UNIT I

1: MATHEMATICS IN OUR WORLD

Living in modern world, it is evident that mathematics plays a vital role in our world.
Having the ability and habit of finding and recognizing patterns and symmetries is embedded
deep within our psychology. Even in the early times, where there are no modern technologies
mathematics used by ancestor for survival purposes. How they do it? They did it by observing the
recurrences of phenomena and events before and after such experiences. Also, they observed the
unique visual characteristics (or unique patterns) that distinguish poisoned fruits from edible one.
Haven't you at any point considered how glorious it is for the left and right sides of a
butterfly to look alike one another? Haven't you at any point asked why practically all trees
appear to be identical – with the branches coming from the trunk? Haven't you at any point
inquired as to why the state of a moving snake resembles the state of a waterway? Haven't you
asked for what reason do the highlights you have on the left side mirror those at the right side?
In this lesson, you will be to understand the different patterns and symmetries we
encountered every day. Let’s start by what objectives you should achieve at the end of this lesson.
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world;
2. classify the objects according to symmetry;
3. articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life;
4. relate the Fibonacci number and Golden Ratio in the occurrences in nature; and
5. express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.
Activating Your Prior Knowledge
I. Identification. Choose your answer from the box.

Fractals Spirals Translational Symmetry Reflectional Symmetry

Symmetry Golden RatioRock Formation Rotational Symmetry
Chaos Leonardo BigolioAnimal Kingdom Fibonacci Numbers

______________ 1. This kind of symmetry is exhibited by objects which do not change its size
and shape if it moved to another location.
______________ 2. This is a simple pattern created from a complicated underlying behavior and
used to described a kind of order which lacks predictability.
______________ 3. This kind of symmetry is exhibited by objects when their similar parts are
regularly arranged around a central axis and the pattern looks the same after a certain amount of
rotation.
______________ 4. An object said to have this type of pattern when it remains unchanged after
transformations such as rotations and scaling are applied to it.
______________ 5. These are curved patterns made by a series of circular shapes revolving
around a central point.
______________ 6. These are never-ending patterns that are self-similar across different scales.
______________ 7. It is made with line going through an object which divides it into two pieces
which are mirror images of each other.

1
______________ 8. It is the ratio of two quantities when the ration of their sums to the larger
quantity is equal to the ratio of the larger quantity to the smaller quantity and equal to the
irrational number 1.618034.
______________ 9. It is a numerical series found by adding two numbers preceding it.
______________ 10. What animal used by Bigolio as the foundation of his theory?

II. From the given picture of nautilus shell. Answer the following question based from your
observation.

1. What do you notice about the construction of nautilus shell?

2. Observe your surroundings, what other thing in nature (e.g. plants, animals, insects) have
this kind of pattern?

3. Attach at least 2 photos of your answer in problem no. 2.

Expanding Your knowledge

TYPES OF PATTERNS IN NATURE
1. Symmetry
The American Heritage Dictionary defines Symmetry as an “exact
correspondence of form and constituent configuration on opposite sides of a dividing line
or plane or about a center or an axis”. In mathematics, an object is said to have symmetry
when it remains unchanged after transformations such as rotations and scaling are applied
to it. Symmetries has different kinds and they will be discussed in the next section.

2. Fractals
Fractals are persistent patterns which are self-similar across different scales. This
means that zooming in the lens onto the object's digital image (fractal) does not provide
specifics of a new view, but just the same as the original image. The image clearly
reappears again and again, no matter how many times the object is magnified,Examples
of fractals in nature include geological fault lines, mountain ranges, coastlines, animal
coloration patterns, pineapples, heart rates, and the circulatory system.

3. Spirals
Spirals are curved patterns rendered around a central point by series of circular
shapes. The spiral pattern, like fractals, is very common in nature-from the biological

2
 molecules that make up humans to the body plans of some plants and animals to
typhoons and galaxies. Some examples showing the spiral patterns in nature can be seen
in snail shells, typhoon satellite imagesand horns of a ram.

4. Chaos
Chaotic patterns (or chaos) are basic patterns generated from underlying
complicated behaviour. Unlike common concept that relates it to total chaos, a chaotic
pattern is used to define a sort of order that lacks predictability. Chaos reveals the
underlying patterns, continuous feedback loops, repetition, self-similarity, fractals, self-
organization and programming dependencyat the initial stages, the apparent randomness
of chaotic and dynamic systems and the unpredictable and unstable processes occur.
Chaos frequently involves fractals. Examples of chaotic patterns in nature can be seen in
clouds street Tornado and mollusk shell.

SYMMETRIES OF OUR SURROUNDINGS

Throughout our daily language we refer to symmetry as a sense of balance and proportion
that is harmonious and beautiful. As what was said earlier, when an object stays unchanged, it is
said to have symmetry after transformations such as rotations and scaling are introduced in it.
Nature is packed with patterns with particular symmetries with various kinds.

1. Reflection Symmetry
Often known as mirror symmetry or line symmetry. Reflection symmetry is made
by a line going through an object splitting it into two parts that are one mirror images of
the other. This is also called bilateral symmetry, since it splits the object into two ("bi"
means two) mirror images.

2. Rotational Symmetry
Also known as radial symmetry in Biology, objects show this kind of symmetry
when their identical parts are consistently arranged around a central axis, and the pattern
looks the same after a certain amount of rotation. Objects and species that exhibit radial
symmetry bear a similarity to a pie that contains similar parts after many lines or planes
have been removed.There are no left or right side to some of these objects or organism.
However, some sources say that rotational and radial symmetries differ from
each other because they do not need to shift (rotate) radial symmetries to demonstrate
their symmetry.

3. Translational Symmetry
This type of symmetry is demonstrated by objects that do not change their size
and shape even though they move to another place. Remember that reflection or rotation
is not involved in the movement.

SHAPES IN NATURE
The world is packed with varying forms or shapes. Everywhere you look, there are
shapes surrounding us all that you see (and can't see), every person and every non-living matter.
The Universe without shape is very difficult to picture, wouldn't you agree?
Let's look at the shapes of objects that we see in Nature.
1. Crystals
Crystals are solid materials with a structure that is enclosed and arranged in
surfaces with symmetrical planes, intersecting at definite angles. The crystals can be seen
in snowflakes, rocks, diamonds, table salts and other minerals.

2. Rock Formation

3
 Many of the stones and rocks that we normally see every day are irregular and of
various shapes. However, in other parts of the world, there are several rock / rock forms
where Nature proves to be a master sculptor.

3. Animal Kingdom
Between the millions of organisms that we have in the world are numerous types,
the majority of which are unusual. Looking closely though, we can observe patterns of
normal shapes that seem to be mysterious and awesome.
THE FIBONACCI NUMBERS
Supposed that you have a pair of rabbits (male and female). How many rabbits can be
produced from that pair in if it is supposed that every month each pair begets a new pair from
which the second month on becomes productive? (Note: Given no rabbits die in the entire time).
This problem may seem uninteresting question for some of you or other may think that it
has nothing to do with your life. But this problem brings as one of the most fascinating discovery
in mathematics for all of man’s history- the Fibonacci Sequence.
The Fibonacci sequence is a very interesting math idea. It will be easy for you to
understand its principle because of its occurrence in the appearance in nature, animals and
cosmos.
The Fibonacci numbers were first discovered by an Italian mathematician named
Leonardo Pisano. He is famously known by his nickname, Fibonacci. The Fibonacci sequence is
a series of numbers in which each term is the sum of the two numbers preceding it. It is defined
by the recursive relation defined by the equations
Fn= Fn-1 + Fn-2
Where: Fn is the Fibonacci number
Fn-1 is the number between Fn; and
Fn-2 is the number before Fn-1
For all n ≥ 3 where F 1 = 1; F2 = 1 where Fn represents the nth Fibonacci number (n is
called an index).The Fibonacci sequence can elaborately write as
{1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233…….}.
Let’s go back to the introductory problem about the rabbit that used by Fibonacci as the
foundation of this sequence. Fibonacci placed one rabbit male and one female into a field.
Fibonacci supposed the rabbits lived forever, and a new pair of one male and one female was
created each month. Fibonacci questioned how many will shape a year from now. After the
Fibonacci series the reproduction of rabbits was calculated perfectly 144pairs of rabbits.
Take a look at this picture representing the Fibonacci Sequence in rabbits.

4
 Source:indianexpress.com

Following the setup there will be 144 pairs of rabbits after a year. In nature, Fibonacci can be
found not only in the famous experiment with rabbits but also in beautiful flowers. Most of us
probably never took the time to look very carefully at the number or arrangement of petals on a
flora. If we were to do so, we will find that the number of petals on a flower that still has all its
petals intact and hasn't lost any, is a Fibonacci number for several flowers.
(Video for Enrichment: Fibonacci in Nature, theJourneyofPurpose TJOP (2013) URL:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nt2OlMAJj6o)

THE GOLDEN RATIO

Golden ratio is among the best known and most popular numbers that are studied in
mathematics.The ancientGreeks gave it mystical properties and called it thedivine proportion, and
over the years, the number hastaken many different names: the golden number, thegolden section,
and in modern times the golden ratio, which is the name we use until now.
From the Fibonacci Numbers, we will try something very intriguing relationship with it
and Golden ration. First, you need to pick one Fibonacci number from the series and get its ratio
to the number that comes before the number you chose in the series. Let say you chose the first
number 1 in the series; you’ll get the following:

FIBONACCI NUMBERS OPERATION RATIO

1 1/0 UNDEFINED
1 1/1 1
2 2/1 2
3 3/2 1.5
5 5/3 1.67
8 8/5 1.6
13 13/8 1.625
21 21/13 1.615
34 34/21 1.619
89 89/34 2.618
144 144/89 1.618
233 233/144 1.618

5
 The peculiar thing about the ratio of the Fibonacci numbers is that the ratios began to
reach 1.618 and then repeated again and again.In addition, even if we seek to get the number ratio
after 233, we will still arrive at the answer with many decimal places which can be rounded to the
fixed limit value of approximately 1.618034.

An unevenly divided rectangle resulting in one square and one rectangle, the sides of the
square would have a ratio of 1:1, and the new rectangle would be exactly identical to the original
rectangle - 1:1.618.

Source: fractalenlightenment.com
Such iteration will proceed indefinitely, in both directions. The golden spiral is created
when you map a quarter circle within each of the squares as they reiterate. The golden spiral may
be the simplest mathematical pattern that exists in nature, such as snail shells, sea shells, horns,
flowers, plants. Statistics are just what we use to organize the quantitative results.

(Video for Enrichment:What is Golden ratio?, Tipping Point Math (2017)

URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6nSfJEDZ_WM)

6
Synthesizing your Knowledge

Activity 1
Name:____________________________ Date
Accomplished:_________
Section:__________________________
I. Identification. Choose your answer from the box.
Fractals Spirals Translational Symmetry Reflectional Symmetry
Symmetry Golden Ratio Rock Formation Rotational Symmetry
Chaos Leonardo BigolioAnimal Kingdom Fibonacci Numbers

______________ 1. This kind of symmetry is exhibited by objects which do

not change its size and shape if it moved to another location.
______________ 2. This is a simple pattern created from a complicated
underlying behavior and used to described a kind of order which lacks
predictability.
______________ 3. This kind of symmetry is exhibited by objects when
their similar parts are regularly arranged around a central axis and the
pattern looks the same after a certain amount of rotation.
______________ 4. An object said to have this type of pattern when it
remains unchanged after transformations such as rotations and scaling are
applied to it.
______________ 5. These are curved patterns made by a series of circular
shapes revolving around a central point.
______________ 6. These are never-ending patterns that are self-similar
across different scales.
______________ 7. It is made with line going through an object which
divides it into two pieces which are mirror images of each other.
______________ 8. It is the ratio of two quantities when the ration of their
sums to the larger quantity is equal to the ratio of the larger quantity to the
smaller quantity and equal to the irrational number 1.618034.
______________ 9. It is a numerical series found by adding two numbers
preceding it.
______________ 10. What animal used by Bigolio as the foundation of his
theory?

7
 II. True or False.
_____________1. Mathematics helps to disorganize patterns and regularities
in the world.
_____________ 2. Mathematics is just for the books, confined in the
classroom.
_____________ 3. Mathematics helps control nature and occurrences in the
world for our own ends.
_____________ 4. Mathematics has numerous applications in the world
making it indispensable.
_____________ 5. Mathematics helps predict the behavior of nature and
phenomena in the world.

8
 Activity 2
Name:____________________________ Date
Accomplished:_________
Section:________________________

Direction: Answer the following questions

a. Using a graphing paper, you will create a spiral by creating squares
whose side measurements are always the new measurement of the
next square. Follow the following steps:
i. Draw a square that measures one square unit.
ii. Draw a second square of one square unit to the left of the
square.
iii. Draw a 2x2 square above the squares just drawn; making sure
that one side of your square is the length of the two squares just
drawn.
iv. Draw a 3x3 to the right of the other three squares.
v. Continues the previous steps until you have filled the graph
paper with similar squares.

b. Create a spiral by drawing an arc starting from the inside of the initial
square and make it pass from the corner to the next so that it is
continuously passing each new square from corner to corner.
c. List down the measurement of side of each square. What do you
notice?
________________________________________________________
_____
________________________________________________________
_____

d. To find the remaining numbers for the sequence, what pattern have
you used?
________________________________________________________
_____
________________________________________________________
_____

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 Activity 3
Name:____________________________ Date
Accomplished:_________
Section:________________________

Direction: Fill the missing values of the given pattern.

A.
1. 89, 144, ____, 377,_____, 987,…

2. ____, 89, 144, ____, 377, 610,…

3. 2, 3, 5, ____, 12, ____, …

4. 15, 24, ____, 63, ____, 165, …

5. 1864, ______, 4880, _____, 127776, 20672,…

6. 18, ___, 48, ___, 126, 204, 330,…

7. 105, 170, ____, 275, ___, 720, 1165,…

8. 8, ____, 21, ____, 34, 55, …

9. _____, ______, 15, 24, 39, 63,…

10. 189, _____, 495, ____, 1296, 2067,…

B. From the given sequence of numbers, find its next term.

1. 2, 3, 8, 11, _____
2. 3, 9, 27, 81, ____
3 8 18
3. 0 , 2 , 3 , 4 , _____

4. 2, 5, 10, 17, ____

1 2 3 4
5. 2 , 5 , 10 , 17 , ____

10
Additional reading and video materials
Online video links:
https://study.com/academy/lesson/patterns-in-nature-definition-
examples.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nt2OlMAJj6o
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6nSfJEDZ_WM
Online reading links:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330740074_The_Fibonacci_Numb
ers_and_Its_Amazing_Applications

11
UNIT II
2: MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
Mathematics all over the world is the same despite the difference in language we used.
Mathematics will remain the same, therefore it can act as our universal language. Mathematical
phrase or formula has the same meaning, regardless of the language used to explained it.
Mathematics makes people understand and connect in this way even though there are other
communication barriers.
We have numerous mathematical language and symbols that will help us to learn and
understand mathematics. In this lesson, you will have comprehensive mathematical language
learning lessons, to develop your ability to read, write, speak and understand mathematics
correctly.Before that, after our discussion, let 's find out what you should achieve.
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics;
2. explain the nature of mathematics as a language;
3. perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly; and
4. acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language.

Activating Your Prior Knowledge

I. Direction: Identify the proper mathematical operation symbol for each word
expression.

A B
________1. the total of a. -
________ 2. diminished by b. ÷
________ 3. The product of c. >
________ 4. The quotient of d. ×
________ 5. more than e. +
f. =
II. Answer the following based from the given conditions.

1. Give several synonyms for the English word ‘pretty’.

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

2. The number ‘seven’ has lots of different names. Give names satisfying the following
properties. There may be more than one correct answer.
a) the ‘standard’ name ___________________
b) a name using a plus sign, + _________________
c) a name using a minus sign, − __________________

12
 d) a name using a division sign, ÷ ___________________

Expanding Your knowledge

CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
Mathematics language is the structure which mathematicians use to communicate
mathematical ideas.According to book of Carol Burns Fisher “One Mathematical Cat, Please!”
we have three characteristics of Mathematical Language, these are:

 Precise –being able to make very fine distinctions;

 Concise – being able to say things briefly; and
 Powerful – being able to express complex thoughts with relative ease.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE vs MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
Every language has its own vocabulary (words), and its rules for combining such terms
into full thoughts (sentences). Mathematics isn’t exceptions. Before we fully understand the
language of mathematics, we should have a better understanding on the distinction between
mathematics noun (it used to name mathematical objects of interest) and mathematics sentence (it
states full mathematical thought.)
Take a look at the table 1.1, it compares the English and Mathematics language.
Table 1.1 . English Language vs. Mathematics Language

ENGLISH MATHEMATICS
Object of interest Noun Expression
Complete thought Sentence Sentence
Symbols English alphabet and Numerals, English alphabet,
Punctuation marks. Greek symbols/letters,
grouping symbols, special
symbol.

