by 2” )
a + h = 1130 56’ 18’’
d + e = 1130 56’ 20’’
02”/4 = 0.5” ( add 0.5” to a and h and subtract from d
and e
step 3. compute the log sines for every alternative angles.
Log sin a = -0.203621777 log sin b = -0.395087669
Log sin c =-0.17182419 Log sind = -0.15152906
Log sin e = -02963892 log sin f = -0.195294325
Log sin g = -0.35152145 log sin h = -0.014645342
Step 4. Compute the logarithmic sine difference for 1”
Log sin (a + 1”) - Log sin a = 2.6*10-6
Log sin (c +1”) - Log sin c = 2.3*10-6
Log sin (e + 1”) - Log sin e =0.9*10-6
Log sin (g + 1”) - Log sin g = 4.3*10-6
Log sin (b + 1”) - Log sin b = 4.8*10-6
.etc
step 5
7.2434434 – 7.2433935 = 49.9 * 10-6
therefore α = (49.9 * 10-6 ) / 8 = 6.24 * 10-6
step 6
 = 20.2 * 10-6 / 8 = 2.53 * 10-6
step 7
 = 6.24/2.53 = 2.47”

Correction: add 2.47” to all angles whose sines of log sine is smaller
( i.e for angles a, c, e and g ) & vice-versa( subtract 2.47” from b, d, f,
and h )
Note : If the corrections are properly applied,the sum of the logsines
of the corrected angles will agree with in 1 or 2 in the last 7th decimal
place.

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 30

2.9.3 Adjustment and computation of a centre-point triangle /figure

B S
3 4
2 5
8
7
9

1 6

The procedure for solving the centre point triangle is as follows:

d) the angles in any triangle must sum to 1800 .
(i.e.4+3+8=5+9+6=1+2+7=1800)
e) the angles at the centre station must sum to 360 without
altering any previous adjustment . (i.e 8+9+7=3600)
f) the side condition :
Log sin 1 Log sin 3 Log sin 5=Log sin2+ Log sin4+ Log sin6

2.10 Eccentric Stations (Reduction to centre)

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 31

In the measurement of triangulation angles it often is not possible to
centre a theodolite over a station directly below the target (church
spire, lighthouse), which makes direct angle measurement equally
difficult or impossible.
A field procedure that can be adopted to obtain angles at the spire or
other mark is to set the theodolite at a point as near as possible to the
spire. From this eccentric station, angles are observed to all points in
the network as if the inaccessible point (spire) itself was being
occupied.
Since the angles observed at the eccentric station will be slightly
different to those, which would have been observed at the
inaccessible or main station. In computing the corrections to be
applied to the measured angles or directions, the simplest method is
to calculate first the directions of the lines with respect to the line
between the eccentric station and the true station as a meridian.
Corrections are applied to the measured angles to give those
applicable to the main station. This correction procedure is known as
reduction to centre.

M
Y

e2 e1

E 1

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 32

In figure above, stations C ,Y and M are triangulation stations, station
C being inaccessible. At the eccentric station E, the directions to C,Y
and M are observed and the distance EC measured. This distance
should be as small as possible and measured as accurately as possible.
The observed directions to Y and M are converted to their equivalents
at station c by applying corrections e1 and e2.

In the triangle ECY,

e1’’ =
The value of L is not known but its approximate value can be taken as
EY and EM which is obtained by a preliminary computation of the
triangles using E as the triangulation station.
The sin of the correction is given by sin 1 and if the ratio d/D < 1/140
the formula cannot be used, but the ratio is not likely to be less than
this in practice.
Therefore;
e1 = and e2 =

So that;
Direction CY = direction EY + e1
Direction CM = direction EM + e2
Angle MCY in main triangulation scheme
= direction CY – direction CM
= direction EY + e1 – (direction EM + e2)

Example

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 33

At inaccessible station B in a triangulation network an eccentric
station E was set up nearby in order to obtain angle ABD. The
following measurements were taken:

DAE = 7335m AED = 95016’40.52”

DDE = 5556m DEB = 169027’47.18’’

