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BAB-E-ARQAM SCIENCE ACADEMY

CHAPTER # 7
1: PHYSICAL QUANTITIES:
The Quantities which can be observed physically and measured numerically are called Physical Quantities. For Example: Mass, Speed, Work, Velocity, Acceleration, Force and Torque etc.

VECTORS

Part (II)

TYPES OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES:

The Physical Quantities can be classified into two categories. (i) Scalar Quantities (ii) Vector Quantities

(i): SCALAR QUANTITIES:

The Physical Quantities which can be completely described with the help of Magnitude and a Proper unit only are called Scalar Quantities. For Example: Time, Mass, Speed, Density, Temperature, Volume, Length, Time & Work etc.

(ii): VECTOR QUANTITIES:

The Physical Quantities which require Magnitude, a Proper unit as well as a Particular Direction for their complete description are known as Vector Quantities. For Example: Force, Acceleration, Pressure, Torque, Momentum, Displacement & Weight etc.

2: GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF A VECTOR:

Geometrically a Vector can be represented by a Directed Line segment with Initial and Terminal

points. The Length of the Line Segment represents the Magnitude and the Arrow represents the Direction of the Vector. For Example: A Vector is shown in the adjoining diagram.

3: MAGNITUDE OF A VECTOR:
The Length of any vector is known as Magnitude of a Vector. For Example: In 2-D Plane; The magnitude of a Vector = xi + yj is | |= | |=

units.

Similarly In 3-D Space; The Magnitude of a Vector = xi + yj + zk is units.

The Magnitude of the vector u = 3i - 4j is |u| =
=

= 5 units.

NOTES: (i) The Magnitude of any vector is also known as its Length or Norm. (ii) The Magnitude of any vector is always Absolute. It means that Magnitude of any vector cannot be Negative. (iii) The Magnitude of any Non- Zero Vector can never be equal to Zero.

4: NULL VECTOR:
A vector whose magnitude is equal to Zero is called Null Vector. A Null Vector can have an arbitrary direction. It is generally represented by 0 .

NOTES: (i) A Null Vector is formed when the Initial Point of a Vector coincides with its terminal point.

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(ii) If two Vectors are Negative Vectors of each other then their Resultant is always a Null Vector. (iii) A vector can be a Null Vector if and only if all of its components are equal to Zero. (iv) More than two vectors can result into a Null vector only if their Vector sum results into a closed Polygon.

5: EQUAL VECTORS:
If two Vectors have same Magnitude and same Direction then these vectors are called Equal Vectors.

For Example: The vectors and are Equal Vectors.

6: NEGATIVE VECTORS:
Two Vectors which have same Magnitude but Opposite Direction are called Negative Vectors of each other. For Example: The vectors and are Negative Vectors of each other.

7: PARALLEL VECTORS:
The vectors which are Non- Zero Scalar multiple of each other are known as Parallel Vectors. If u and v be any two Non- Zero vectors then they will be Parallel iff u = c v where c is a Real number. For Example: The vectors u = 2i 6j and v = i 3j are Parallel because u = 2 (i 3j) = 2 v ; where c = 2. NOTES: (i) In vector equation u = c v ; u & v will be in Same direction if c > 0. If the two vectors are in same direction ( Parallel ); then the angle between them is always 0. (ii) In vector equation u = c v ; u & v will be in Opposite direction if c < 0. If the two vectors are in Opposite direction ( Anti-Parallel ); then the angle between them is always 180. (iii) In vector equation u = c v ; where v is not a Null Vector. u will be a Null Vector if c = 0. (iv) If two vectors u and v are Perpendicular (Orthogonal); then the Angle between them is 90. (v) If two vectors u = ai + bj + ck and v = di + ej + fk are Parallel then the ratio of corresponding components of both vectors will be equal. i-e = = = k where k is a Real number.

8: UNIT VECTOR:
A vector whose magnitude is equal to 1 is called a Unit Vector. It is obtained by dividing a vector with its magnitude. A Unit vector is used to represent a direction. If u be any vector then its Unit vector u can be given by u =

NOTES: (i) A unit vector is a unit less quantity that is just used to represent a particular direction. (ii) In a 2-D Plane ; Two standard unit vectors i and j are used to point out direction along Positive x-axis and y-axis respectively. (iii) In 3-D Space; Three standard unit vectors i, j and k are used as Direction vectors along positive x-axis , y-axis and z- axis respectively.

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9: MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A SCALAR: When a Vector u is multiplied by a scalar k then the Result is also a vector ( i-e v = ku ) whose Magnitude is k times that of original vector u. (i) If k is a positive; then Vectors u and ku are in Same Direction. (ii) If k is negative; then Vectors u and ku are in Opposite Direction.