Action Verb Operations (add, subtract,

etc.) and other actions
(rationalize, simplify, etc.)

Sentence attribute Fact or fiction True or False

What is in the phrase? Verbs Inequality, equality, and sets
membership.
Based from the table, we can see that every expression would be considered the
mathematical equivalent of a “noun”. Therefore, an expression is a name given to an object of
interest in mathematics. While we need to think about people, places, and stuff in English, we're
going to see that mathematics has a lot of different “object of interest”.
We would also call a sentence the mathematical equivalent of an “English sentence”. A
mathematical sentence must state a complete thought just as an English sentence does. The table
below summarizes the comparison.

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 ENGLISH MATHEMATICS

EXPRESSION
NOUN
Namegiven to an object of Example:
Example:
interest:
1
Jasmine, Manila, shoes 5, 2+3,
2
SENTENCE SENTENCE
Example: Example
a complete thought:
 The capital of Philippines 7+4 = 11
isManila.
 Jasmine is the president in their 5+4 = 9
classroom.

The next table will show you the different mathematical operation symbols and their
word expression.

OPERATION SYMBOL KEY WORD

 plus
 more than
 the sum of
Addition +
 the total of
 increased by
 added to
 minus
 less than
 the difference of
Subtraction -
 less
 decreased by
 subtracted from
 times
 multiplied by
Multiplication × or ( )  the product of
 twice or double, thrice or triple
 of
 divided by
 the quotient of
Division ÷ or /
 the ratio of
 per
 equals
 is
 is the same as
Equation =
 equivalent to
 as similar to
 exactly as

WRITING EXPRESSION AND EQUATION

An expression is a number, a variable, a combination of numbers and variables and the
symbols of operation and an equation consists of two terms/expression, which are connected by
an equal sign.
Example:
Write an algebraic equation for each sentence or expression.

14
Let x be the number

Phrase/Sentence Algebraic Equation

7 plus a number 7+x

Add 7 and a number 7+x

The sum of 7 and a number 7+x

7 increased by a number 7+x

7 more than a number x+ 7

7 is more than a number 7 >x

We cannot avoid different problems or issues when we are converting English phrases
into mathematical statement. From the book “Deal with the World Today Through Mathematics”
by Marion Faye Q. Ariola, Xyrus Ulysses M. Villanueva, et. al., the following are the common
issues in converting English Phrases into Mathematical Statement.

Issue Incorrect Process Correct Process

Using the wrong key word for One half of twenty. 1 20
the problem 1 20 or
20 ÷ 2 2
2 The clue words are “half” and
“of”. Half indicates dividing
1
by 2, not by . Also “of”
2
1
indicates multiply by , not
2
1
divide by
2
Incorrect order with Eight less than thrice a 3x -8
subtraction number
8-3x
Not validating by translating Thrice the sum of six and 3 (6+9)
from symbol back to words nine
3·6+9
Use of punctuation Four times a number, plus 4x + 5
five
4(x+5)
Redundancy 7(3)=21 Thrice of seven is 21
Thrice the product of 7 and Seven multiply by three is 21
three is twenty-one. Seven times three is equal to
21
Multiple operations Six plus four divided by two The sum of six and four all
is equivalent to 5 over is five.
The ratio of six and four, and
two is equal to five.
Missing the significance of George worked 4 hours on Weekdays is equal to 5
word or phrase weekdays and 8 hours on days(4 · 5) , while weekends
weekends. How much does are just 2 days (8 · 2).
he get in a week if he makes 180 pesos · number of hours
180 pesos per hour? in a week
4 · 180 + 8 · 180
180 [(4·5) + (8·2)]

15
Synthesizing your Knowledge

Activity 4
Name:____________________________ Date
Accomplished:_________
Section:__________________________

A. Identify whether the following is an English noun or mathematical

expression; English sentence or mathematical sentence.

________________1. Rabbit
________________2. 11
________________3. The word “care” begins with the letter “k”.
________________4. 10 + 9 = 16
________________5. 19 – 9
________________6. 19 – 9 = 11
________________7. The baby is boy.
________________8. x
________________9. x – 1 = 0
________________10. t+3

B. Identify if the English sentence or mathematical sentence is TRUE or

FALSE, or SOMETIMES TRUE or SOMETIMES FALSE
________________1. The word “care” begins with the letter “k”.
________________2. 10 + 9 = 16
________________3. x−1 = 0
________________4. The baby is boy.
________________5. t +3 = 3+ t
________________6. This sentence is false.
________________7. x +0 = x
________________8. 1 ∙ x = x
________________9. x = 1
________________10. 1+2 = 4

16
 Activity 5
Name:____________________________ Date
Accomplished:_________
Section:__________________________

Direction: Translate each phrase into mathematical expression

Phrases Mathematical expression

1. 9 subtract y

2. the product of 19 and f

3. 39 decreased by a number p

4. 11 added to the product of 7 and

5. the quotient of h and 6

6. 10 less than 8 times q

7. four less than thrice a number g

8. nine times the sum of p and 5

9. double the difference of k and 8

10.the quotient of 5 and a number w

less 6

17
 Activity 6
Name:____________________________ Date
Accomplished:_________
Section:__________________________

Direction: Translate each word phrases into mathematical sentences.

Phrases Mathematical sentence

1. six less than x is less than five less

x.

2. 2 times the sum of 16 and j is 24

3. Eight less than thrice the sum of

four and y is the same as 24.

4. Twelve more than x is more than

twice the difference of x and 4.

5. The quotient of f and 3 is seven less

than theproduct of 13 and s.

6. the sum of q and 8 equivalents to

19

7. n cubed is 8

8. 10 less than 17 as similar to 29

9. twice q is 4

18
 10.u decreased by 17 is equal to 12

Activity 7
Name:____________________________ Date
Accomplished:_________
Section:__________________________

Direction: Translate the given mathematical sentences/expression into word

phrases.
1. a 
_________________________________________________________________
_

2. 5n
________________________________________________________
_

3. 9 −3
________________________________________________________
_

x
4. 2
________________________________________________________
_

5. n + 10 = 2x
________________________________________________________
_

6. 3(n+8) = 18
________________________________________________________
_

19
 7. 16 = n2
________________________________________________________
_

8. 2x + 10 = 3x
________________________________________________________
_

9. 19 (x+11)
________________________________________________________
_

10. 2 (s · 8 ) = 105
________________________________________________________
_

Additional reading and video materials

Online reading:links
http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/pdf_files/LANG1.pdf
https://www.palmbeachstate.edu/prepmathlw/Documents/translatingkeywords.pdf
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/prealgebra/chapter/identifying-expressions-and-equations/
http://anibmlaya.blogspot.com/

Online video links:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PPZAVEznmpA

20
UNIT III

Problem Solving and Reasoning

“A great solves a great problem but there is a grain of discovery in the solution of any problem.
Your problem may be modest, but if it challenges your curiosity and brings into play your
inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own means, you may experience the tension and
enjoy the triumph of discovery.”
- George Polya

Different professions deal with different problems. Most professionals are required to
have good problem-solving skills. In the previous chapters, you built a clear understanding of
mathematics as a language and improved your skills in translating mathematical sentences to
symbols. This skill is so important for you to become a better problem solver.

Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter, you are expected to

1. Discuss ways to solve a problem;

2. Solve problems using inductive and deductive reasoning; and
3. Solve problems using Polya’s strategy.

I. INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING

Discussion

1. Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that comes up to a conclusion by examining specific examples is
called inductive reasoning. A conclusion that is made by applying inductive reasoning is called a
conjecture. Conjectures may or may not be correct.

Inductive reasoning may be used in many life situations. For illustration, we show an
example of applying inductive reasoning to predict a number in a list.

Example 1:

21
 Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the lists.
1, 3, 6, 8, 11, ?
Solution:

The first two numbers differ by 2, the second and the third by 3, the third and fourth by 2
again. It appears that when two numbers differ by 2, the next difference would be 3, followed
again by 2, then by 3. Since the difference between 8 and 11 is 3, we predict the number next to
11 to be a number 2 more than 11, which is 13.

We used inductive reasoning when we predicted the number next to 11. We must take
note that though it can be helpful to use inductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion, extra care
must be observed when performing procedure. Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may not
be correct. The following example illustrates this instance.

Example 2:

Consider a circle and dots on the circle. What we do is connect each dot to all other dots
so that we draw all possible line segments. After this, we count the number of regions formed
inside the circle. The first five results are given in the figure.

Figure 1. Maximum number of regions formed by connecting dots on a

circle. Results may be summarized in the following table.

Number of dots 1 2 3 4 5 6
Maximum number of regions 1 2 4 8 16 ?

Using the information in the table, we see that as the number of dots increase, the number
of regions inside the circle is doubled. Thus, we expect that for 6 dots, there will be
regions. However, if we perform the procedure, we find out the only 31 regions are formed as
shown in the succeeding figure.

22
Figure 2. Maximum number of regions formed by connecting 6 dots on a circle

In itself, inductive reasoning is not a valid method of proof. Just because you observe
that a pattern exists in a number of situations, it does not mean that the pattern is true for all
situations. However, it is valuable because it allows us to form ideas on what we observed which
leads us to come up with a hypothesis.

A statement is true if it is true for all cases. If you can find one case where the statement
is not true then it is considered a false statement. The instance for which the statement becomes
false is called a counter-example. One can verify that a statement is false by using a counter-
example. This is illustrated in the next example.

Example 3:

If n is an integer, then the absolute value of is greater than 0.

Solution:

Since 0 is an integer, we let . Now, . We have found a counter-

example. Thus, the statement “If is an integer, then the absolute value of is greater than 0.” Is
a false statement.

2. Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning, unlike inductive reasoning, is a valid form used in proving
observations and arriving at conclusions. It is a process by which one makes conclusions based
on previously accepted general assumptions, procedures, and principles.

To illustrate how deductive reasoning works, we make use of logic puzzles which are
best solved by deductive reasoning using a chart to display the given information.

23
Example 4:

Solve this puzzle using deductive reasoning. John, Jenny, Shiela, and Jason were recently
elected as new class officers (president, vice president, secretary, treasurer) in a National High
School. From the following clues, determine which position each holds.

1. Jason is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
2. John and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the youngest members of the
group.
3. Shiela and the secretary are next-door neighbors.

Solution:

From clue 1, Jason is neither the president nor the treasurer. We put a mark “X” on
positions Jason do not hold.

President VP Secretary Treasurer

John
Jenny
Shiela
Jason X X

From clue 2, John is not the secretary. And since he is one of the youngest in the group,
he cannot be the president. From here, we also conclude that Jason is not the secretary since he is
older than the treasurer. Thus, Jason must be the treasurer and John must be the vice president.

President VP Secretary Treasurer

John X P X X
Jenny X X
Shiela X X
Jason X X X P

From clue 3, Sheila is not the secretary which leads us to conclude that Jenny is the secretary.
Since there are no other options, we conclude that Shiela is the president.

President VP Secretary Treasurer

John X P X X
Jenny X X P X
Shiela P X X X
Jason X X X P
∴Shiela is the president, John is vice president, Jenny is the secretary, and Jason is the treasurer.

Deductive reasoning uses the Law of Syllogism to prove logical arguments.

Example 5:

PremiseThere are 23 books on the top of the bookshelf and 16 on the lower shelf.
There are no other books on the bookshelf.
Conclusion Therefore, there are 39 books in the bookshelf.

24
25
 Graded Exercises

Name:_______________________________________________________
Section:______________________________________________________
Date Accomplished: ____________________________________________
Time Started: _________________ Time Finished: __________________

Activity No _____

A. Work on the following situations using inductive reasoning. What is the

next term in the list:

1. 5, 14, 27, 65 _______

2. 2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207 _______
3. A, D, C, H, E, L, G _______
4. 11, 121, 12321, 1234321 _______

B. Use the Diagram to determine whether the statement is true or false. If

false, find a counter-example.

5. If an animal is a beagle, then it is a dog.

6. If it is an animal, then it is a dog.

7. All animals are beagles.

8. All beagles are animals.

C. Verify that each statement below is false by finding a counter-example.

9. If X is a real number, then its square is greater than itself.

10. If X is a real number, then the square root of its square is equal to
itself.

11. No one passed on yesterday’s test. Robert is absent yesterday.

Robert will get the test today and pass.

26
Online Video Links

https://youtu.be/oBnKgxcdSyM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yAjkQ1YqLEE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WAdpPABoTzE

https://youtu.be/GEId0GonOZM

Online Worksheets
http://www.westerville.k12.oh.us/userfiles/4984/Classes/47031/
reteaching.pdf?id=464421
http://www1.lpssonline.com/uploads/
13cDeductiveReasoningPracticeExercise.pdf
http://www.baschools.org/vimages/shared/vnews/stories/5226788fe3aae/
2%204%20Worksheet.doc
https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/9780199846313/student/
chapter1/quizzes/post-quiz/1e/

27
2. Problem Solving Strategy

One highly acceptable problem-solving strategy is designed by George Polya (1887-

1985). The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated consisted of four steps.

Polya’s Four-Step Problem Solving Strategy

1. Understand the problem.

2. Devise a plan.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Review the solution.

Understand the Problem. You must have a clear understanding of the problem. Ready answers to
questions like “Can you restate the problem in your own words?”, “Can you determine what is
known about these types of problems?”, “Is there missing information that, if known, would
allow you to solve the problem?”, and “ What is the goal of the problem?” indicate that you have
a clear understanding of the problem.

Devise a Plan. Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they attempt to solve
a problem. Some of these procedures include making a list of the known information, making a
list of information that is needed, sketching a diagram, making an organized list that shows all
possibilities, making a table or a chart, working backwards, trying to solve a similar but simpler
problem, looking for a pattern, writing an equation, performing an experiment, guessing at a
solution and then check your result,

Carry Out the Plan. Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out. However, you need to
work carefully and keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts. You must also realize
that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may have to devise another plan or
modify your existing plan.

Review the Solution. Once you have found a solution, check the solution. You must ensure that
the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem. You must interpret the solution in the
context of the problem and ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that
could apply to other problems.

Example 6:

Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.

A basketball team won two out of their last four games. In how many different orders could they
have two wins and two losses in four games?

Solution:

Understand the Problem. There are many different orders. The team may have lost the first game and won
two straight games and lost the last one (LWWL). Or maybe they lost the first two games and won the last
two (LLWW). There are other possibilities.

Devise a Plan. This problem may be solved using an organized list. An organized list is a list that is
produced using a system that ensures that each of the different orders will be listed once and only once.

Carry Out the Plan. Each entry in our list must contain two Ws and two Ls. We start by writing
two Ws and two Ls and play along with the order using a system to ensure no duplication is done.
This strategy produces the six different orders shown below.

1. WWLL
2. WLWL
3. WLLW
4. LWWL
5. LWLW
6. LLWW

28
Review the Solution. We have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and the list
considers all possibilities, so we are confident that there are six different orders in which a
basketball team can win exactly two out of four games.

Example 7:Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.

Determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point in the decimal
4
representation .
27

Solution:

4
Understand the Problem. Express the fraction as a decimal and look for a pattern that will
27
enable us to determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point.

Devise a Plan. This problem may be soled using a table indicating a pattern. Dividing 4 by 27
produces the decimal 0.148148148… . Since the decimal representation repeats the digits 148
over and over, we know that the digit located 100 places to the right of the decimal point is either
a 1, a 4, or an 8. A table may help us see a pattern and enable us to determine which one of these
digits is in the 100th place. Since the decimal digits repeat every three digits, we use a table with
three columns.

Location Digit Location Digit Location Digit

1st 1 2nd 4 3rd 8
4th 1 5th 4 6th 8
7th 1 8th 4 9th 8
10th 1 11th 4 12th 8
13th 1 14th 4 15th 8

Carry Out the Plan. Only in column 3 is each of the decimal digit locations evenly divisible by
3. From this pattern we can tell that the 99th decimal digit must be 8. Since a 1 always follows an
8 in the pattern, the 100th decimal digit must be a 1.