D
A

Solution
Converting the observed angles taken at E into clockwise
directions gives, with direction EB as a reference direction:
ED = 169027’47. 18’’ = 1
EA = 169027 47.18’’ + 95016’40. 52’’
= 264044’27. 7’’ = 2

Reduction to centre

Station A D

Distance 7335m 5556m

264044’27.7’’ 0
169 47’27.7’’
sin -0.99579 +0.18287
d/sin1’’ 1.349 *106 1.349 *106
e -183.14’’ +44.40’’

angle AED = direction of BA - direction BD

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 34
 = direction of EA + e1 – [direction of ED + e2]
= 264044’27. 7’’ - 003’3.14’’ – [169027’27. 7’’ + 44.40”]
= 95013'12.46''
2.11 Computation of lengths

Two sides of each triangle are computed by using the law of sines,
since one side of the triangle is always known and the three angles
have been measured and adjusted. In computing the sides of the
triangles in a quadrilateral, such as that in fig. below, the solutions of
two triangles is sufficient to compute the positions of the forward
triangulation stations. The two triangles chosen must be the strongest
route through the quadrilateral.

a = 63017'28.12''
C b = 84018'20.37''
c = 17052'26.69''
d = 30041'16.98''
D f e = 47007'55.96''
f = 66035'55.30''
g e g = 35034'51.76''
h= 14031'44.82''

d
a b c B

In the figure above, the side AB is the known or measured line of the
quadrilateral, and the strongest route is obtained by considering
triangle ABC and triangle DAC in that order. To check the accuracy of
the fieldwork or the consistency of the figure adjustment, the two
triangles ABC and triangle BDC can be computed in that order. This
computation gives a check on the length of the side CD, which is the
forward side of the quadrilateral. However, only the result for the
strongest route will be used in the further computations.
If the coordinates of stations A and B are known, the length of line BA
computed by:
Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 35
DAB = [ (EB - EA)2 + (NA - NB)2 ]1/2

If EA=1,442,416.25 NA= 622,516.21 &

EB=1,445,317.844 NB=621,754.14

DAB= 3000.000m
With the side AB known, the sides AC and CB are computed by using
the law of sines.

Also,

the line CA = AC is then used as the starting side of triangle DCA.

Computation of lengths in triangles

Sides Stations Angles Adjusted angles Distances

Triangle ABC
AB 3000.000
0
C e 47 07'55.96'' 0.73292548
B c+d 48033'43.67'' 0.74967381
A b 84018'20.37'' 0.99506538
180000'00.00''
AC 3068.554
CB 4072.987

Triangle CAD
CA 3068.554
0
D h+g 50 06'36.58'' 0.76727890
C f 66035'55.30'' 0.91774558

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 36

 A a 63017'28.12''
AD 3670.311
CD 3572.554

2.12 Coordinate calculations

A) Computation of Azimuths
If the coordinates of stations A and B are known, the azimuth from
north of the line AB is determined by:

tan AAB =

AAB = tan-1

AAB = 104042'56.6''

Azimuth of AB = 104042'56.60'' Azimuth of BA =

284042'56.60''
-b = -84018'20.37'' +(d + c) = +
48033'43.67''
Azimuth AC = 20024'36.23'' azimuth of BC =
333016'40.27''
-a = -63017'28.12'' azimuth of CA =
200024'36.23''
Azimuth AD = 317007'08.11'' + angle f = +
66035'55.3''
Azimuth of CD = 267000'31.53''
- azimuth CB = -153016'40.2''
( f + e) = 113043'51.2''
(check)
Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 37
B) Position Computation

The coordinates of all the stations throughout the triangulation system are

computed by using the strongest route of triangles in the network. When a

station is reached whose coordinates are fixed, the positions of the

intermediate stations can then be adjusted. If the triangulation system is of

great extent and high precision, this adjustment should be made by

application of the least-squares principle. If the system is moderate in

extent, an application of the compass rule will give highly satisfactory

results. In this case a traverse extending from one fixed point to another

fixed point and including all the intermediate triangulation stations is

selected in as direct a line as possible. This traverse is then adjusted by the

compass rule.