10: ADDITION OF TWO VECTORS:

Two or more than two vectors cannot be added with the help of Algebraic rules. Instead Head to Tail Rule or following laws are used to add two Vectors.

(i) TRIANGLE LAW OF ADDITION:

If two vectors u and v represent two sides of a triangle such that tail of 2nd vector v coincides with the head of 1st vector u then their resultant vector R will be the sum of these two vectors u and v. i-e R = u + v .

(ii) PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF ADDITION:

If two vectors u and v represent two Adjacent sides of a parallelogram then the Diagonal R will be the sum or Resultant of these two vectors u and v. i-e R = u + v .

11: POSITION VECTOR:

The Position Vector of any point P is a Vector whose initial point is the Origin O and terminal point is the point P itself. It is usually represented as r = . For Example: (i) In 2-D plane; the Position vector of P(x,y) can be given by r = = xi + yj . where x and y are the rectangular x and y Components of the Vector . (ii) In 3-D space; the Position vector of P(x,y,z) can be given by r = = xi + yj + zk . where x, y and z are the rectangular x, y and z Components of the Vector . As an example The position vector of Point P(2,3) is = 2i + 3j. NOTES: (i) If P is any arbitrary point and its coordinates are not known then still we can associate a position vector with P. For example if A, B and C are any three points in a plane then we can associate them with position vectors a, b and c respectively.

(ii) The angle that a vector r = makes with +ive x-axis can be given by = tan-1
Alternatively by = cos
-1

Or

; where r is the magnitude of the Position vector of P. Or

(iii) The angle that a vector r = makes with +ive y-axis can be given by = tan-1 Alternatively by = cos-1 ; where r is the magnitude of the Position vector of P.

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12: DETERMINATION OF A VECTOR FROM TWO GIVEN POINTS: (i) In 2-D plane; If A(x1,y1) and B(x2, y2) are any two points then a vector directed from A to B can be
given by = (x2 x1)i + (y2 y1)j. (ii) In 3-D Space; If A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) are any two points then a vector directed from A to B can be given by = (x2 x1)i + (y2 y1)j + (z2 z1)k . OR Alternatively If a and b be the Position vectors of the points A and B respectively then the Vector directed from A to B will be = p.v of B p.v of A = b a .

PROOF:
Let = a = x1i + y1j and = b = x2i + y2j be the position vectors of the Points A and B respectively then According to Triangle law of Addition + = = = b a = (x2i + y2j) (x1i + y1j) = x2i + y2j x1i y1j = (x2 x1)i + (y2 y1)j which is the Required Proof.

13: ALTERNATIVE WAY OF REPRESENTING A VECTOR: (i): If P(x,y) be any point in a plane then its position vector can be given as = [x, y].
(ii): If A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) be any two points then = [x2 x1 , y2 y1] . (iii) In 2-D plane ; Unit vector i can be given as [1, 0] and j as [0, 1] respectively. (iv) In 3-D space ; Unit vectors i, j and k can be given as [1,0,0], [0,1,0] and [0,0,1] respectively. (v) It must be remembered that [x, y] represents the Rectangular x and y components of a vector but not the Coordinates of the point P(x,y). Example: If A(0,2) and B(1,3) be two points then = [1 0 , 3 2] = [1, 1] = i + j .

14: RATIO FORMULA:

If A and B be any two points with position vectors a and b respectively then the Position vector of a point P (i-e r ) dividing the Join of the points A and B in ratio p:q can be given by r= .

15: DIRECTION ANGLES OF A VECTOR:

If a point P(x, y, z) having a p.v r = = xi + yj + zk makes angles , and with +ive x, y and z-axis respectively then these angles are known as Direction Angles of the vector r. where = cos-1 ; = cos-1 ; = cos-1 and r is the Magnitude of r .

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16: DIRECTION COSINES OF A VECTOR:
If a point P(x, y, z) having a p.v r = = xi + yj + zk makes angles , and with +ive x, y and z-axis respectively then cos , cos and cos are known as Direction Cosines of the vector r. where cos = ; cos = ; cos = and r is the Magnitude of r .

NOTES: (i) It must be remembered that 0 180 ; 0 180 ; 0 180 (ii) If , and be the Direction angles of a vector r ;then (iii) If , and be the Direction angles of a vector r ;then cos2 + cos2 + cos2 = 1. sin2 + sin2 + sin2 = 2.