Review the Solution. The above table illustrates additional patterns. For instance, if each of the
location numbers in column 1 is divided by 3, a remainder 1 is produced. If each of the location
numbers in column 2 is divided by 3, a remainder of 2 is produced. Thus, we can find the
decimal digit in any location by dividing the location number by 3 and examining the remainder.
4
For instance, to find the digit in the 3200 th decimal place of merely divide 3200 by 3 and
27
examine the remainder, which is 2. Thus, the digit 3200 places to the right of the decimal point is
a 4.

Example 8: Apply Polya’s strategy on the following problem.

In a basketball league consisting of 10 teams, each team plays each of the other teams
exactly 3 times. How many league games will be played?

Solution:

Understand the Problem. There are 10 teams in the league, and each team plays exactly three
games against each of the other teams. The problem is to determine the total number of league
games that will be played.

Devise a Plan. This problem is best solved using a diagram of a similar and simpler problem and
a list. Consider a league with only four teams (denoted by A, B, C, and D) in which each team
plays each of the other teams only once. The diagram below shows the games can be represented
by line segments that connect the points A, B, C, and D.

29
 Figure 3. A diagram of the games played by 4 teams

Since each of the four teams will play a game against each of the other three, we might
conclude that this would result in games. However, the diagram shows only six line
segments. It appears that our procedure has counted each game twice. For instance, when team
A plays team B, team B also plays team A. To produce the correct result, we must divide our
4x3
previous result 12, by 2. Hence four teams can play each other once in =6 games.
2

Carry Out the Plan. Using the process developed above, we see that 10 teams can play each
10 x 9
other once in a total of 45 games. Since each team plays each opponent exactly three
2
times, the total number of games is45 x 3=135 .

Review the Solution. We could check our work by making a diagram that includes all 10 teams
represented by dots labeled A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and J. Because this diagram would be
somewhat complicated, let us try the method of making an organized list. The figure below
shows an organized list in which the notation BC represents a game between team B and team C.

A A A A A A A A A
B C D E F G H I J
B B B BF B B BI B
C D E G H J
C C C C C CI CJ
D E F G H
D D D D DI DJ
E F G H
EF E E EI EJ
G H
F F FJ FI
G H
G GI
GJ
H
HI HJ
IJ
The notation CB is not shown because it also represents a game between team B and
team C. This list shows that 45 games are required for each team to play each of the other 9
teams once. Also, notice that the first row has nine items, the second row has eight items, the
third row has seven items, and so on. Thus 10 teams require
games if each plays every other team once, and
games if each team plays exactly three games against each opponent.

Example 9: Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.

Katrina sells eggs by piece. On the first day, she sold a half more than half the number of
eggs for sale. On the second day, she sold a half more than half the remaining number of eggs on
the first day. On the third day, she again sold a half more than half the remaining number of eggs

30
from the second day. Only a dozen eggs were left for the fourth day. How many eggs did she
have originally?

Solution:

Understand the Problem. We need to determine the number of eggs before Katrina started selling
them.

Devise a Plan. We could guess and check, but we might need to make several guesses before we
found the correct solution. An algebraic solution might work, but setting up the necessary
equation could be a challenge. Since we know the end result, let us try the method of working
backwards.

Carry Out the Plan. Since only 12 eggs were left, this is equivalent to a half less than half the
number before she started selling eggs on the third day. It follows that half the number is 12.5
which means that there were 25 eggs left on the second day. There were eggs just
before she started selling eggs on the second day, and so before she started selling eggs on the
first day, there were originally eggs.

Review the Solution. To check our solution, we start with 103 eggs and proceed through each day
of sale.
Day 1:
Day 2:
Day 4:

Example 10: Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.

The product of ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of the teens are of the
same age. What are the ages of the teenagers?

Solution:

Understand the Problem. We need to determine three distinct counting numbers, from the list 13,
14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19, that have a product of 4590.

Devise a Plan. This problem is best solved by guessing at an answer based on given facts. If we
represent the ages by x, y, and z, then xyz = 4590. We are unable to solve this equation, but we
notice that 4590 ends in zero. Hence, 4590 has a factor of 2 and a factor of 5, which means at
least one of the numbers we seek is an even number and at least one number must have 5 as a
factor. The only number in our list that has 5 as a factor is 15. Thus 15 is one of the three
numbers and at least one of the two numbers is even. At this point we try to solve by guessing
and checking.

Carry Out the Plan.

The ages of the teenagers are 15, 17, and 18.

Review the Solution. Because and each of the ages represents the age of a
teenager, we know our solution is correct. None of the numbers 13, 14, 16, and 19 is a factor of
4590, so there are no other solutions.

Example 11: Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.

A paper fan and a visor together cost ₱100.00. The visor costs ₱ 90.00 more than the
paper fan. What are the individual costs of the visor and the fan?

31
Understand the problem After reading the problem for the first time, you may think that the visor
costs ₱90.00 pesos and the paper fan costs ₱10.00. The sum of these costs is also ₱100.00, but
the cost of the visor is only ₱80.00 more than the cost of the fan. We need to find two amounts
that differ by ₱90.00 and whose sum is ₱100.00.

Devise a Plan. The use of equations is one way to solve this problem. Write an equation using
for the cost of the paper fan and for the cost of the visor.

Carry Out the Plan.

The cost of the paper fan is ₱5.00 and the cost of the visor is ₱ 5.00 + ₱ 90.00= ₱ 95.00.

Review the Solution. The sum of the costs is ₱5.00 + ₱95.00=₱100.00, and the cost of the visor is
₱90.00 more than the cost of the paper fan.

Graded Exercises

Name:_______________________________________________________
Section:______________________________________________________
Date Accomplished: ____________________________________________
Time Started: _________________ Time Finished: __________________

Activity No _____

Use Polya’s four-step problem solving strategy to solve the following

problems.

1. A true or false quiz contains 10 questions. In how many ways can

a student answer the questions if the student answers two of the
questions with false and the rest with true?

2. If six people greet each other at a meeting by shaking hands with

one another, how many handshakes will there be?

32
3. Determine the units digit of 4320.

4. Gardo picks a number. He doubles the number, squares the result,

divides the square by 3, subtracts 30 from the quotient, and gets
18. What are the possible numbers that Gardo could have picked?
What operation does Gardo perform which prevents us from
knowing the exact number he picked?

5. The bacteria in a petri dish grow in a manner such that each day
the number of bacteria doubles. On what day will the number of
bacteria be half of the number present on the 12th day?

6. Assume that the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following
figure continues.

a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth
figure of the sequence?

b. How many tiles are in the tenth figure of the sequence?

c. Which figure will consist of exactly 419 tiles?

33
7. How many squares are there in the following figure?

8. The number of ducks and pigs in a field total 35. The total number
of legs among them is 98. Assuming each duck has exactly two
legs and each pig has exactly four legs, determine how many ducks
and how many pigs are in the field?

9. A room measures 12 feet by 15 feet. How many 3-foot by 3-foot

squares of carpet are needed to cover the floor of this room?

10.Following the pattern shown in the number sequence below, what

is the missing number?

1 8 27 ? 125 216

34
11. Suppose Gerry has 4 pair of shoes and twelve pair of socks. How
many different pairs of footwear can Gerry make?

12. In a group of 65 people, 15 are neither drinks milk nor a child. 35 drinks milk
and 23 are children. How many children are in the group don’t drink milk?

35
Online Video Links
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zhL3EMFSm6o
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aCtQTLNRi2Q
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HTp55ozYdQA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tk0Q37GDmJ8

Online Worksheets
http://web.mnstate.edu/peil/M110/Worksheet/PolyaProblemSolve.pdf
http://treardon.people.ysu.edu/PSS%20Student%20problems%202001.pdf
https://www.citruscollege.edu/academics/courses/everest/Documents/Math
%20Documents/Math%20160%20Math%20For%20Everyday%20Living
%20Docs/Chapter%202%20(Problem%20Solving)%20Documents/
Math160-ProblemSolving-WS.pdf
https://www.citruscollege.edu/academics/courses/everest/Documents/Math
%20Documents/Math%20160%20Math%20For%20Everyday%20Living
%20Docs/Chapter%202%20(Problem%20Solving)%20Documents/
ProblemSolving-Gauss-Patterns-FUN.pdf

36
UNIT IV

Data Management

“Torture the data, and it will confess to anything.”

- Ronald Coase
-
STATISTICS has a great influence in almost all fields of human endeavor. It may have
different meanings. But what matters is that, to know how tounderstand statistics so that we can
make the proper judgments when a person or a company presents uswith an argument backed by
data. There is a need for statistical data in every walk of life. The word“statistics” has been
derived from Latin word “status” or the Italian word “statista”, which “Political State” or a
Government.

Statistics plays a vital role in the intricacies of life. It aids in decision-making,

summarizes or describes data, helps to forecast or predict future outcomes, aids in making
inferences, and helps in comparisons or establishing relationships. In education, statistics give
information about a school’s population change. In business and economics/government,
statistics helps control and maintenance of quality products and helps a financial analyst make
investment decisions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, students are expected to:

1. organize and present data in forms that are both meaningful and useful decision-makers;
2. use a variety of statistical tools to process and manage numerical data;
3. use the method of linear regression and correlations to predict the value of a variable given
certain conditions; and
4. advocate the use of statisticaldata in making important decisions

37
II. DIVISION OF STATISTICS

Discussion

Descriptive statistics is a statistical procedure concerned with describing the characteristicsand

properties of a group of persons, places, or things that was based on easily verifiable facts. It
organizes the presentation, description, and interpretation of data gathered. It includes the study
of relationships among variables.

Inferential statistics is a statistical procedure used to draw inferences for the population-based on
information obtained from the sample using the techniques of descriptive statistics.

Table 4.1. Descriptive vs Inferential Statistics

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

Describes what is or what the data shows Draws conclusions that extend beyond the
immediate data alone
Provides summaries about the sample and the Infers from the sample data what the
measures population might think
Describes the data in hand Infers the nature of a larger (typically
infinite) set of data
Simply describes what’s going on with the Makes inferences from the data to more
data general conditions
Uses sampling techniques Uses sampling distributions and hypothesis
testing
Summary measures of data Simple time series analysis, correlation, and
regression
Normal distributions Test on proportion and chi-square test
Example: Example:
Descriptive statistics answers questions like: Inferential statistics answers questions like:

“How many students are interested to take “Is there a significant difference in the
statistics online?” academic performance of male and female
students in statistics?”

A basketball player wants to find his average A politician wants to estimate his chance of
shots for the past 10 games. winning in the upcoming senatorial election.

DATA COLLECTION AND PRESENTATION OF STATISTICAL DATA

Types of Data

1. Raw data – data in their original form and structure

2. Grouped data – place in a tabular form characterized by class intervals with thecorresponding
frequency
3. Primary data – measured and gathered by the researcher who published it
Secondary data – republishedby another researcher or agency

Table 4.2. Data-Gathering Techniques

Methods Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages

Direct or Person to person exchange of data Clarification can Costly and time-
interview from interviewer to interviewee. easily be done consuming
method

38
Indirect or Responses are written and given Saves time and Problem of
questionnaire more time to answer. money. retrieval
method Questionnaires are given to the A large number of
respondents either by personal samples can be
delivery or by mail. reached.
Registration The respondents provide Most reliable since Data are limited to
method information in compliance with it is enforced by what is listed in the
certain laws, policies, rules, law. documents.
regulations, decrees, or standard
practices.
Experimental The researcher wants to control Can go beyond Lots of threats to
Method the factors affecting the variable plain description internal or external
being studied to find out cause validity.
and effect relationships.
Observation Utilized to gather data regarding Data can be easily Information may
method attitudes, behavior, or values and gathered with the be subjected to
cultural pattern of the samples available time of subjective
under investigation. the researcher judgments.
since it can be
done anytime.

IMPORTANT POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN COLLECTING

DATA

1. If measurements of some characteristics from people (such as height) are being obtained,
better results will be achieved if the researcher does the measuring instead of asking the
respondent for the value.
2. The method of data collection used may expedite or delay the process. Avoid a medium that
would produce low response rates.
3. Ensure that the sample size is large enough for the required purposes.
4. Ensure that the method used to collect data results in a sample that isrepresentative of the
population.

DATA PRESENTATION
The collected data can be presented in three different ways which include textual, tabular,
and graphical presentations.

1. TEXTUAL PRESENTATIONS
Data presented in paragraphs or sentences are said to be in textual form. This includes an
enumeration of important characteristics, emphasizing the most significant features, and
highlighting the most striking attributes of the set of data.
EXAMPLE 4.1
Example 4.1

Nominally, the peso improved by 1.4 percent as of April 14, 2003, compared to its level
in 2002, followed by the Thai baht which gained 0.86 percent; Indonesian rupiah, 0.68 percent;
and Taiwan dollar, 0.2 percent.
Other currencies, on the other hand, depreciated during the same period. The Singapore dollar fell
2.33 percent. The South Korean won slid 2.14 percent while the Japanese yen dropped 0.61
percent.
(Philippine Daily Inquirer, April 17, 2003. pg. B2)

39
 2. TABULAR PRESENTATION
The tabular method makes use of rows and columns. The data are presented in a
systematic and orderly manner, which catches one’s attention and may facilitate the
comprehension and analysis of the data presented. The frequency distribution table (FDT) is a
statistical table showing the frequency or number of observations contained in each of the defined
classes or categories.

PARTS OF STATISTICAL TABLE

1. Table Heading – includes the table number and the title of the table.
2. Body – the main part of the table that contains the information or figures.
3. Stubs or classes – classification or categories describing the data and usually found at the
leftmost side of the table.
4. Box head – located at the top of the body which includes the stub head, the master caption, and
the column caption.

EXAMPLE 4.2
Frequency Distribution of Student’s Perception
Table Heading on New Curriculum
PERCEPTION OF
FREQUENCY Boxhead
LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR
Strongly Favorable 10
Favorable 11
Slightly Favorable 12
Table Heading Slightly unfavorable 14
Unfavorable 22
Strongly Unfavorable 31
Total 100 Boxhead

3. GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA

The numerical data provided in a frequency distribution table or contingency table can be
made interesting and easier to understand when depicted in graphical form. A graph is a pictorial
representation of a given data. Graphs should be having good appearance, should be accurate,
clear, and simple.

COMMON TYPES OF GRAPH

1. Scatter graph –a graph used to present measurements or values that are thought to
berelated.

The Language landscape of the Philippines in 4 maps

2. Bar graph - A bar graph is a way of

summarizing a set of categorical data. It
displays the data using a number of
rectangles, of the same width, each of
which represents a particular category.

40
Bar graphs can be displayed
horizontally or vertically and they are
usually drawn with a gap between the
bars (rectangles).

3. Histogram - A histogram is a way of

summarizing data that are measured on
an interval scale (either discrete or
continuous). It is often used in
exploratory data analysis to illustrate
the features of the distribution of the
data in a convenient form.

4. Pie chart - A pie chart is used to

display a set of categorical data. It is a
circle, which is divided into segments.
Each segment represents a particular
category. The area of each segment is
proportional to the number of cases in
that category.

5. Line graph - A line graph is

particularly useful when we want to
show the trend of a variable over time.
Time is displayed on the horizontal axis
(x-axis) and the variable is displayed on
the vertical axis (y-axis).

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Age-Case_graph_of_A
%28H1N1%29_virus_patients_in_the_Philippines_%288_June_2009%29.png

41
 Graded Exercises

Name:_______________________________________________________
Section:______________________________________________________
Date Accomplished: ____________________________________________
Time Started: _________________ Time Finished: __________________

ACTIVITY 4.1

A. Read the research article, then classify whether each statement is

Descriptive or Inferential. Write DSif it is descriptive statistics and IS
if inferential statistics in the space provided for each number. The
number refers to the previous statement.

Philippine Economic Update: Investing in the Future

In 2017, the Philippines was among the top three growth performers
in the region III. (1). _________________The Philippine economy grew
from 6.9 percent year-on-year in 2016 to 6.7 percent year-on-year in 2017.
(2)___________________

Sustained economic growth is likely to continue to contribute to

poverty reduction.(3)___________________. Under the assumption that
the responsiveness of the poverty rate to economic growth is projected
to decline from 27.0 percent in 2015 to 22.9 percent and 21.7 percent in
2018 and 2019, respectively. (4)___________________. These projections
would imply a continuing trend of one million Filipinos being lifted out of
poverty each year. (5)___________________.