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 38

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 39
 UNIT THREE

3. TRILATERATION

A trilateration net work, like triangulation, may consist of a series of

single triangles, braced quadrilaterals and centre point polygons or
combinations of these but, unlike triangulation, the observed
quantities are the distances not the angles.
The methods used in trilateration computations are very similar to
those used in triangulation and proceed as follows.
1. Using the measured or calculated baseline length and all the
measured lengths, the angles in the network are calculated
using the cosine rule. This is carried out by breaking down all
the figures into their constituent triangles and proceeding as
follows.
In triangle ABC of figure below, the angles are given by:

Cos α =

Cos β =

Cos γ =

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 40

 β
B γ

2. These computed angles are adjusted by the method discussed in

adjusting triangulation systems.
3. The strength of the figure of the system is evaluated.
4. Starting at the baseline, all the lengths of the sides in the
network are computed using the adjusted angles. In addition
the bearings of all the triangle sides throughout the network are
computed, again using the adjusted angles.
5. The computed bearings and distances obtained in (4) are used
to calculate coordinates throughout the network.
A disadvantage of trilateration is that, compared to triangulation, the
number of geometric conditions for adjustment is less than that for
equivalent figures.

ADJUSTMENT OF MEASURED DISTANCES

Before the lengths of the lines in the trilateration net can be used in
any subsequent computations, their slope lengths determined by
the instrument and corrected for atmospheric conditions must be
reduced to the corresponding sea-level distance.

a) Reduction Of Slope Distance By Vertical Angles

The positive angle α and the negative vertical angle β are measured
from stations A and B , respectively. The angle α is the refraction
angle of the line of sight, assumed to be the same at both stations.
Fig.

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 41

In the triangle AVB:
(β + α ) + (90 – ) + [(900- θ ) + α ] =1800
2α =+θ–β
α = /2 – β/2 + θ/2
In the triangle ABB1
Angle BAB1 = θ – α +  /2 = θ – (θ /2 – β/2 + /2) +/2

δ = BAB’=
where θ is vertical angle at A and
β is vertical angle at B
AB1= S cos δ
BB1= S sin δ

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 42

or the refraction angle α is 1/7 of the curvature;

δ = θ -  + /2 = θ -/7 + /2

= θ + 5 / 7

B1B2 = BB1 tan ( /2)

Finally, sea level (chord) length A'B' can be computed from
A'B' = AB2 ( ) where hA is the elevation of station at A.
Arc A'B' = R where  is in radian

b) Reduction of Distance Observations Using Elevations

A procedure for reducing long slope distances to their ellipsoid
lengths is discussed below:
Fig.

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 43

An EDM instrument is at A, a reflector is at B, and S is the observed
slope distance from A to B . (Assume that S has been corrected for
metrological conditions.)Length D1is the ‘’mark-to-mark’’ distance
between stations A and B. Length D2 is the arc distance on the sea
level (geodetic distance). It is the length required for most geodetic
computations. Distances D3 is the ellipsoidal (sea level) chord length
between stations A and B.
Let h1’=h1+hi and h2’=h2+hr, where hi and hr are instrument and
reflector heights, respectively above stations A and B, and h1 and h2
are the elevations at A and B, respectively. Expressing the
relationship of the three sides of triangle ABO using the law of
cosines, gives
S2 = (R +h1’)2 + (R + h2’)2 – 2(R+ h1’)(R+h2’) cos θ----------------------------(a)
Where R is the radius of the earth
θ is the angle subtended by the verticals from points A and B.
Substituting the trigonometric identity of cos θ = 1-2sin2(θ/2) in to
equation above, and expanding yields
S2 = (h2’-h1’)2 +4R2(1+ )(1+ )sin2(θ/2)-----------------------------(b)
Substituting Δh’= h2’- h1’, and D3= 2Rsin (θ/2) in to the equation (b)
S2 = Δh’2 + [1+ ][1+ ]D32---------------------------------------(c)
Solving for D3

D3 = ---------------------------------------(d)

The arc length on the sea-level can be computed from this chord
distance as:

D1= R θ
D2 = 2Rsin-1[D3/2R]--------------------------------------------------------(e)

where: the unit of D3/2R is in radians

Equations (d) and (e) can be used to compute the distance on any
level surface by simply modifying the heights of the endpoints as
appropriate. To compute the chord distance between two points at
different elevations, for example D1, the following equation is used:

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 44

 D1=

3.2 INTERSECTION AND RESECTION

Two techniques commonly employed in extending horizontal control
surveys and in setting out are intersection and resection.