17:THE SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS ( DOT PRODUCT OR INNER PRODUCT: DEFINITION # 1
If u and v be any two Non- Zero vectors with same initial point & making angle with each other; Scalar Product of u and v can be defined as u.v = |u| |v|cos where 0 180

For Example: Work is the Dot Product of Force (F ) and Displacement (d ). (i-e W = F.d )

DEFINITION # 2
If the Product of two vectors is a scalar quantity then this type of product is known as Scalar Product of two Vectors.

PROPERTIES OF DOT PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS:

(i) The Dot Product of two vectors u and v is always commutative. i-e u.v = v.u . (ii) In 3-D Space ; i.i = j.j = k.k = 1. ( Because i.i = |i||i|cos 0 = (1)(1)(1) = 1 ) (iii) In 3-D Space ; i.j = 0 ; j.k = 0 ; k.i = 0. (Because i.j = |i||j|cos 90 = (1)(1) (0) = 0 ) (iv) When the two vectors u and v are parallel then their Scalar Product will be equal to the Product of their Individual magnitudes. i- e u.v = |u||v| (v) The Dot Product of two Perpendicular vectors u and v will be equal to 0. i-e u.v = 0. (vi) If c be any Scalar then The Dot Product of two vectors u and v always Obey Associative law of Scalars. i-e (c x u ).v = c x ( u.v ). (vii) The Scalar Product of three vectors u, v and w obeys Distributive law. i-e u.(v + w) = u.v + u.w. (viii) The Scalar Product of vector u with itself is equal to the square of its magnitude. i-e u.u = |u|2 (ix) If u.v = 0 for any two vectors u and v ; then there can be one of these possibilities. (a) u is a Null Vector. (b) v is a Null Vector. (c) u is Perpendicular to v. (i-e = 90)

(x) If u = a1i + b1j + c1k and v = a2i + b2j + c2k then u.v = a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 . (xi) The Scalar Product of two vectors will be (a) Maximum if both vectors are parallel. (b) Minimum if both are Anti-parallel. (c) Equal to zero if both vectors are Perpendicular (d) Positive if 0 90 (e) Negative if 90 180 .

18: PERPENDICULAR OR ORTHOGONAL VECTORS:

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Two Non-Zero Vectors u and v are Perpendicular to each other if and only if u.v = 0.

19: PROJECTION OF ONE VECTOR ON OTHER VECTOR:

(i) If u and v be any two vectors; then the Projection of vector u on v = (ii) If u and v be any two vectors; then the Projection of vector v on u = .

20: POLAR COORDINATES OF A VECTOR IN A PLANE:

Let a Position vector r = xi + yj of a point P(x,y) makes an angle with +ive x-axis in anti-clockwise direction. On drawing perpendiculars from P(x,y) on x and y-axis respectively, OAP is obtained. Now r = |r|= Now cos = is the Length of Vector or Hypotenuse. & sin =

then x = r cos

y = r sin

Now the Position vector r becomes r = r cos i + r sin j which is in Polar Form.

21: THE CROSS PRODUCT OR VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS: DEFINITION # 1

In a 3-D space, The Cross Product of two Vectors u and v starting from a same point and making angle with each other can be given as u.v = (|u||v|sin ) n where 0 180

and n is the Unit Vector perpendicular to the plane formed by u and v. For Example: Torque is the Vector Product of Force (F) and Position vector (r). i-e = r x F .

DEFINITION # 2
If the Product of two vectors results into a Vector Quantity then this type of Product is called Cross Product of two Vectors. NOTES: (i) Cross product of two vectors is only defined in Space. (ii) The Direction of a Vector that results from Cross Product of two vectors can be found by Right Hand Rule.

If the fingers of Right hand point out in the direction of vector u , then
if the fingers are curled in the direction of vector v then the Thumb will give the direction of n or the vector u x v . (iii) The Resultant vector u x v is always perpendicular to both u and v. This can be Verified by taking the Dot product (u x v) Either with u or v. (iv) The Magnitude of Vector u x v = |u x v| = |u||v|sin (v) If 0 is a Null Vector then we have 0.u = 0 as well as 0 x u = 0. So we can say that a Null Vector can be Perpendicular Or Parallel to every Non- zero vector.

PROPERTIES OF CROSS PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS:

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(i) The Cross Product of two vectors u and v does not obey Commutative Law. i-e u x v v x u. Instead it can be seen graphically that u x v = - v x u. (ii) If u and v are parallel vectors then their Cross Product will be equal to Null vector. i-e u x v = o . Because u x v = |u||v|sin 0 n = |u||v| (0) n = o . (iii) In terms of unit vectors we can have i x i = j x j = k x k = o . (iv) If u and v are Perpendicular Vectors then their cross Product will be maximum. i-e u x v = |u||v|n. (v) In terms of Unit Vectors i x j = k ; j x k = i ; k x i = j . Similarly j x i = -k ; k x j = -i ; i x k = -j . The Cross Product of I, j and k follows the Cyclic Order in Anticlockwise Direction as shown. (vi) If u x v = 0 then there can be one of three possibilities. (a) u is a Null vector (b) v is a Null Vector (c) u and v are Parallel.