In 2020, growth is expected to level at 6.6 percent.

(6)___________________The economy is currently growing at its potential,
making a productive investment in physical and human capital essential so
that the economy can continue to grow along its current growth trajectory.
(7)___________________.

In recent years, the Philippine economy has made great strides in

delivering inclusive growth, evidenced by the declining poverty rates and a
falling Gini coefficient. (8)___________________ Unemployment has
reached historic low rates, but underemployment remains high, near its 18-
20 percent decade-long average. (9)___________________. Employment
increased between 2006 and 2015, mean wages remained stagnant, with only
a four percent increase in real terms over the same period.
(10)___________________

Source:http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/philippines/publication/
philippines-economic-update- investing-in-the-future

42
 Graded Exercises

Name:_______________________________________________________
Section:______________________________________________________
Date Accomplished: ____________________________________________
Time Started: _________________ Time Finished: __________________

ACTIVITY 4.2

A. Identify the best data collection method to use in each

describedobjectives. Write your answer in the space provided after each
item.

_________________ 1. To differentiate the actuations and actions of

_ elementary pupils from high school students.

_________________ 2. To identify the effects of trainings and physical

_ workshops in the Body Mass Index (BMI) of
dancers.

_________________ 3. To determine the proportion of dismissed

_ students from the total number of enrolled
students.

_________________ 4. To identify the students’ preferred type of

_ examination.

_________________ 5. To know the teachers’ opinion on the K to 12

_ program of the Basic Education Curriculum.

B. Identify in each situation the possible errors or difficulties that may be

encountered during data collection.

1. You are asked to conduct a study on the increase on the number of

enrolees foreducation courses in Nueva Ecija University of Science
and Technology from 2008- 2017. What will you do in order to
systematically obtain the data of enrolment?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

2. Your superior in a managerial business required you to conduct a

survey on the quality of the services your company offered to your
customers. The entry of the customers to your establishment is very
unpredictable and your superior gives you a definite deadline for
your report. To come up with the necessary results, what method of

43
data collection will you utilize?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

44
 Graded Exercises

Name:_______________________________________________________
Section:______________________________________________________
Date Accomplished: ____________________________________________
Time Started: _________________ Time Finished: __________________

ACTIVITY 4.3

A. Present the given data as indicated.

The enrolment data for Education courses, A.Y. 2006 - 2010 are the
following:

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

BSE: 450 315 493 482 555
BEED: 120 136 209 198 201
BSIE: 57 62 45 48 38

Present the data using textual form.

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

B. Interpreting Data. Use the graph as a reference to answer the questions

below.

Favorite Superheroes
IronMan; The Hulk; 6%
14%

Superman; 15% Spider Man; 27%

Batman; 15%

Thor; 23%

45
1. Which hero was the most popular?
_____________________________________________________________
2. Which hero was the least popular?
_____________________________________________________________
3. What percent of people said Thor was their favorite?
_____________________________________________________________
4. What percent of people said either Superman or Spiderman was their
favorite?
_____________________________________________________________
5. Which heroes were the favorite of about half of the people?
_____________________________________________________________

C. A survey was conducted to determine the leisure activities on persons

aged 16-35 years old. The following data was collected.

Q1.How many
Q2. Indicate Q3. What attribute do you
times in a month do
Respondent your most consider most in your
you go out for
leisure hub? choiceof leisure hub?
leisure?
1 4 Aura Accessibility
2 5 Bar 88 Affordability
3 8 Bar 88 Parking space
4 6 Aura Accessibility
5 7 X Planet Crowd
6 16 X Planet Affordability
7 12 Bar 88 Affordability
8 11 X Planet Crowd
9 13 Aura Accessibility
10 13 X Planet Affordability
11 6 MixFud Crowd
12 4 X Planet Parking space
13 8 MixFud Accessibility
14 14 MixFud Affordability
15 14 Aura Parking space
16 8 Bar 88 Accessibility
17 13 Aura Parking space
18 9 MixFud Affordability
19 6 MixFud Accessibility
20 12 X Planet Parking space
21 16 Aura Crowd
22 10 Aura Accessibility
23 8 Bar 88 Affordability

Make simple FDT, then graph and interpret the result.

Q1: Scattered graph, Q2: Bar graph, Q3: Pie graph

46
 Frequency Distribution Table
Q1 Q2 Q3

Q1 graph Interpretation

Q2 graph Interpretation

47
Q3 graph Interpretation

48
Online Video Links
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_GcEJD3LWaA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WoTdiUqEsXQ
https://www.showme.com/sh/?h=W6CI5Uu
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IV-3Roy_-2g

Online Worksheets
https://www.biglearners.com/worksheets/grade-4/math/data-graphs-
probability/collecting-organizing-data
http://teachers.wrdsb.ca/ckomorowski/files/2016/05/Worksheet-
Collecting-Data-ANSWERS.pdf
https://www.edhelper.com/5th_grade/math_worksheets/
Collecting_and_Organizing_Data.htm
http://mrkellysplace.weebly.com/collecting-organizing-and-displaying-
data.html

49
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Discussion

Any single value that is used to identify the “center” of the data or the typical value. Is
referred to the average. The measure of central tendency is the numerical descriptive measures
that indicate or locate the center of a distribution of a set of data.

THE ARITHMETIC MEAN

Mean is most commonly known as “average”.The population mean is denoted by the

Greekletter μ (mu) and the sample mean is represented by x (x bar).

To determine the ungroup mean, the formula is the summation of x i, going from 1to n

or
∑ xi
i=1
x=
n
Where n is the number of observations in the sample.

EXAMPLE 4.3

The numbers of students at six different classrooms are 25, 27, 29, 24, 35, and 28. Find
the mean number of students for the classrooms.
n 6

∑ xi ∑ xi 25+ 27+29+24 +35+28 168

i=1 i=1
x= = = = =28
n 6 6 6

∴The average score of the six students is 28.

PROPERTIES OF MEAN

• The sum of the deviations of all measurements in a set from the mean is 0.
• It can be calculated for any set of numerical data, so it always exists.
• A set of numerical data has one and only one mean .
• It lends itself to higher statistical treatment.
• It is the most reliable since it takes into account every item in the set of data.
• It is greatly affected by extreme or deviant values.
• It is used only if the data are interval or ratio and when normally distributed.

MEDIAN

The middle position of arranged values from lowest to highest. The Median precedes the
half value of an array and half follows it. It is denoted by M d.
❑
( n+1 )
If the number of observed values (N) is odd, the median position is equal to ,
2
( n+1 )th
and the value of the observation in the array is taken as the median.
2

50
 If the N is even, the mean of the two middle values in the array is the median.

M d=
n
x +x
2
n
2()
+1

2
EXAMPLE 4.4
EXAMPLE 4.4

Find the median of the given data set: 23, 43, 32, 12, and 54.

Step 1: X1 X2 X3 X4 X5
12 23 32 43 54
❑
( n+1 )
Since the number of observed data is odd, use the formula
2

Step 2: N=5
❑ ❑
( n+ 1 ) ( 5+1 ) 6 rd
M d= = = =3
2 2 2

∴The median is in the 3rdposition on the array which is 32.

EXAMPLE 4.5
Find the median of the given data set: 23, 43, 32, 12, 32, 54, 12, and 32.

Step 1: X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8
12 12 23 32 32 32 43 54

The number of data observed is 8, which is even,

M d=
n
x +x
2
n
2
+1 ()
2
will be used.

Step 2: N=8

th th
4 +5 32+32 64
M d= = = =32
2 2 2

∴The median is 32.

PROPERTIES OF MEDIAN

It is the score or class in a distribution below which 50% of the score falls and above
which another 50% lies.

• It is not affected by extreme or deviant values.

• It is appropriate to use when there are extreme or deviant values.
• It is used when the data are ordinal.
• It exists in both quantitative and qualitative data.

MODE

Mode is the most frequently observed value that occurs. Some data sets do not have a
mode because each value occurs only once. On the other hand, some data sets can have more than
one mode. This happens when the data set has two or more values of equal frequency which is
greater than that of any other value.

EXAMPLE 4.6

51
Identify the mode(s) of the following data sets.
Data set A: 6 8 5 4 9 5 3

Mode is unimodal and it is 5 because it has the most number of occurrence.

Data set B: 6 5 4 9 5 3 5 6 3 8 6

Mode is bimodal wherein 5 and 6 which occur both three times in the data set.
Data set C: Bus Train Car Bus Car Car Plane
Car Train Bus Plane Train Car Bus

Data set is unimodal which the car has the highest occurrence.

WEIGHTED MEAN

The weighted averageis a mean calculated by giving values in a data set more
influence according to some attribute of the data. It is an average in which each quantity to be
averaged is assigned a weight, and these weightings determine the relative importance of each
quantity on the average. To find the weighted mean, find the sum of the products formed by
multiplying each number by its assigned weight

Σ nⅈ=1 wi xi
or weighted mean =
Σ nⅈ=1 w i

where w = weight of each value; and x = individual value

EXAMPLE 4.7

Ely wants to determine if he passed the subject. Given the following data, did Ely pass
the subject?

Grading System Weighted Percentage Ely’s Score

Quizzes 25% 74
Recitation 15% 90
Assignment 10% 85
Seatwork 20% 65
Term Examination 30% 73
TOTAL 100%

Ely’s Grade:
= (74 × 25%) + (90 × 15%) + (85 × 10%) + (65 × 20%) + (73 × 30%)
100%

18.5 + 13.5 + 8.5 + 13 + 21.5

= 100%

= 75.4%

∴Ely passed the subject with a grade of 75.4.

52
 Graded Exercises

Name:_______________________________________________________
Section:______________________________________________________
Date Accomplished: ____________________________________________
Time Started: _________________ Time Finished: __________________

ACTIVITY 4.4

A. For 1-3: Find the mean, median, and mode(s).

1. 4, 3, 12, 5, 13, 3
Mean: Median: Mode:

2. -3, 0, 5, -2, 5, -3, 0

Mean: Median: Mode:

3. 120, 123, 123,120, 112, 134, 128, 126, 162

Mean: Median: Mode:

B. For 4-7: Consider the table below, show or explain how you got your

Allie, Bran, Cathy, and Darlene went bowling. Their scores for four are
shown in the table below.

Scores
Name Game 1 Game 2 Game 3 Game 4
Allie 140 160 140 170
Bran 160 140 140 160
Cathy 170 115 165 130
Darlene 125 130 160 120

4. Who had the greatest median score for the four games?
_____________________________________________________________

5. What is the mean score of all the games?

_____________________________________________________________

6. Who had the greatest median score for the four games?
_____________________________________________________________

7. After Darlene bowled two more games, her mean score for six games was
140. Whatcould her scores for each of those two games have been?
_____________________________________________________________

8. A MMDA Constable is trying to work out the mean number of parking

tickets he hasissued per day. He produced the table below, but has
accidentally rubbed out some of the numbers.
53
Fill the missing numbers and calculate the mean.

Tickets per day Frequency No. of Tickets –Frequency

0 1 ?
1 ? 1
2 10 ?
3 7 ?
4 ? 20
5 2 ?
6 ? ?
Totals 26 72

9. The mean height of a class of 28 students is 162 cm. A new student of

height 149 cm joins the class. What is the mean height of the class now?
_____________________________________________________________

10. Five numbers have a mean of 12. When one number is removed, the
mean is 11.What is the value of the number removed?
_____________________________________________________________

11. The circle graph shows the ages of 200 students in a college psychology
class. Findthe mean, median, and mode of the students’ ages.

College Students Ages

20 yrs; 14%

19 yrs; 30%

21 yrs; 20%

37 yrs; 1%

18 yrs; 35%
_____________________________________________________________

12. Use the following clues to find the age of each member of a family of
five. The median is 12. The mean is 21. The mode is 41. The age of one of
the family members is the median divided by 3.
_____________________________________________________________

13. Assume you are in a class where quizzes are 30% of your grade,
homework is 10%, the exam 1 is 15%, exam 2 is 15%, and the final is 30%.
32
Suppose it’s week 5 and you just found out that you scored a 63 in the first

54
 7
∧9
exam., You also know that you received 6 , 10 on the first three quizzes as
9 9
3
∧4.5
well as in the first exam 6 , 10 on the first three homework assignments.
11 7
What is your current grade in the course?
_____________________________________________________________
14. Juan and Alex are competing in a food competition. Their dish is graded
in the following categories each worth 18 points: taste, presentation, and
addressing the challenge. Taste is worth 60% of their final score;
presentation is 25%, and addressing the challenge is 15%. Whoever has the
largest final score wins ₱50,000.

a. What is the largest score possible?

_____________________________________________________________

b. Suppose Mary received 15 points for taste, 9 points for presentation, and
14 points for addressing the challenge. Further suppose John received 18
points for taste, 7 points for presentation, and 13 points for addressing the
challenge. Who won?
_____________________________________________________________

55
Online Video Links
https://stattrek.com/videos/ap/lessons/statistics/mean-median/video.mp4
https://youtu.be/h8EYEJ32oQ8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kn83BA7cRNM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NM_iOLUwZFA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=81zcjULlh58

Online Worksheets
http://www.cimt.org.uk/cmmss/S1/Text.pdf
https://www.lcps.org/cms/lib4/VA01000195/Centricity/Domain/
10878/9.4%20Notes%20and%20Practice%20MMMR%20and
%20MCT.pdf
https://www.riosalado.edu/web/oer/wrkdev100-20011_inter_0000_v1/
m5/pdf/m5_l1_mean_median_mode_practice_probs.pdf
https://www.jensenmath.ca/3.2%20worksheet-1.pdf?
__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=b5e427445de0d86cb2efa3f4caf54cba1794009
c-1597023337-0-
AT_x23AsT1OwOFYScq6TekmhSOsVE2SLNi4qQp6BJOhMrsF
X7L2XMVNnGhYDHnY2LMxHyx0Fb7fAX_K1wKfxMi-
VQzr3oJzR2S2CVwQXBiwZ7lEuOJ0diTVyrJ8S9TmjWZfiOAHm
INPtWrDgSOAUTlD72C4CGl5JmAnW33Qvj7EWq0M5ho0JbXu
PfN1H9ZayEbWTt6tMw5cXnpbRtogaIVFB-
9DTlGC5glhvGD7iRR86uFbfSpjBfLTI6udI9EYaHahwigpBsuHS
NcrMxetIKWNeqA73ckyle11Qpl0uPiR9
.

56
MEASURES OF DISPERSION

Discussion

Measures of dispersion indicate the extent to which individual items in a series are
scattered about an average. It is used to determine the extent of the scatter so that steps may be
taken to control the existing variation. It is also used as a measure of reliability of the average
value.

These are also the measures of the average distance of each observation from the center
of the distribution. It also indicates the homogeneity or heterogeneity of a particular group.

A small measure of variability would indicate that the data are stipend;

1. clustered closely around the mean… or… far away from the mean
2. more homogeneous … or… heterogeneous
3. less variable … or … more variable
4. more consistent … or … less consistent
5. more uniformly distributed … or … less uniformly distributed

MEASURES OF ABSOLUTE DISPERSION

The measures of absolute dispersion are expressed in the units of the original
observations. They cannot be used to compare variations of two data sets when the average of
these data set differs a lot in value or when the observations differ in the unit of measurement.

The range is the most unstable and unreliable measure of dispersion because it can easily
be affected by extreme values. It can be determined by finding the difference between the largest
and smallest values.
Range (R) = maximum value – minimum value

EXAMPLE 4.8
The IQ scores of 5 members of Andres’s family are 112,114,109,120 and 116. Find the
range.

Solution:

Arrange the scores from lowest to highest, then subtract the lowest score to the highest
score.

R = 120 – 109 = 11

∴The range of the IQ score is 11.

Variancedescribes how the data is spread out. It is the average of the squared differences
from the mean. A value of zero means that there is no variability. All the numbers in the data set
are the same.

The population varianceis denoted by σ 2and can be calculated using the formula:
N

∑ ( xi −μ )2
2 i=1
σ =
N
where x = individual value; μ = mean of population; and N = population size

Standard deviationcan be obtained by taking the square root of the variance.

Standard deviation is the most reliable measure of dispersion.