3.2.1 INTERSECTION
Intersection is a method of locating a point with out actually
occupying it. In figure below, points A and B are stations in a control
network already surveyed and in order to coordinate unknown point
C which lies at the intersection of the lines from A and B, angles  and
 are observed.

i) Intersection from one base line

In triangle ABC of figure below, the length and bearing of base line
AB are given by:
DAB = [(EB-EA) 2+ (NB-NA) 2]1/2

AAB = tan -1{ }


A
γ
C

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 45

The sine rule gives:
DBC = DAC =

Where:  = 180- (+)

The azimuth (WCB) in the triangle are given by
AAC = AAB +  ABC = ABA - 

These azimuths (WCB) and distances are used to compute the

coordinates of C along line AC as
EC= EA+ DAC * sinAAC NC= NA+ DAC * cosAAC

The computations are checked along line BC using

EC= EB + DBC * sinABC NC= NB + DBC * sinABC

ii) Intersection from two baseline

One-method of detecting gross errors in the observations is to observe

additional angles from a second baseline. This is shown in figure
below, where the angles δ and φ have been added to those already
observed in one baseline.

B φ δ
β

α
A
C

The coordinates of point C in the figure are found by solving the

intersections formed by the triangles ABC and BDC, the two sets of
Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 46
coordinates obtained being compared. If the differences between the
two intersections are small, it is assumed that the observations
contain no gross errors and the average coordinates from the two sets
are taken as final values.

3.2.2 RESECTION

Resection is a method of locating a point by taking angle observations

from it to at least three known stations in a network. The situation is
illustrated below:

B C
c B
A

α1 α2
α

P'
P''

Point P can be fixed by observing angles P'' and P' subtended at

resection point P by control stations A, B, and C.
A summary of the method used to compute the coordinates of station
P as follows:
1. From the known coordinates of A, B, and C calculate lengths b
and c, and angle α at station B.
2. Subtract the sum of angles X, Y, and α in figure ABCP from
3600to obtain the sum of angles X + Y.
Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 47
 3600- (α + p' + p'') = X +Y
3. Calculate angles X and Y using the following:

X+ y = 360 - (α + p' + p")

1/2 ( X + y)= 1800-1/2 (α + p'+ p")------------------(a)

4. From angles X and azimuth BA, calculate azimuth BP in

triangle ABP. Then solve for length AP using the law of sines,
where α1=1800 - X - p''. Calculate the departure and latitude of
BP followed by the coordinate of P.
5. In the manner outlined in step 4, use triangle BCP to calculate
the coordinates of P to obtain a check.

Example
1. In the figure above, angles X and Y were measured.
P' = 30042’37’’
P'' = 25012’15’’
Coordinate points A, B, and C have coordinates (in metre) of:
XB = 12750.000 XA = 16820.540 XC = 22190.788
YB = 10271.000 YA = 10105.772 YC = 11317.229

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 48

 Calculate the coordinates of P.

Solution

1. Compute b, c, and α
c =
=
=
c = 4073.892
b=
=
b = 5505.197
α = azimuth of AB – azimuth of AC
= AAB - AAC

AAB = tan –1

= tan –1 = 272019’27. 9’’

AAC = tan –1

= tan –1 = 77017’15. 43’’

α = AAB - AAC
= 272019’27. 9’’ – 77017’15. 43’’
= 195002’12. 47’’

2. Compute X + Y
1/2(X + Y ) = 360 – (α +p'' + p')
= 360 – (195002’12. 47’’ +30042’37’’ + 25012’15’’)
= 109002’55. 53’’

3. Calculate X and Y

1/2 ( X+Y) =1800-1/2(α + P' + p")

=1800-1/2(195002'12.47"+30042'37"+25012'15")
Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 49
 =54031'27.76"

1/2(X-Y)=tan-1[cot(Z+450)tan1/2(X+Y)]