(vii) If c is any Scalar then Cross product of u and v Obeys Associative Law of Scalars. i-e u x (kv) = (ku) x v (viii) The Cross Product of three Vectors u, v and w obeys Distributive law. i-e u x (v + w) = u x v + u x w. (ix) u = a1i + b1j + c1k , v = a2i + b2j + c2k then u x v = |

|.

(x) The Cross Product of two Vectors will be (a) Maximum if vectors are parallel. (b) Null vector if both are Perpendicular. (xi) For any two vectors; if at the same time u x v= 0 and u.v = 0 then this result can arise only if Either u is a Null vector or v is a Null Vector with no other Possibility because two vectors cannot be perpendicular and parallel at the same time.

22: APPLICATIONS OF CROSS PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS:

The Cross Product of two Vectors finds its numerous applications in Physics and in Engineering. In Mathematics, It helps in finding

(i) AREA OF PARALLELOGRAM:

If two Non-Zero vectors u and v represent the adjacent sides of a Parallelogram then Area of a Parallelogram = |u x v|

(ii) AREA OF TRIANGLE:

If two Non-Zero vectors u and v represent the two adjacent sides of a triangle then Area of Triangle = |u x v|.

23: TRIPLE PRODUCT OF VECTORS:

There are two types of Triple Product of two Vectors. (i) (ii) Scalar Triple Product: u.(v x w) Or Vector Triple Product: u x (v x w) Or v.(w x u) Or v x (w x u) Or w.(u x v). w x (u x v).

(i) SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT OF VECTORS:

If u, v and w be any three Vectors starting from the same point, then the Scalar Triple Product of these vectors can be defined as u.(v x w) Or v.(w x u) Or w.(u x v). NOTES: (i) The Scalar Triple Product of Vectors follows Cyclic Order. (ii) The Scalar Triple Product like u.(v x w) can also be written as [u v w].

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(iii) It must also be remembered that u.(v x w) = u.(w x v). That means the Change in the Order of Vectors involved in Cross product expression of STP will change the Sign of Scalar Triple Product.

(iv)The Result Obtained from Scalar Triple Product of Vectors is always a Scalar (i-e a number ).

PROPERTIES OF SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT OF VECTORS:

(i) If u, v and w be any three vectors then u.(v x w) = v.(w x u) = w.(u x v). (ii) Analytically, If u = a1i + b1j + c1k , v = a2i + b2j + c2k and w = a3i + b3j + c3k

Then u.(v x w) = |

|.

(iii) If any two Vectors of Scalar Triple Product of Vectors are Equal then Scalar Triple Product will be equal to Zero. i-e u.(v x v) = v.(w x w) = w.(w x v) = u.(w x w) = v.(v x u) = w.(u x u) = 0 etc.
(iv) If the Vectors u, v and w lie in the same plane (i-e Coplanar), then their scalar triple Product will be equal to Zero. For Example: Let the vectors u, v and w lie in the xy- plane then the z- component of each vector will be equal to Zero. i-e u = a1i + b1j + 0k , v = a2i + b2j + 0k and w = a3i + b3j + 0k.

Then u.(v x w) = |

|. Since all the Entries of C3 are equal to Zero therefore u.(v x w) = 0.

24: APPLICATIONS OF SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT OF VECTORS: (i) THE VOLUME OF PARALLELEPIPED:
If the vectors u, v and w represent any three adjacent sides Of Parallelepiped, then The Volume of Parallelepiped = STP = u.(v x w).

(ii) THE VOLUME OF TETRAHEDRON:

If the vectors u, v and w represent any three adjacent sides Of a Tetrahedron, then The Volume of Tetrahedron = u.(v x w).

25: APPLICATIONS OF VECTORS IN PHYSICS AND ENGINEERING: (i) WORK DONE:

If a Constant Force (F) acting at an angle to the Direction of motion of a body displaces the body from initial point P1(x1,y1,z1) to final point P2(x2,y2,z2) with Displacement vector d = P1P2

Then Work Done = W = (Component of F along d)(Displacement) Work Done = (Fcos )(d) = F.d . (ii) TORQUE OR MOMENT OF FORCE:
If a Constant Force (F) acting at an angle to the Perpendicular distance r of a body from the axis of rotation, then Moment of F about Pivot O = = r x F . where r = where P is the Point of Application of Force.

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