57
 ❑
The population standard deviationis denoted byσ and can be calculated using
theformula:

√
N

∑ ( x i−μ )2
σ 2= i=1
N
The population varianceσ 2, can be estimated by the sample variance, s 2where

√ √
N N

∑ ( x i−x ) ∑ x i2−( Σ Nⅈ=1 x i )

2 2

s2= i=1
= i=1
n−1 n(n−1)

and the population standard deviation σ , can be estimated by the sample standard deviation s,
where

√
N
n ∑ x i −( Σ ⅈ=1 x i )
2 N 2

i=1
s=
n(n−1)
EXAMPLE 4.9

A sample of five households showed the following number of household members:

3,8,5,4, and 4. Find the standard deviation.

Solution:
5

∑ x i2= 3 2
+ 82 + 52 + 42 + 42 = 130
i=1

2
( Σ 5ⅈ=1 x i ) = (3 + 8 + 5 + 4 + 4)2 = 576

√
N
2
n ∑ x i2−( Σ Nⅈ=1 x i )
s= i=1
n(n−1)
=
√ 5 ( 130 )−576
5( 4)
=
74
20 √
=1.924

∴The standard deviation is 1.924. This means that the average distance of data is 1.924apart.

MEASURES OF RELATIVE DISPERSION

Measures of relative dispersion are unitless and are used when one wishes to compare the
scatterings of one distribution with another distribution.

The coefficient of variation (CV) is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean and is
usually expressed in percentage. It is computed as:

σ2
CV = × 100 %
μ
EXAMPLE 4.10

A company analyst studied recent measurements made with two different instruments.
The first measure obtained a mean of 4.96 mm with a standard deviation of 0.022 mm. The
second measure obtained a mean of 6.48 mm with a standard deviation of 0.032 mm. Which of
the two instruments was relatively more precise?

Solution:

0.022
Instrument #1: CV = × 100% = 0.44%
4.96

58
 0.032
Instrument #2: CV = × 100% = 0.49%
6.48
∴Instrument # 1 was relatively more precise than instrument #2.

STANDARD SCORE

The standard score measures how many standard deviations an observation is above the
mean. Observed values above the mean have positive z-scores while values below the mean have
negative z-score. The standard score can be computed as:

Population Standard Score Sample Standard Score

x−μ x−x 2
z= ; z= ;
σ s
Where where
x = observe value x = observe value
μ = population mean x = sample mean
σ = population standard deviation s = sample standard deviation

The standard score is useful for comparing two values from different series
especiallywhen these two series differ concerning the mean or standard deviation or both are
expressed in different units.

EXAMPLE 4.11

Joel got a grade of 78 in English and a grade of 93 in History. The mean grade in English
is 68 and the standard deviation is 8, whereas in History, the mean grade is 80 and the standard
deviation is 15. In which subject did Joel perform better?

Solution:

93−80 78−68
Zhistory = = 0.87; Zenglish= = 1.25
15 8

∴The z-score of English is higher than the z-score in history which means that Joel performed
better in English.

EXAMPLE 4.12

A university had a policy that the student whose grade drops beyond two standard
deviations below the mean will fail. If the mean grade of students who took Elementary Statistics
is 76.8 and the standard deviation is equal to 5.65, does Warren fail if he gets a grade of 66?

Solution:
93−80
Z= = -1.91
15

∴Since the z-score in not beyond 2 standard deviations below the mean, Warren will not fail the
course.

MEASURES OF RELATIVE POSITION OR FRACTILES

Fractileis the division of an array into equivalent subgroups. It identifies the position of a
value in an array. An array divided into hundred equal parts is percentile. In quartile, an array is
divided into four equal parts and decile divides an array into 10 equal parts.
General formula to is:

59
 [ ]
th
ⅈ ( n+1 )
F

where i = term of interest; n = number of observed values; and F = Fractile (percentile = 100;
decile = 10; quartile = 4)

Percentiles(Pk).Values in an array are subdivided into 100 equal parts. For instance,P 1is
read as the first percentile which means that the value is greater than 1% of the observed values in
the array. P2 read as the second percentile, value is greater than 2% of the observed values in the
array, and so on.

EXAMPLE 4.13

The following were the scores of 12 students in a 20-item quiz, find the 80 thpercentile.

4 3 6 12 11 6 18 5 6 6 17 13

Solution:

Step 1: Arrange the data from lowest to highest.

3 4 5 6 6 6 6 11 12 13 17 18

Step 2: Identify the values on the formula: i = 80; n = 12; and F = 100 (percentile)

[ ] [ ]
th th
ⅈ ( n+1 ) 80 ( 12+1 )
P80 = = =¿ 10.4th or the 11th position
F 100

∴The 80thpercentile is 17, which means that 80% of the scores are below 17.

Deciles(Dk).An array is subdivided into 10 equal parts. For instance, D 1is read as the first
decile which means that the value is greater than 10% of the observed values in the array. D 2,
read as the second decile, is greater than 20% of the observed values in the array, and so on.

EXAMPLE 4.14

The following were the scores of 12 students in the 20-item quiz, find the 6 thdecile.

4 3 6 12 11 6 18 5 6 6 17 13

Solution:

Step 1: Arrange the data from lowest to highest.

3 4 5 6 6 6 6 11 12 13 17 18
Step 2: Identify the values on the formula: I = 6; n = 12 and F = 10 (decile)

[ ] [ ] [ ]
th th th
ⅈ ( n+1 ) 6 ( 12+1 ) 78
D6 = = = = 7.8th or the 8th position
F 10 10

∴The 6thdecile is 11, which means that 60%of the scores are below 11.

Quartiles(Qk)Quartile subdivided an arrayinto four equal parts. For instance, Q is read as

the first quartile which means that the value is greater than 25% of the observed values in the
array, Q2, read as the second quartile, value is greater than 50% of the observed values in the
array, and so on.

EXAMPLE 4.15

60
 The following were the scores of 12 students in a 20-item quiz, find the 1 stquartile.

4 3 6 12 11 6 18 5 6 6 17 13

Solution:

Step 1: Arrange the data from lowest to highest.

3 4 5 6 6 6 6 11 12 13 17 18

Step 2: Identify the values on the formula: i = 6; n = 12 and F = 4 (quartile)

[ ] [ ] [ ]
th th th
ⅈ ( n+1 ) 1 ( 12+1 ) 13
Q1 = = = = 3.25th or the 4th position
F 4 4

∴The 1st quartile is 6, which means that 25% of the scores are below 6.

SHAPE OF A DISTRIBUTION
Normal Distribution.It is a distribution with a bell-shaped appearance. In a normal
distribution, the mean = median = mode.

No. of Correct f
Normal Distribution Answer
1 1
6
2 2
5 3 4
4
4 5
5 4
3 6 2
2 7 1
N 19
1

0
1 Skewness(SK).
2 It3 refers
to4the degree
5 of symmetry
6 or 7asymmetry of a distribution, about
the center, while Kurtosis (Ku) refers to the peakedness or flatness of a distribution.

A normal distribution has a coefficient of skewness (SK) of zero or about zero. As the
skewness (SK) departs

1. A negative valueindicates a skewed to the left or negatively skewed distribution.

No. of Correct f
Skewed to the Left Distribution Answer
1 0
8
2 0
7
3 1
6
4 2
5 5 5
4 6 7
3 7 4
2 N 19
1
A 0distribution is skewed to the left if the bulk of the distribution is on the right. This is otherwise
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
known as a negatively skewed distribution.

2. A positive value indicates a skewed to the right or positively skewed distribution.

Skewed to the Right Distribution

61
8
7
6
 4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
No. of Correct f
Answer
1 4
2 7
3 5
4 2
5 1
6 0
7 0
N 19

A skewed to the right distribution is one whose bulk of the distribution is on the left. This is
otherwise known as a positively skewed distribution.

Kurtosis(KU):It refers to the peakedness or flatness of a distribution.

Mesokurtic is a normal distributionwherein kurtosis

is zero.

Leptokurtic is more peakedor taller than the

normaldistribution wherein kurtosis is greater than
zero.

Platykurtic is flatter or shorter than

thenormaldistribution wherein kurtosis isless than
zero.

NORMAL PROBABILITY MEASURES

Standard Deviations

28.26
95.44
The normal probability distribution is a continuous probability distribution that is both
99.74
symmetrical and mesokurtic. The curve representing the normal probability distribution is often
described as being “bell-shaped”. This is the Normal Curve.

PROPERTIES OF NORMAL CURVE

1. The mean = median = mode.

2. It is symmetrical about the mean, so the half the normal curve has an area of 0.5 or 50%.
3. The tails or ends are asymptotic relative to the horizontal axis.
4. The total area under the normal curve is 1.0 or 100%.
5. The normal curve area may be subdivided into standard deviations, at least 3 to the leftand 3
to the right.
6. Using the empirical rule, 68% of the data lie within 1 sd. of the mean; 95% of the data

62
 liewithin 2 sd. of the mean, and 99.7% of the data lie within 3 sd. of the mean;

AREAS UNDER THE NORMAL CURVE

The total area under the normal curve logically represents the sum of all probabilities for
a random variable. Hence, the area under the normal curve is one. Also, the standard normal
curve represents a normal curve with mean 0 and standard deviation. The area under the normal
curve may represent several things like the probability of an event, the percentile rank of the
score, or the percentage distribution of the whole population.

The first step in finding areas under the normal curve is to convert the normal curve of
any given variable into a standardized normal curve. The formula to be used is as follows:

x−x
z=
s

where x observe value; x = sample mean, and s = sample standard deviation

EXAMPLE 4.16

Jose’s grade in Math is 80. His grade in English is 78. The section where he belongs got a
mean grade of 86 in Math and 75 in English. The standard deviation for both subjects is 5. In
which subject does he perform better?

Solution:

x−x
Using the formula: z=
s

80−86 78−75
Zmath¿ =−1.2; zenglish¿ = 0.6
5 5

∴Jose’s grade in Math has a negative z-score of -1.2 which means that he got a grade lower than
the average grade of the class. While his grade in English has a positive z-score which means that
he got a grade higher than the average grade of the class. Therefore, Jose performed better in
Engish.

EXAMPLE 4.17

Consider the mean and standard deviation in the previous example. If Janette, Jose’s
classmates, has a z-score of 1.75 in English, what is her grade in English?

Solution:

x −86
Zmath¿ =1.75
5

x – 86 = 1.75 (5)

x =94.75

∴Janette’s grade in English is 94.75.

Some considerations and reminders when solving statistical problems using the areas
under the normal curve table. The total area under the normal curve is 1 or 100%. Since the
normal curve is symmetrical about the mean, the half of the normal curve has an area of 0.5 or
50%. The table you will use gives only the area to the right of the mean. The given area in the

63
table is the area from z = 0 to ± z area is always positive but z can be positive or negative.

Note: Finding the areas under the normal curve is the same as finding the probability.

Table 4.3. Areas under Normal Curve

z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0753
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224
0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549
0.7 0.2580 0.2611 0.2642 0.2673 0.2703 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2995 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767
2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857
2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916
2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952
2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964
2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.4980 0.4981
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986
3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990
3.1 0.4990 0.4991 0.4991 0.4991 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4993 0.4993
3.2 0.4993 0.4993 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995
3.3 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4997
3.4 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4998
3.5 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998
3.6 0.4998 0.4998 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999
3.7 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999
3.8 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999
3.9 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000
z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

64
EXAMPLE 4.18

Find the area from z = 0 to z = 1.2

Solution:

Step 1: Shade the required region.

Step 2: Find the area using the table.
z = 0 has area 0.0000
and z = 1.2 has area 0.3849
area = 0.0000 + 0.3849 = 0.3849

EXAMPLE 4.19

Find the area P(-1.30= z = 2.0)

Solution:

Step 1: Shade the required region.

Step 2: Find the area using the table.
z = -1.3 has area 0.4032
and z = 2 has area 4772
area = 0.4032 + 0.4772 = 0.8804

EXAMPLE 4.20

The average grade in the college entrance exam is 88 with a standard

deviation of 9. There are 2,500 examinees for the year 2018. Determine the
number of students

(a) whose average is equal to or between 81 and 86.

(b) whose average is 90 and above.

Solution :

(a) First, change the grades into z-scores

81.88−88 86−88
z=
9
= - 0.78 ; z= 9
= - 0.22 ;

Area of -0.78 = 0.2823 Area of – 0.22 = 0.0871

Note:If the z-score has the same side reference to the mean, the operation to
beused is subtraction.

Area = 0.2823 – 0.0871 = 0.1952; then multiply the area to the number of
examinees.
2,500 × 0.1952 = 488.

65
∴This means that out of 2,500 examinees, 19.52% or 488 examinees got a
a score between 81-86.

(b) Change the grade intoz-scores

90−88
z= = 0.22
9

Area of 0.22= 0.0871

Note:The area on the table uses only the area to the right of the mean. Halfof
the normal curve has an area of 0.5 since the area we got to the table.
Subtract the area to 0.5.

Area = 0.5000 – 0.0871 = 0.4129; then multiply the area to the number of
examinees. 2,500 × 0.4129 = 1,032.25 or 1,033.

∴This means that out of 2,500 examinees, 41.29% or 1,033 examinees got a
score 90 and above.

66
 Graded Exercises

Name:_______________________________________________________
Section:______________________________________________________
Date Accomplished: ____________________________________________
Time Started: _________________ Time Finished: __________________

ACTIVITY 4.5
A. Calculate the variance and standarddeviation.

1. The scores of 10 students in a Math test are given below:

10 15 16 18 20 25 30 32 35

2. The daily sale of sugar in a certain grocery shop is given below:

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

75 kg 120 kg 12 kg 50 kg 70.5 kg 140.5 kg

3. A normal distribution of scores has a standard deviation of 10and a

samplemean of 50. Find the probability corresponding to each of the
following values:

a. a score of 67
b. a score that is below 36
c. a score that is greater than 78 d. a score between 52 and 67

4. Three students take equivalent stress tests. Which is the highest relative
score (meaning which has the largest z score value)?

a. A score of 144 on a test with a mean of 128 and a standard deviation of

34. b. A score of 90 on a test with a mean of 86 and a standard deviation of
18. c. A score of 18 on a test with a mean of 15 and a standard deviation of
5.

5. The mean speed of vehicles along a stretch of highway is 100 kph with a
standard deviation of 4 kph. You measure the speed of three cars
traveling along this stretch of highways as 82 mph, 67 mph, and 76 mph.
Find the z-score that corresponds to each speed. Determine which car had
a relatively faster speed.

6. A university had an entrance policy that an applicant who placed at least

2 z-scores above the mean on the entrance exam that has a mean of 80
and a standard deviation of 6. What is the minimum score that an
applicant must obtain to be admitted to the university?

67
7. On a Math test the class mean was 63 and the standard deviation was 7
and for the biology test the mean was 23 and has a standard deviation of 3.9.

(a). Find the z-score for each score. (b). Determine which test the student
had a better score.

a. A student received a 73 on the statistics test and a 26 on the biology

test.

b. A student gets a 60 on the statistical tests and a 20 on the biology

test.

c. A student gets a 78 on the statistics test and a 29 on the biology test.

8. The mean life of a tire is 30 000 km. The standard deviation is 2000 km.

a. About 68% of all tires will have a life between ___ km and ____ km.

b. What percent of the tires will have a life that exceeds 26 000 km?

c. If a company purchased 2000 tires, how many tires would you expect
to last more than 28 000 km?

68
69
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70
CORRELATION AND REGRESSION

Discussion

When comparing two different variables, there are two questions to be considered: “Is
there a relationship between two variables?” and “How strong is that relationship?” These
questions can be answered using regression and correlation. Regressionanswers whetherthere is a
relationship and correlation answers how strong the linear relationship is. A scatter plot is a
graphical representation of the relation between two or more variables. Inthe scatter plot of two
variables x and y, each point on the plot is an x-y pair. An inspection of a scatterplot can give an
impression of whether two variables are related and the direction of their relationship.

Correlation is a statistical measure that indicates the linear relationship or association

between variables, but no causal relationship is implied. Descriptive statistics that expresses the
degree of relation between two variables is called correlation coefficient (ρ).The sample
correlation coefficient is denoted by Correlation also tells the strength and the direction of the
linear relationship. A positive correlation indicates the extent to which those variables increase or
decrease in parallel; a negative correlation indicates the extent to which one variable increases as
the other decreases. The range of values of the correlation coefficient is from -1 to +1. If there is a
perfect positive linear correlation between variables, the value is equal to +1. On the other hand,
a perfect negative linear correlation between variables has a value for r that is equal to 1. No
linear correlation between variables has a value of r equals 0.

