UNIT-2

What is Knowledge Representation?

Knowledge Representation in AI describes the representation of
knowledge. Basically, it is a study of how the beliefs, intentions,
and judgments of an intelligent agent can be expressed suitably for
automated reasoning. One of the primary purposes of Knowledge
Representation includes modeling intelligent behavior for an agent.

Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR, KRR) represents

information from the real world for a computer to understand and then
utilize this knowledge to solve complex real-life problems like
communicating with human beings in natural language. Knowledge
representation in AI is not just about storing data in a database, it allows a
machine to learn from that knowledge and behave intelligently like a
human being.

DEFINITION:

o It is also a way which describes how we can represent knowledge in

artificial intelligence. Knowledge representation is not just storing data
into some database, but it also enables an intelligent machine to learn
from that knowledge and experiences so that it can behave intelligently
like a human.

Requirements for knowledge Representation system:

o A good knowledge representation system must possess the following
properties.
o 1.RepresentationalAccuracy:
KR system should have the ability to represent all kind of required
knowledge.
 o 2.InferentialAdequacy:
KR system should have ability to manipulate the representational
structures to produce new knowledge corresponding to existing
structure.
o 3.InferentialEfficiency:
The ability to direct the inferential knowledge mechanism into the most
productive directions by storing appropriate guides.
o 4. Acquisitional efficiency- The ability to acquire the new knowledge
easily using automatic methods.

Approaches to knowledge representation:

1. Simple relational knowledge:
o It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational method,
and each fact about a set of the object is set out systematically in
columns.
o This approach of knowledge representation is famous in database
systems where the relationship between different entities is represented.
o This approach has little opportunity for inference.

Example: The following is the simple relational knowledge

representation.

Player Weight Age

Player1 65 23

Player2 58 18

Player3 75 24
2. Inheritable knowledge:
o In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored into a
hierarchy of classes.
o All classes should be arranged in a generalized form or a hierarchal
manner.
o In this approach, we apply inheritance property.
o Elements inherit values from other members of a class.
o This approach contains inheritable knowledge which shows a relation
between instance and class, and it is called instance relation.
o Every individual frame can represent the collection of attributes and its
value.
o In this approach, objects and values are represented in Boxed nodes.
o We use Arrows which point from objects to their values.
o Example:
3. Inferential knowledge:
o Inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of
formal logics.
o This approach can be used to derive more facts.
o It guaranteed correctness.
o Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:

a. Marcus is a man
b. All men are mortal
Then it can represent as;

man(Marcus)
∀x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s

4. Procedural knowledge:
o Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and codes which
describes how to do specific things, and how to proceed.
o In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule.
o In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP
language and Prolog language.
o We can easily represent heuristic or domain-specific knowledge using
this approach.
o But it is not necessary that we can represent all cases in this approach.

Issues in knowledge representation

The main objective of knowledge representation is to draw the
conclusions from the knowledge, but there are many issues associated
with the use of knowledge representation techniques.

Some of them are listed below:

Refer to the above diagram to refer to the following issues.

1. Important attributes
There are two attributes shown in the diagram, instance and isa. Since
these attributes support property of inheritance, they are of prime
importance.

2. Relationships among attributes

Basically, the attributes used to describe objects are nothing but the
entities. However, the attributes of an object do not depend on the
encoded specific knowledge.

3. Choosing the granularity of representation

While deciding the granularity of representation, it is necessary to know
the following:

i. What are the primitives and at what level should the knowledge be
represented?

ii. What should be the number (small or large) of low-level primitives or

high-level facts?

High-level facts may be insufficient to draw the conclusion while Low-

level primitives may require a lot of storage.
For example: Suppose that we are interested in following facts:
John spotted Alex.

Now, this could be represented as "Spotted (agent(John), object (Alex))"

Such a representation can make it easy to answer questions such as:

Who spotted Alex?

Suppose we want to know : "Did John see Sue?"

Given only one fact, user cannot discover that answer.

Hence, the user can add other facts, such as "Spotted (x, y) → saw (x,
y)"

4. Representing sets of objects.

There are some properties of objects which satisfy the condition of a set
together but not as individual;
 Example: Consider the assertion made in the sentences:
"There are more sheep than people in Australia", and "English speakers
can be found all over the world."
These facts can be described by including an assertion to the sets
representing people, sheep, and English.

5. Finding the right structure as needed

To describe a particular situation, it is always important to find the access
of right structure. This can be done by selecting an initial structure and
then revising the choice.

While selecting and reversing the right structure, it is necessary to solve

following problem statements. They include the process on how to:

 Select an initial appropriate structure.

 Fill the necessary details from the current situations.
 Determine a better structure if the initially selected structure is not
appropriate to fulfill other conditions.
 Find the solution if none of the available structures is appropriate.
 Create and remember a new structure for the given condition.
 There is no specific way to solve these problems, but some of
the  effective knowledge representation techniques have the potential to
solve them.

Predicate Logic
A predicate is a statement or mathematical assertion that
contains variables, sometimes referred to as predicate variables,
and may be true or false depending on those variables’ value or
values.
For example, let’s suppose we have an inequality where we are
stating that the left hand side is greater than or equal to the right
hand side.

For example, suppose M is the predicate representing “man is

mortal” and let x be a variable. Then M(x) is an atomic formula
meaning “x is mortal.”

So, as we know, a predicate is an expression of one or more

variables defined on some domain, and an atom is the most
straightforward well-formed formula in logic.

Representation of simple facts

using logic Propositional logic is useful because it is simple to deal with and
a decision procedure for it exists. Also, In order to draw conclusions, facts
are represented in a more convenient way as,

 1. Marcus is a man.

 • man(Marcus)

2. Plato is a man. • man(Plato)

3. All men are mortal. • mortal(men

computable function
A computable function is often taken to be one that acts on the natural
numbers (a partial recursive function) but for purposes
of analysis (computable analysis, exact analysis) and related fields
(notably physics, see at computable physics) one
considers computation on real numbers to finite but arbitrary precision.
This means that in this context of analysis a computable function should
be an algorithm that successively reads in natural numbers from a
possibly infinite list (specifying an input to ever higher accuracy) and
accordingly outputs a result as incrementally as an infinite list.

Mathematically this is captured by continuous functions on quotient

spaces of Baire space (computability) and goes by the name Type Two
Theory of Effectivity or similar. In implementations this is essentially
what is known as exact real computer arithmetic.

Predicates

A predicate is a function that tests for some condition involving its arguments and
returns nil if the condition is false, or some non-nil value if the condition is true. One
may think of a predicate as producing a Boolean value, where nil stands for false and
anything else stands for true. Conditional control structures such as cond, if, when,
and unless test such Boolean values. We say that a predicate is true when it returns a
non-nil value, and is false when it returns nil; that is, it is true or false according to
whether the condition being tested is true or false.