Z + 45 = 76040'36.93"

4. Compute i) ABP,ii) α1 iii) BP iV) ∆XBPand ∆YBP and finally iiv) XP

and YP
ABP = ABA + X
= 92019'27.9'' +72054'22'' = 165013'49.9''
α1 = 180 - A - P = 180 - 72054'22'' - 30042'37''=76023'01''
BP = AB * sin76023'01''/sin30042'37'' = 7752.912m
∆XBP = BP * sin ABP = 7752.912 * sin 165013'49.9'' =
1976.454m
∆YBP = BP * cos 165013'49.9'' = -7496.751m
XP = XB + ∆XBP = 12750 +1976.454 = 14726.454
YP = YB + ∆YBP= 10271-7496.751 =2774.249

5. To check use triangle BCP.

Example
2. The coordinates of two control points A and B are XA=
602,105.32 and YA= 126,118.90m; XB= 601,048.82m and YB =
Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 50
 125,613.48m. The clockwise angle at A from B to unknown point
P is 52018'46.2'';the counter clockwise angle at B from A to P is
37028'16''. Compute the coordinates of P by intersection.

SOLUTION
B


A

 = 52018'46.2'' and  = 37028'16''

To compute coordinates of P , we should have to compute the
azimuths of AP (AAP) or azimuth of BP (ABP) and length AP or BP.
Azimuth AP (AAP) = azimuth of AB (AAB) + A
Azimuth BP (ABP) = azimuth of BA (AAB) - B

AAB = tan-1 = tan -1 =

64026'02.3'' + 1800
= 244026'2.3''
ABA= azimuth of AB +or - 1800 = 64026'2.3''

AAB = 2440 26’ 2.3’’ ABA = 64026’2.3’’

+A = 52018’46.2’’ - B = 37028’16.0’’
AAP = 296044’48.5’’ ABP = 26057’46.3’’

Using the sine Rule

DBP = DAB * sinA/sinB and DAP = DAB * sin B/sinP

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 51

DAB = 1171.171m

A + B + P =1800
52018’46.2’’ + 37028’16’’ + P =180
P = 90012’57.8’’
DAP = DAB * sinB/sinP
= 1171.171 * sin 37028’16’’/sin 90012’57.8’’
= 712.500m
DBP = DAB * sin A/sinP
= 1171.171 * sin 52018’46.2’’/sin 90012’57.8’’
= 926.825m

The coordinates of P along AP can be computed as

EP = EA+DAP*sin (AAP)
= 602,105.32+712.500*sin2960 44’ 48.5’’
= 601,469.055

NP = NA+DAPcos (AAP)
=126,118.90+712.500*cos2960 44’ 48.5’’
=126,439.560

To check, compute along BP

EP = EB + DBP*sinABP
= 601,048.82 + 926.825*sin260 57’ 46.3’’
= 601,469.054

NP =NB+DBPcosABP
=125,613.48+926.825*cos260 57’ 46.3’’
=126,439.560

2) The coordinates in feet of three control points are as follows:

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 52

 Point Y X
A 98,202.66 38,762.50
B 110,002.65 61,252.84
C 89,102.32 78,565.12

(a) From an unknown point P1 lying southerly from A, the clock

wise angle from A to B is measured as 220 30’ 14.6’’ and that
from B to C as 290 48’ 50.6’’
Compute the coordinates of P1.
Answer
Xp1 = 89781.053
Yp1 = 55772.609

2.11 Spherical Excess and Spherical Triangles

In control surveying, especially in the case of large triangles, i.e. in
primary triangulation, the theodolite measures the spherical angles
at the triangulation stations forming spherical triangles.

C
B

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 53

Accordingly, the three angles of a large triangle do not total 1800, as in
the case of a plane triangle, but to 1800 + spherical excess. The amount
by which the sum of the three angles of a spherical triangles exceeds
1800is called the spherical excess. The spherical excess depends up on
the area of the triangle and can be calculated from the expression,

es=

Where: R is the radius of the earth.

Therefore, the triangular error is given by:

 observed angles - (1800 + spherical excess )

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 54

Surveying Technology Department Control Surveying ( SUT 172) 55