Since correlation is an effect sized, we can describe the strength of the correlation using
the guide that Evans (1996) suggested for the absolute value of r:
• .00-.19 very weak or negligible correlation
• .20-.39 weak or low correlation
• .40-.59 moderate correlation
• .60-.79 strong or moderately high correlation
• .80-1.0 very strong or high correlation

For example, a correlation value of 0.51 would be a moderate positive correlation.

SCATTER PLOT OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

Positive Linear Negative LinearNo RelationshipNone or Weak

Weak LinearStrong LinearNonlinearLinear or

or Curvilinear Exponential?

71
 One way to determine the value of the correlation coefficient is by using Pearson
ProductMoment Coefficient or Pearson r, which the formula is:

n ( Σxy )−( ∑ x ) ( ∑ y )
r=
√ [ n ( Σ x ) −( ∑ x ) ][ n ( Σ y )−( ∑ y ) ] ❑
2 2 2 2

Where n = number of data pairs

x = observed data for the independent variable
y = observed data for the dependent variable

Pearson r is used for determining the degree of significance of the correlationcoefficient.

This describes how the two variables are related by chance, and a hypothesis test for r is done to
help decide whether the observed r could have emerged by chance or not. In hypothesis testing,
the sample correlation coefficient is used to estimate the true correlation coefficient r that would
be observed if all population values were obtained. This true correlation coefficient is usually
given the Greek symbol ρ or rho.

The null hypothesisstates that there is no significant correlation between the two
variables X and Y. That is, if ρ is the true correlation coefficient for the two variables X and Y
when all population values are observed, then the null hypothesis is Ho: ρ = 0.

The alternative hypothesis could be any one of three forms, with Ha: ρ ≠0, ρ< 0, or ρ> 0.
This means that there is a significant correlation between the two variables X and Y.

The test statistic for the hypothesis test is the sample or observed correlation coefficient.
The T-test is a test statistic used to assess the relationship on various samples that are drawn
ineach of sample size. The formula of the t-test is:

t=r
√ n−2
1−r 2

Where the degrees of freedom (df) = n – 2.

The null hypothesis is rejected at a specific level if there is a significant

differencebetween the value of r and 0. Otherwise, the null hypothesis is accepted at a specific
level if the value of r has no significant difference from 0.

STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING

1. State the null hypothesis (Ho) and the alternative hypothesis (Ha).
2. Choose the level of significance α.
3. Select the appropriate test statistic and establish a critical region. Formulate decision rule.
4. Collect the data and compute the value of the test statistic from the sample data.
5. Make a decision. Reject Ho if the value of the test statistic is in the critical region,otherwise,
do not reject Ho.

EXAMPLE 4.21

A coach investigated the efficiency of physical training on the weight of his athletes. Pre-
training and post-training weights are listed below, determine if (a) there is a relationship between
the two variables; (b) physical training is effective.

Pre-training weight (X) 67 84 65 69 72 74 66 69 73 80

72
 Post-training weight (Y) 64 80 65 67 70 73 66 67 70 77

Solution(a)Arrange the data in example 4.21 as shown in the table below.

Trainee X Y XY X2 Y2
A 67 64 4288 4489 4096
B 84 80 6720 7056 6400
C 65 65 4225 4225 4225
D 69 67 4623 4761 4489
E 72 70 5040 5184 4900
F 74 73 5402 5476 5329
G 66 66 4356 4356 4356
H 69 67 4623 4761 4489
I 73 70 5110 5329 4900
J 80 77 6160 6400 5929
Total 719 699 50547 52037 49113

Substitute the values to the formula of r.

n ( Σxy )−( ∑ x ) ( ∑ y )
r=
√ [ n ( Σ x ) −( ∑ x ) ][ n ( Σ y )−( ∑ y ) ] ❑
2 2 2 2

10 ( 50,547 ) −( 719 )( 699 )

r=
√ [ 10 ( 52,037 )− (719 ) ][ 10 ( 49,113 ) −( 699 ) ] ❑
2 2

r =0.98392

The correlation coefficient 0.98392 tells that there is a very strong positive correlation
between the pre-training and post-training of the athletes.

(b) Test the Significance of the correlation. Use α = 0.05; n =10; and = 0.98392

1. Ho: ρ = 0
Ha: ρ≠ 0

2. Level of significance: α = 0.05

3. Critical value of t-test – 2 tailed

df = 8; ta/2 = 2.306 (refer to the t distribution table)
Decision Rule: Reject Ho if │tc│> ta/2 ; otherwise, fail to reject Ho.

4. Computation:

t C =r
√ n−2
1−r
2
=0.98392
10−2
√
1−(0.98392)
2
=15.53332

5. Since tcis greater than ta/2, then reject Ho. 15.53332 >2.306 Ho. There is a significant difference
in the pre-training and post-training weights of the athletes. Moreover, it has a very strong
positive correlation. Therefore, the physical training is effective.

CORRELATION AND CAUSATION

When two variables have a large positive or negative correlation with each other, there is often a
tendency to regard the two variables as causally related. The following relationship occur:

1. There is a direct cause and effect relationship between the variables; that is; x caused, y.
2. There is a reverse cause and effect relationship between the variables; that is,y caused, x.

73
 3. The relationship between the variables may be caused by a third variable.
4. There may be complexity of interrelationship among many variables.
5. The relationship may be coincidental.

In a simple relationship (x, y), it is composed of an independent or predictor variable and

dependent response variable. The regression analysisdetermines where there is an independent
variable that is used to predict the dependent variable. It explores relationships that can be readily
described by straight lines or their generalization to many dimensions. When there is a single
continuous dependent variable and a single independent variable, the analysis is called a simple
linear regression analysis and can be expressed in this form:

Y = a + bx

Where Y = predicted value ofthe dependentvariable

a = the y-intercept ; a =
Σy
n
−b ( )
∑x
n
→ y −b x

n ( Σxy )−( Σx ) ( ∑ y )
b = slope of the line; b=
n ( Σ x 2 )− ( Σx )
2

Given data points (xi, yi)a and b shall now be chosen in the way that the corresponding
linear line will have the best fit for the given data. The criteria for best fit used in regression
analysis is the sum of the squared differences between the data points and the line itself, that is
the y deviations; thus, the closer the points to the line, the better the fit and the prediction will be.

The coefficient of determination (r2) is the number that expresses the proportion of the
total variation in the values of the dependent variables. The coefficient of determination can be
obtained by squaring the correlation coefficient r.

Coefficient of Determination (r2) = r2× 100%

EXAMPLE 4.22

From the example 21, Use the equation of regression line to predict the efficiency of the
physical training given that the standard athlete’s weight is 65 and determine how much
variations of athletes’ weight is due to the variations of the physical training.

Trainee X Y XY X2
A 67 64 4288 4489
B 84 80 6720 7056
C 65 65 4225 4225
D 69 67 4623 4761
E 72 70 5040 5184
F 74 73 5402 5476
G 66 66 4356 4356
H 69 67 4623 4761
I 73 70 5110 5329
J 80 77 6160 6400

74
 Total 719 699 50547 52037

Solution:

Slope of the regression line

n ( Σxy )−( Σx ) ( ∑ y ) 10 ( 50.547 )−( 719 ) (699 )

b= = = 0.8475
n ( Σ x ) −( Σx )
2
2
10 ( 52037 )−( 719 )2

y-intercept

a=
Σy
n
−b
∑x
n( ) =
699
10
−(0.8475)
719
10
= 8.965

Regression equation:

Y = a +bx = 8.965 + 0.8475x

Solve for the efficiency of the physical training if the standard athlete’s weight is 65.

Y = 8.965 + 0.8475(65) = 64.0525

Calculating the coefficient of determination.

r2 = (0.98392) 2 × 100% = 96.81%

∴From the physical training given, the athletes can obtain a weight of 64, and 96.81% of
the variation in physical training is accounted for the variations in the weight of the athletes. The
remaining 3.19% is caused by other variables, whi ch is called the coefficient of
alienation.

75
Probability p

Critical Values of t

table shows the upper tail area

entry shows P(t>specified value)

for example, with 10 degrees of freedom,

P(t>1.81246)=.05

Tail Probability p
df 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0.025 0.02 0.01 0.005 0.0025 0.001 0.0005
1 1.000 1.376 1.963 3.078 6.314 12.706 15.895 31.821 63.657 127.321 318.309 636.619
2 0.816 1.061 1.386 1.886 2.920 4.303 4.849 6.965 9.925 14.089 22.327 31.599
3 0.765 0.978 1.250 1.638 2.353 3.182 3.482 4.541 5.841 7.453 10.215 12.924
4 0.741 0.941 1.190 1.533 2.132 2.776 2.999 3.747 4.604 5.598 7.173 8.610
5 0.727 0.920 1.156 1.476 2.015 2.571 2.757 3.365 4.032 4.773 5.893 6.869
6 0.718 0.906 1.134 1.440 1.943 2.447 2.612 3.143 3.707 4.317 5.208 5.959
7 0.711 0.896 1.119 1.415 1.895 2.365 2.517 2.998 3.499 4.029 4.785 5.408
8 0.706 0.889 1.108 1.397 1.860 2.306 2.449 2.896 3.355 3.833 4.501 5.041
9 0.703 0.883 1.100 1.383 1.833 2.262 2.398 2.821 3.250 3.690 4.297 4.781
10 0.700 0.879 1.093 1.372 1.812 2.228 2.359 2.764 3.169 3.581 4.144 4.587
11 0.697 0.876 1.088 1.363 1.796 2.201 2.328 2.718 3.106 3.497 4.025 4.437
12 0.695 0.873 1.083 1.356 1.782 2.179 2.303 2.681 3.055 3.428 3.930 4.318
13 0.694 0.870 1.079 1.350 1.771 2.160 2.282 2.650 3.012 3.372 3.852 4.221
14 0.692 0.868 1.076 1.345 1.761 2.145 2.264 2.624 2.977 3.326 3.787 4.140
15 0.691 0.866 1.074 1.341 1.753 2.131 2.249 2.602 2.947 3.286 3.733 4.073
16 0.690 0.865 1.071 1.337 1.746 2.120 2.235 2.583 2.921 3.252 3.686 4.015
17 0.689 0.863 1.069 1.333 1.740 2.110 2.224 2.567 2.898 3.222 3.646 3.965
18 0.688 0.862 1.067 1.330 1.734 2.101 2.214 2.552 2.878 3.197 3.610 3.922
19 0.688 0.861 1.066 1.328 1.729 2.093 2.205 2.539 2.861 3.174 3.579 3.883
20 0.687 0.860 1.064 1.325 1.725 2.086 2.197 2.528 2.845 3.153 3.552 3.850
21 0.686 0.859 1.063 1.323 1.721 2.080 2.189 2.518 2.831 3.135 3.527 3.819
22 0.686 0.858 1.061 1.321 1.717 2.074 2.183 2.508 2.819 3.119 3.505 3.792
23 0.685 0.858 1.060 1.319 1.714 2.069 2.177 2.500 2.807 3.104 3.485 3.768
24 0.685 0.857 1.059 1.318 1.711 2.064 2.172 2.492 2.797 3.091 3.467 3.745
25 0.684 0.856 1.058 1.316 1.708 2.060 2.167 2.485 2.787 3.078 3.450 3.725
26 0.684 0.856 1.058 1.315 1.706 2.056 2.162 2.479 2.779 3.067 3.435 3.707
27 0.684 0.855 1.057 1.314 1.703 2.052 2.158 2.473 2.771 3.057 3.421 3.690
28 0.683 0.855 1.056 1.313 1.701 2.048 2.154 2.467 2.763 3.047 3.408 3.674
29 0.683 0.854 1.055 1.311 1.699 2.045 2.150 2.462 2.756 3.038 3.396 3.659
30 0.683 0.854 1.055 1.310 1.697 2.042 2.147 2.457 2.750 3.030 3.385 3.646
40 0.681 0.851 1.050 1.303 1.684 2.021 2.123 2.423 2.704 2.971 3.307 3.551
50 0.679 0.849 1.047 1.299 1.676 2.009 2.109 2.403 2.678 2.937 3.261 3.496
60 0.679 0.848 1.045 1.296 1.671 2.000 2.099 2.390 2.660 2.915 3.232 3.460
80 0.678 0.846 1.043 1.292 1.664 1.990 2.088 2.374 2.639 2.887 3.195 3.416
100 0.677 0.845 1.042 1.290 1.660 1.984 2.081 2.364 2.626 2.871 3.174 3.390
1000 0.675 0.842 1.037 1.282 1.646 1.962 2.056 2.330 2.581 2.813 3.098 3.300
10000 0.675 0.842 1.036 1.282 1.645 1.960 2.054 2.327 2.576 2.808 3.091 3.291
100000 0.674 0.842 1.036 1.282 1.645 1.960 2.054 2.326 2.576 2.807 3.090 3.291
50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 95% 96% 98% 99.0% 99.5% 99.8% 99.9%

Confidence level C

76
 Graded Exercises

Name:_______________________________________________________
Section:______________________________________________________
Date Accomplished: ____________________________________________
Time Started: _________________ Time Finished: __________________

ACTIVITY 4.6

A. For each of thefollowing pairs of variables,determine the appropriate

description of the strength of the correlation.

1. The age of a secondhand car and ____________________________

its price.
2. The weight of a new car and its ____________________________
overallmiles-per-gallon rating.
3. The height and the weight of a ____________________________
person.
4. The height of a person and the ____________________________
height of the person’s father.
5. The height and the IQ of a person. ____________________________

B. Solve the linear regression in each number.

1. Albert, Puno Ice Cream manager, notices that sales of ice cream are higher on
hotterdays, he recorded the data in the table.

a. Make a scatter plot of the data.

y

Temperatur No. of Ice

e (oC) cream sold
26 345
27 322
28 357
29 423
30 435

x
b. Find and graph a linear regression equation that models the data.

c. Use the model to predict ice cream sales if the temperature is 32 ℃.

74
d. Describe the form, direction, and strength.

2. Theater ticket sales on a successive night

a. Make a scatter plot of the data.

y
Patrons Revenue
32 480
33 495
40 600
81 1215

b. Derive a linear model for the data, rounding to the thousandth.

c. Use the linear model to predict revenue if 121 patrons attend.

d. What is the value of the correlation coefficient? In general, what do

correlation coefficient values indicate? What does this value tell us about
this data in particular?

C. Correlation and Hypothesis Testing

1. A new dietary supplement claimed it can reduce a person’s weight by 3kgs

on anaverage of four weeks. The weight of eight women who take the dietary
supplement was recorded before and after four weeks.

Woman 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Weight Before 72.2 75.3 80.8 83.5 77.3 79.0 80.1 65.4
Weight After 71.2 70.2 76.6 79.1 78.1 75.7 81.2 64.7

75
Determine if (a) there is a relationship between the two variables; (b) the
dietary supplement is effective.

2. A researcher conducts a study to determine whether a

peer review affect exam performance. A peer review
session is administered to a sample of students (n=9) in
an attempt to determine if this affects the exam
performance. The population mean for a given exam is 24.
The sample mean is 25, with a standard deviation of 4.
Determine if peer reviewing affects exam performance.

Online Video Links

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Online Worksheets
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practice_scatterplot.pdf

76
UNIT V
Linear Inequalities
The solutions of the equationof a line are each point on the graphof the line. For the line y = x – 1,
the point (2,1) is on the line, and the point (2,1)is a solution of the equation. An inequality can have many
more solutions thanthe equation of a line. The inequality y <x + 5 is true whenever y is less thanfive more
than x. When x is 3, y can be any number that is less than 8. Whenx is 4, y can be any number that is less
than 9. To show the solution of aninequality, we graph a line and then shade the side of the line where all
of thesolutions lie.

In order to graph y <x + 5, we must first graph the line y = x + 5. The point(1,6) is on that line, but
is (1,6) a solution of y <x + 5? It is not, because 6 is notless than 1 + 5. The points on the line y = x + 5 are
not part of the solution set ofy <x + 5, so we graph a dashed line instead of a solid line.Because 0 is less
than 5, the point (0,0) is part of the solution set. Shade thearea below the line to show that this is where
the solutions lie.

We can also graph inequalities with one variable. To graph y ≥ –4, we startby graphing the line y = –4.
Every value on the line has a y value of –4, andbecause –4 ≤ –4, the points on this line are part of the
solution set. We will makethe graph of the line solid. Next, test the point (0,0) to see if it is part of the
solutionset. Because 0 is greater than or equal to –4, (0,0) is in the solution set. Shadethe area above the
line.

77
Graphing the Solution Set of a System of Inequalities
We have previously learned two methods for solving a system of equations. However,
substitution and elimination will not work for solving a system of inequalities, because the value of each
variable is a set of numbers. Even if we could isolate a variable by itself, we could never substitute a
single value for it in order to find the value of the other variables. We must use a graph to show the
solution of a system of inequalities.
If we are given two inequalities, we can plot them both and shade the solution of each on the
same set of axes. Our solution to the system is the overlapping area. If the two inequalities have no
overlapping area, then the system has no solution. Look at the following system of inequalities.

y < 5x
y > –x – 1

To find the solution to this system, we begin by graphing y = 5x and y = –x – 1. Both lines will be
dashed since the inequality symbols are less than and greater than. The test point (0,0) cannot be used on
the first inequality, because that point is on the line y = 5x. Try (1,1): Because 1 is less than 5, (1,1) is part
of the solution to y < 5x. Shade the area to the right of the line. We can test y > –x – 1 with the point (0,0).
Because 0 is greater than –1, the point (0,0) is part of the solution to y > –x – 1. Shade the area above that
line. The overlapping area is in quadrants I and IV. This darker region is the solution to the set of
inequalities.

Example 1

Graph 2 x+3 y ≥ 26

Solution
STEP 1 Graph 2 x+3 y ≥ 26as a solid line

STEP 2 Choose the origin as a test point.2 x+3 y ≥ 26becomes 2 ( 0 ) +3 ( 0 ) ≥26 which is true.

STEP 3 The test point satisfies the given inequality, so all points in thesame half-plane as the test point
satisfy it. The graph of 2 x+3 y ≥ 26 is the line and the half-plane above the line

78
Example 2

Graph y ≤2 x+ 7

Solution
1. Start by graphing the line y = 2x + 7. The point (1,9) is on the graph of thatline. It is true that 9 ≤ 2(1) +
7, because 9 ≤ 9, so the points on this line arepart of the solution to the inequality y ≤ 2x + 7. Make the
graph of the linesolid. Test the point (0,0) to see if it is part of the solution set:

0 ≤ 2(0) + 7 ?
0≤0+7?
0≤7

Because 0 is less than or equal to 7, the point (0,0) is part of the solutionset. Shade the area to the right of
the line.

Example 3
Graph y ←4 x−3

Solution
Start by graphing the line y = –4x – 3. The point (0,–3) is on the graph of that line. It is not true that –3 <
–4(0) – 3, because –3 is not less than –3, so the points on this line are not part of the solution to the
inequality y < –4x – 3. Make the graph of the line dashed. Test the point (0,0) to see if it is part of the
solution set:

79
 0 < –4(0) – 3?
0<0–3?
0 < –3 ?

Because 0 is not less than –3, the point (0,0) is not part of the solution set.
Shade the area to the left of the line.

Example 4
Graph x >8

Solution
Start by graphing the line x = 8. Every point on that line has an x value of 8. Because 8 is not greater than
8, the points on this line are not part of the solution to the inequality x > 8. Make the graph of the line
dashed. Test the point (0,0) to see if it is part of the solution set: 0 > 8 ?

Because 0 is not greater than 8, the point (0,0) is not part of the solution
set. Shade the area to the right of the line.

80
Practice Exercises
Graph each inequality.

1. y >−4

2. x−4 y ←2

81
3.3 x−4 y ≥−1

4.2 x− y ≤−2

Graded Exercises 1
1. x +2 y > 4

82
2. 3 x−2 y< 6

3. 2 x+5 y ≤10

4. y >−x−1

83
5. y ≤−x

6. x +2 y < 0

7. x >−1

84
8.2 x− y ←4

9.2 x+3 y <6

10.4 x+5 y ≤−20

85
Graded Exercises 2

{x ≥ 4
1. y ≤ 4

2. {x−2x ≥yy≤ 3

{x− y ≥ 1
3. x+ y ≤ 6

86
 { x + y ≥3
4. 3 x − y< 3

{
x >0
5. y> 0
x+ y ≥ 4

{
x ≤6
6. y ≤2
x− y ≥ 0

87
 {
x− y ≤ 3
7. x+ y ≤ 3
x ≥−3

{
x >0
8. y >0
x> y

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88
Online Worksheets
https://cdn.kutasoftware.com/Worksheets/Alg2/Systems%20of
%20Inequalities.pdf
https://www.mathworksheets4kids.com/inequalities/graphing/graph-l1-
1.pdf
https://cdn.kutasoftware.com/Worksheets/Alg2/Graphing%20Linear
%20Inequalities.pdf
.

Online Graphing Calculators

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89
Linear Programming
What is Linear Programming (LP)?
A linear program is an optimization problem in finitely many variableshaving a
linear objective functionand a constraint region determined by a finite number of
constraintsthat are linear equality and/or linear inequality constraints.

What is optimization?
A mathematical optimization problem is one in which some function is
eithermaximized or minimized relative to a given set of alternatives.

 The function to be minimized or maximized is called the objective function.

 The set of alternatives is called the feasible region (or constraint region).
 In this course, the feasible region is always taken to be a subset of R n (real n-
dimensional space) and the objective function is a function from Rn n to R.
hat is linear
Applications of Linear Programming
 resource allocation
 production scheduling
 warehousing
 layout design
 transportation scheduling
 facility location
 supply chain management
 Model selection
 Machine Learning
 Compressed sensing
 flight crew scheduling
 portfolio optimization
 cash flow matching
 currency exchange arbitrage
 crop scheduling
 diet balancing
 parameter estimation

Example 1
A department store offers a frequent-buyers card to earn rewards for
purchases customers make at the store. Each transaction is worth 12 points, and
customers automatically earn 25 points when they sign up. Write an equation for
the function that gives the card value based on the number of transactions that have
occurred.
1.What units would be associated with the variables in this function?

90
2. Complete the verbal model for the frequent-buyers card function. Include units.
Card Value (points) = Initial Value (points) +________________________

3. Write the function rule for the card-value function C.

4. For each 100 points, the customer receives a gift certificate. How many
transactions will ittake for the customer to earn the first gift certificate?

5. What is the y-intercept for this linear function, and what does it represent?

6. What is the slope for this linear function, and what does it represent?

Solution
1. The variables are card-value and transactions. Their units are points.
2. Card Value (points) = Initial Value (points) +Point per value × purchases
3. C(t) = 25 + 12t, where t is the number of transactions.
4. 100 = 25 +12t
75 = 12t
6.25 = t
It will take the customer more than 6 transactions, so 7 transactions, to earn the
firstgift certificate.

5. The y-intercept is 25, and it represents the beginning value, C(0), in points on a
frequent-buyer card.

6. The slope is 12, and it represents the rate of change or rate of increase in points
pertransaction.

Example 2
The Band Booster Club is selling T-shirts and blanket wrapsto raise money
for a trip. The band director has asked the club to raise atleast $1000.The booster
club president wants to know how many T-shirts and how manyblanket wraps the
club needs to sell to meet their goal of $1000. The T-shirtscost $10 each, and the
blanket wraps cost $25 each. Write a linear equationthat describes the problem,
and then graph the linear equation. How can thebooster club president use the sales
price of each item to meet the goal?

Solution
Analyze Information
Identify the important information.
• T-shirts cost $ 10each.
• Blanket wraps cost $ 25 each.
• The booster club needs to raise a total of $ 1000.

Formulate a Plan
The total amount of revenue earned by selling T-shirts is $ 10t. The total amountof
revenue earned from selling blanket wraps is $ 25b. These two results can beadded
and set equal to the sales goal to find the number of T-shirts and blanketwraps that

91
need to be sold to reach $1000 . Graph this function to find all of thepossible
combinations of T-shirts and blanket wraps sold to reach $1000 .

Solve
Write a linear equation for the sales goal.
25 b + 10 t = 1000

Example 3
A baker sells bread for $3 a loaf and rolls for $1 each. Thebaker needs to sell
$24 worth of baked goods by the end of the day.

1. Write a linear equation that describes the problem.

2. Graph the linear equation. Make sure to label both axes with appropriate titles.

3. Use the graph to approximate how many loaves of bread the baker must sell if
12 rolls are sold.

Solution
1. A linear equation that describes this problem is 3b + r = 24, where b isthe
number of loaves of bread sold, and r is the number of rolls sold.

2.

3. If 12 rolls are sold, the baker must sell 4 loaves of bread

Example 4
A local charity is selling seats to a baseball game. Seatscost $20 each, and
snacks cost an additional $5 each. The charityneeds to raise $400 to consider this
event a success.

Solution
1. Write a linear equation that describes the problem.A linear equation that
describes this problem is
92
 20s + 5y = 400,

where s is the number of seats

sold, and y is the number of snacks sold.

2. Graph the linear equation.

Make sure to label both axes
withappropriate titles.

3. Use the graph to approximate how many snacks the charitymust sell if 10 seats
are sold.

If 10 seats are sold, the charity must sell 40 snacks.

Example 5
To feed her stock a farmer can purchase two kinds of feed. Thefarmer has
determined that the herd requires 60, 84, and 72 units of the nutritionalelements A,
B, and C, respectively, per day. The contents and cost of a pound of eachof the two
feeds are given in the following table. Determine the least expensive way of
providing an adequate diet by combining thetwo feeds

Solution

Obviously, the farmer could use only one feed to meet the daily nutritional
requirements.For example, it can easily be seen that 24 lb of the first feed
wouldprovide an adequate diet at a daily cost of $2.40. However, the farmer wants
todetermine the least expensive way of providing an adequate diet by combining
thetwo feeds. To do this, the farmer should consider all possible diets that satisfy
thespecified requirements and then select from this set the diet of minimal cost.

To translate this into a mathematical problem, let x be the number of pounds

ofFeed 1 and y the number of pounds of Feed 2 to be used in the daily diet. Then
bydefinition, x and y must be nonnegative. Moreover, a diet consisting of x lb of
Feed 1and y lb of Feed 2 would contain 3x + 2y units of nutritional element A.

93
Since 60 units of element A are required daily, we must have 3x + 2y>60. We are
assuming
that providing more than the minimal requirements of any of the nutritional
elementswill have no harmful effects, and so any diet providing at least 60 units of
element Awill satisfy this requirement. Thus the inequality and not an equality.

To provide insight into the nature of linear programming, this particular

problemwill be solved geometrically. The set of diets satisfying the above
requirements can
be illustrated graphically. All the points (x,y) in the first quadrant satisfying the
inequality are shown in Figure 2.1.

The other two nutritional requirements demand that7x + 2y > 84 and 3x + 6y > 72
The corresponding regions in the first quadrant are sketched in Figure 2.2.We must
consider all feasible diets, that is, all diets that satisfy all three requirements.
They are given graphically by the shaded region in Figure 2.3.The cost in cents of
a diet of x lb of Feed 1 and y lb of Feed 2 i s 1 Ox + Ay. Thuswe must determine
the minimum of the function /(x,y) = 10x + 4y, while the x andy are restricted to
the shaded region in Figure 2.3.
Consider the graphs of the family of lines determined by the equation lOx +
4y =c, where c is constant. In Figure 2.4, some of these lines are graphed for
variousvalues of c. Note that all the lines have the same slope and that the lines
move to theleft as c decreases.

94
Each of the parallel lines consists of
points that give the same value for the
costfunction 10x + 4j. Thus we seek
that line farthest to the left that still
intersects theshaded region of Figure
2.3. The line through point (6,21) is
that line, as illustratedin Figure 2.5.
Thus the cost of a minimal diet is 10-
6 + 4-21 = 144 cents, and thisdiet
consists of 6 lb of Feed 1 and 2 lb of
Feed 2.
This analysis can be extended. As the
value of c in the family of lines
10x+4j = cdecreases and the lines
slide down and to the left, from the
geometry it follows that
the line we seek will intersect the set
of feasible solutions at a corner point
(or vertex)of the set of feasible
solutions. In this example we can
therefore conclude that aminimal-cost
diet, if it exists, must be attained at
either point (0,42), (6,21), (18,3),or
(24,0). Thus, if we have the comer
points at hand, evaluating the cost
function ateach of these points and
comparing values will yield the
desired optimal diet:

Our above result is confirmed; the minimal-cost diet is to use daily 6 lb of Feed 1
and 21 lb of Feed 2 at a cost of 144 cents.

Suppose now that the price of Feed 1 increases from 10 cents/lb to 14 cents/lb,with
all other data unchanged. Then the comer points of the set of feasible solutionsis as
above, and an evaluation of the new cost function at these points will yield
therevised optimal solution.
95
Now the optimal diet is not unique. The minimal-cost line 14x + 4 j = 168
passesthrough the two corner points (0,42) and (6,21), and since any feasible point
on this
line delivers a diet of 168 cents/lb, the set of optimal feasible diets consists of
thepoints on the line segment between the comer points (0,42) and (6,21), as
displayedin Figure 2.6.
We have in the solution to the above problem a function with a unique
minimumvalue (certainly there can be only one minimum value) but with multiple
optimalsolution points. And in the example, with only two variables, the geometry
justifies

96
the result. The lines in the family {14x + 4y = c : c a constant} and the
−7
boundaryline 7x + 2y= 84 are parallel, with common slope 2 , and when c
decreases, the linewith a minimum value for c that intersects the set of feasible
solutions will lie on thesegment of the boundary corresponding to this constraining
line.The use of slopes can be extended. Consider the original cost function 10x +
−5
4y. The slope of the associated family of lines {10x + 4y = c : c a constant} is 2
,and the optimal solution point to the problem, (6,21), is at the intersection of
−7 −5
theboundary lines 7x + 2y = 84 (with slope 2 ) and 3x + 2y — 60 (with slope 2 ) .
−5
Thusfrom the geometry, the slope 2 of the function to be minimized must be
−7 5 3
betweenthese two slopes. Indeed, 2 ← 2 ← 2
In fact, we can say that if the cost function is c1x + c2y, where c1and C2are
positivenumbers, the minimum cost would be attained at the point (6,21) if
−7 c 1 3 3 c1 7
← ← , that is, < < , and the solution point would be unique if the
2 c2 2 2 c2 2
inequalitiesare strict.

Thus, for example, if the cost c2of Feed 2 is fixed at 4 cents/lb but the costc1of
Feed 1 is variable, the farmer should continue to use the (6,21) diet as long as
3 c1 7
< < that is, as long as 6 <c1<14, with a minimum daily cost of 6c1+21 ∙4 = 6c1
2 4 2
+84 cents.

Practice Exercises
1. A movie theatre sells tickets to a new show for $10 each. Thetheater also sells
small containers of popcorn for $6 each. The theatre needs to make $3000 in order
to break even on the show.
a. Write a linear equation that describes the problem.
b. Graph the linear equation. Make sure to label both axeswith appropriate
titles.
c. Use the graph to approximate how many buckets of popcornmust the
movie theatre must sell if it sells 210 movie tickets.

2. A golf course charges $18 for a full 18-hole course.The course also sells buckets
of golf balls for $20 each. Thegolf course would like to earn $400 by the end of the
day.
a. Write a linear equation that describes the problem.
b. Graph the linear equation. Make sure to label both axeswith appropriate
titles.
c. Use the graph to approximate how many buckets of balls thegolf course
must sell if it sells 10 course packages.

3. A landscaper has on hand two grass seed blends. Blend I contains60% bluegrass
seed and 10% fescue and costs 80 cents/lb; Blend II contains 20%bluegrass seed
97
and 50% fescue and costs 60 cents/lb. (Each also contains other typesof seeds and
inert materials.) The field about to be sowed requires a composition seed consisting
of at least 30% bluegrass and 26% fescue. What is the least expensivecombination
of the two blends that meets these requirements?

Graded Exercises
1. A bookstore sells textbooks for $80 each and notebooks for $4 each.
Thebookstore would like to sell $800 in merchandise by the end of the week.
a. Write a linear equation that describes the problem.
b. Graph the linear equation. Make sure to label both axeswith appropriate
titles.
c. Use the graph to approximate how many textbooks the bookstoremust sell
if it sells 40 notebooks.

2. A gym is selling monthly memberships for $30 each and reusable waterbottles
for $7 each. The gym needs to make $1050 by the end of the month.
a. Write a linear equation that describes the problem.
b. Graph the linear equation. Make sure to label both axeswith appropriate
titles.
c. Use the graph to approximate the number of water bottles thatthe gym
must sell if it sells 28 gym memberships.

3. A computer store sells both tablets and laptops. One brand of tablet costs $200.
That samebrand of laptop costs $400. The store manager wants to sell enough of
this brand of tablets andlaptops to reach the sales goal of $20,000.

a. Write an equation that models the situation. Then graph theequation.

b. Interpret the x- and y-intercepts.
c. Will the store manger meet her goal if the sales team sells45 tablets and
25 laptops? If so, explain. If not, find howmany more tablets need to be
sold to meet the goal.
d. Will the store manager meet her goal if the sales team sells 80tablets and
10 laptops? If so, explain. If not, find how many moretablets need to be
sold to meet the goal.

4. A salesperson offers the farmer a new feed for her stock. One pound of this feed
contains 2, 4, and 4 units of the nutritional elements A, B, and C, respectively,and
costs 7 cents. By considering a blend that consists of equal parts of Feeds 1and 2,
show that the use of this new feed cannot reduce the minimal cost of anadequate
diet. (refer to Example 5).

98
5. The farmer has determined that as long as the ratio of the cost of Feed 1 to
thecost of Feed 2 is between 5 and | , an adequate diet of minimal cost can
beachieved by using 18 lb of Feed 1 and 3 lb of Feed 2. Explain. (refer to Example
5).
N

g (LP)?

Online Video Links

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Online Worksheets

https://www.hds.utc.fr/~dnace/dokuwiki/_media/fr/megaexercises.pdf

99
UNIT VI
Mathematics of Finance
Interestis basically a percentage of some amount of money. It’s either
theamount of money that you pay someone for the use of their money (suchas for a
loan or credit card) or the amount that you’re paid for the use of yourmoney (such
as with a savings account at a bank). The concept and practiceof determining
interest has been around since ancient Babylonian mathematicianscreated tables of
numbers to determine how long it takes to doubleone’s money at a particular
interest rate.

Interest can be simple — as is the case with simple interest — but it can
alsobe complex — as with compound interest. (I explain each of these in
thischapter.) Extensive tables that provide numbers that you can use in
calculationsof interest are available, but the computations are so easily
achievedwith a standard scientific calculator that you don’t need to tote tomes
ofnumbers around with you. In this chapter, you discover the hows and whysof
computing interest. You also see the effect of time and rate.

It’s best if you have a calculator at hand to confirm or deny the

computationsof the example problems. However, even though the calculations
aren’t difficult,you need to be careful when entering the entries into your
calculator.Why? What you type in may not be what you mean. For example, if you
wantto raise a number to a fractional power, you need to put the fraction in
parentheses.Typing 8^2/3 tells your calculator to raise 8 to the second power and
then divide by 3. If you really meant that you want to raise 8 to the 2⁄3 power,you
have to put the 2⁄3 in parentheses. Calculators use the order of operationsand
perform powers before multiplication or subtraction.

Simple interest: This type of interest is computed on the principal —the

amount borrowed — for the entire length of time of the transaction.

Compound interest: This interest builds on itself. Money earned in

interestfor part of the time period is reinvested and used in the
computationof interest for the rest of the time period.

Interest on money is the cost of buying things on credit. The fee you pay forthe
privilege of using someone else’s money is the interest, and the amountyou get for
lending someone money is also interest. The simplest computationof interest is
simple interest (now, isn’t that handy).

In this section, you see how simple interest works and how the
differentcomponents, such as principal, rate, and time, interact with one another.

100
Note: Many of the properties of simple interest are closely related to thoseof
compound interest, so you see properties that are introduced hererepeated — with
an interesting twist — in the sections on compound interest.

Computing simple interestamounts the basic way

The formula for computing the amount of simple interest earned on a particular
amount of money is
I = Prt

where P is the principal (the amount of money involved in the transaction),r is the
rate of interest (written as a decimal number), and t is the amount oftime (usually
in years, if r is the yearly rate).

To compute, you simply fill in the numbers you have and solve for the
missingones. It can’t get much easier than that!

Check out this example for practice: Suppose Jake borrows Php40,000 for a
newpiece of equipment. He borrows the money for 2 years at 11.5% interest.
Howmuch does he pay in interest, and what’s the total amount he has to repay?To
solve this problem, simply plug your numbers into the formula (I = Prt),like this:
Php40,000(11.5%)(2 years) = Php40,000(0.115)(2) = Php9,200. So Jake owes
Php9,200in interest plus what he borrowed, which is Php9,200 + Php40,000
Php49,200.

Seeing how small businesses use simple interest

Simple interest is frequently used when small businesses act as lenders inorder to
sell products. For instance, a local hardware store may sell you amechanized
posthole digger and arrange for payments over the next twoyears. In this situation,
an interest rate is set and a time period is agreed on.The amount loaned (plus the
interest) is repaid periodically rather than atthe end of the time period.

Here’s an example that shows what I mean: Say that Delores purchases a
newbedroom set from a local furniture store. She makes arrangements with
thestore to pay for the Php39,950 bedroom set over the next 4 years at 12%
interest(simple interest). If she is to make equal monthly payments, how much
arethose payments?

First determine the amount of interest that she’s paying by using I =

Prt:Php39,950(0.12)(4) = Php1,917.60. Add the interest to the cost of the bedroom
setto get the total amount: Php39,950+ Php19,176 = Php59,126. Now divide the
totalamount by 48 (4 years × 12 months per year) to get Php59,126 ÷ 48 =
Php1,231.79.

The division doesn’t come out evenly, so Delores will pay Php1,231.79 each
monthfor the first 47 months, and then she’ll pay Php1,232 for her last payment.

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Howdid I figure the last payment? Well, if you multiply Php1,231.79 by 47, you
getPhp57,894 in payments. That leaves Php59,126– Php57,894= Php1,232for the
48thpayment. Sure, it’s only 21 centavos, but Delores is a stickler for detail.

Example 1
At 6% per annum, how much interest will a savings deposit of Php43,000 earn
after 2 years?
Solution
a. Identify the given and the unknown.
Given:
P = Php43,000
r = 6% = .06
t = 2 years

Unknown is interest (I)

b. Using the formula I = Prt, substitute the values of P, r and t then solve.
Hence,
I = 43,000 × 0.06 × 2
I = Php5,160
Therefore the interest is Php5,160

Example 2
Mina borrowed Php4,000 for three months and paid an interest of Php250. What
was the annual interest rate?
Solution
a. Identify the given and the unknown.
Given:
P = Php4,000
I = 250
t = 3 months

Unknown: Rate annually

Since rates are expressed annually, the time in months should be converted into
years.

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 1 year 3 1
t = 3 months × 12 months = 12 year = 4 year

Using I = Prt, substitute values.

1
250=4000(r )
4
250=1000(r )

250
=r
1000

0.25 = r
25% = r
Therefore the annual interest rate is 25%

Practice Exercises
1. Find the interest and amount onPhp880 at 8.5% simple interest for 3 years.
2. Find the interest and amount onPhp1,900 at 7.25% simple interest for 19
months.
3. Find the interest and amount on Php 1,400 at 11% simple interest for 4 months.
4. If a principal of Php2,500 earns interest of Php185 I 4 years and 8 months, what
interest rate is in effect?
5. If money is invested on a 10% simple interest, how much money should be
invested to have Php40,000 in 5 years?

Graded Exercises
1. Rizza’s saving earned Php105 after a year. If her account balance after earning
interest showed Php3,605, how much interest did the bank added to her savings?

103
2. A loan shark gave Kevin a personal loan that was charged Php630 interest after
3 months. The rate of the loan was 7% per month. How much was the personal
loan?

3. Nina has a savings account balance of P38,400. She withdraws Php1,800 to buy
a gift for a friend. How much interest does her new balance earn for a year if the
bank’s interest rate is 0.9% per annum?

4.Vic deposited Php4,500 in his savings account with a balance of Php1,300. At

0.5% per annum, how much will his new balance earn at the end of a year?

5. One year and six months ago, Nigel borrowed Php25,000 from Sitti with the
promise that Nigel will pay Sitti the principal plus accumulated interest at 8.5%
simple interest. What is the amount due?

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZWCXrbnMN-E
.

Online Worksheets
https://cdn.kutasoftware.com/Worksheets/PreAlg/Simple%20and
%20Compound%20Interest.pdf

Getting to Know Compound Interest

The biggest difference between simple interest and compound interest is
thatsimple interest is computed on the original principal only (see the earlier
section,“Simply Delightful: Working with Simple Interest,” for details). In
otherwords, no matter how long the transaction lasts, the interest rate
multipliesonly the initial principal amount.Compound interest, on the other hand,
multiplies the interest rate by the originalprincipal plus any interest that’s
accumulated during the time period ofthe transaction. As you can imagine,
compound interest is pretty powerful.After all, the principal keeps growing,
making the interest amount increase astime passes. The bigger interest amount is
added to the principal to make theinterest amount even bigger.Compound interest
is the type of interest that financial institutions use. Inthis case, your money grows
exponentially, so exponents (those cute littlesuperscripted powers) are a part of the
formula for determining how muchmoney you have as a result of compound
interest. Of course, for compoundinterest to have its full effect, you can’t remove
the interest earned; compoundinterest is based on the premise that you leave the
money alone andlet it grow.

Figuring the amount of compoundinterest you’ve earned

105
Computing the total amount of money that results from applying compound
Interest takes a jazzy formula. Besides involving multiplication, addition,
anddivision, this formula also requires you to work with exponents (and whobut
mathematicians like to do that?). The hardest parts of working with theformula are
entering the values correctly into the formula and performingthe operations in the
right order.

The formula for computing compound interest is

( )
nt
r
A=P 1+
n

where A is the total amount of money accumulated (principal plus interest),P is the
principal (the amount invested), r is the rate of interest (written indecimal form), n
is the number of times each year that the compoundingoccurs, and t is the number
of years.Some scientific and graphing calculators allow you to type the numbers
intothe formula pretty much the same way you see them. But if you don’t havea
calculator with all the bells and whistles, you still can do this problemcorrectly —
as long as you perform the steps of the equation in the correctorder. You need to
apply the order of operations. For the compound interest formula, you need to
perform the operations inthe following order:

1. Determine the value of the exponent by multiplying n × t (the numberof times

compounded each year times the number of years).
2. Inside the parentheses, divide the interest rate, r, by the number ofcompoundings
each year, n.
3. Add 1 to the answer in Step 2.
4. Raise the result from Step 3 to the power that you got in Step 1.
5. Multiply your answer from Step 4 by the principal, P.

Examples
How much money has accumulated in an account that’s earning interest at
the rate of 4% compounded monthly if Php10,000 was deposited 7 years ago?

Solution

Fill in the formula letting P = Php10,000, r = 0.04, n = 12, and t = 7:

( )
( 12 ) (7)
0.04
A=10,000 1+
12

Now go through these steps (the order of operations) to find your answer:

1. Multiply 12 × 7 = 84.
This is the value of the exponent.

106
2. Divide 0.04 ÷ 12 = 0.0033333. . . .
Round this answer to five decimal places to get 0.00333.
3. Add 1 to the answer in Step 2.
After adding, you get 1.00333.

4. Raise 1.00333 to the 84th power.

So 1.0033384 ≈ 1.32214.

5. Multiply 1.32214 × Php10,000 =Php13,221.40.

Now you have the total amount accumulated in 10 years.
Curious to know how this compares to investing the same amount of money forthe
same amount of time at the same rate using simple interest? Well, use theformula
for the total amount, A = P(1 + rt), to find out. Php10,000(1 + 0.04 ×7) =$12,800.
By using compound interest, you earn about Php400 more than youwould have
with simple interest.

Practice Exercises
1. Which is the compound amount of Php10,000 for 3 years at 10% compounded
semi-annually?

2. Don invests Php20,000 for two years in an account that pays 6% compounded
annually. Compute the total compound interest and future value.

3. At the birth of a daughter, what should a father invest in order to provide his
daughter with Php350,000 on her 18th birthday if money is worth 16%
compounded quarterly?

107
Graded Exercise
1. If Php20,000 is invested for 2 years at 6% compounded annually, compute the
future value of the investment.

2. Find the future value of Php38,000 invested for 5 years at 8% compounded

quarterly.

3. Daryl wants to have a total of Php4,000 in two years so that he can have an
upgrade for his bike. He finds an account that pays 5% interest compounded
quarterly. How much should Daryl deposit into his account so that he’ll have
Php4,000 by the end of 2 years?

4. Rang-ay Bank is offering to double your money. If you invest with them
Php1,500 at 6% interest compounded quarterly, how long will it take to double
your money?

108
5. Daniela plants to invest her graduation money into an account and leave it there
for 4 years while she goes to college. She receives Php750 as graduation gift
money that she deposited into an account that earns 4.25% interest compounded
semi-annually. How much will be in Daniela’s account by the end of 4 years?

Online Video Links

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OQ9Mv2jwQWo
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Online Worksheets
https://cdn.kutasoftware.com/Worksheets/PreAlg/Simple%20and
%20Compound%20Interest.pdf

Online Practice Exercises

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-finitemath1/chapter/4-2-exercises-
simple-and-compound-interest/
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10. Discussion Mortgages
What is a Mortgage?
When a man buys a house and lot, he does not ordinarily pay the full
purchase price in cash nor does the seller usually expect to receive all in
cash. Suppose the sale of a house and lot is Php2.5 Million, the
purchases might pay Php500,000 and give a mortgage for the difference,
or Php 2 Million.The mortgage is in reality a loan given by the seller or
a bank for the amount not paid in cash. The principal amount of the loan,
or the face of the mortgage, must be repaid by the borrower some time,
either in a lump sum in some future date, or in instalments according to
some mutual agreement. In the meantime, however, he must pay interest
on the loan, or mortgage, at regular intervals and at some stipulated rate
of interest.
A mortgage is in reality something more than just a loan with
interest. Automatically it is also security or collateral for a loan, if the
debtor fails to meet his obligations, the lender has a legal right to
recover his money by selling the property or assuming ownership
himself. This is known as a foreclosing procedure.

Interest on a mortgage.
It had been a universal custom for mortgages to be given for not more
than 60% of the value of the property. They often ran for 3 years or 5
years, at the end of which period the loan was frequently renewed for
another similar period, sometimes for the same face value, sometimes
for a reduced amount. Or instead of being renewed, it was lef open
which meanthat the loan fan from year to year, and that the lender had
the right to ask for the return of his principal on any interest rate.
Example
1. Mr, Bartolome has a mortgage on his house in the amount of
Php480,000, with interest at 5.5% per year, payable quarterly. How
much interest must he pay every 3 months?
Solution
Php480,000 × 0.055 = Php26,400annual interest
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 Php26,400÷ 4 = Php6,600, quarterly payment.

Practice Exercise
1. A man buys a house and lot at a purchase price of Php1.8 Million,
paring Php450,000 in cash. How much of the purchase price is on
mortgage? What percent of it is in mortgage?

2. What is the annual interest on a Php750,000 mortgage at 5.5%?

3. Mr. Hilton;s house is mortgage for Php6.5 Million. If the interest rate
is 5% a year, how much interest does Mr. Hilton pay semi-annually?

Graded Exercise
1, A piece of property was sold for Php10 Million. If it carried a
mortgage for 65% of the price, what was the amount of the mortgage?
How much was paid in cash?

111
2. A duplex house was sold, carrying an Php800,000 mortgage at 5.25%
annual interest. If the interest is payable semi-annually, what is the
amount of each interest payment?

3. A man’s home carries a mortgage of Php3.6 Million, calling for 6%

annual interest. Find the amount of each interest payment if the
interest is payable quarterly.

4. The selling price of a parcel of real estate is Php20 Million, of which

Php5 million was paid in cash, and a mortgage for the rest. If the
mortgage carried interest at 5.5% payable quarterly, what is the amount
due on each interest date?

Online Video Links

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112
11. Bonds
When a business corporation finds it necessary to borrow money to carry
on its business, it frequently issues bonds. This means that it receives
loans from individuals, banks, or other financial agents, in return for
which it gives an au4858thorization certificate as evidence of the loan;
this certificate is the bond, and is, in effect, a promise to pay the loan
back at some specified future date. Thus a 20=year, 5% bond for Php10
Million means that a company has borrowed Php10 Million for 20
years,, at the end of which time it promises to return the Php10 Million.
Meanwhile, it pays interest on Php10 Million at 5% a year to the holder
of the bond. The specified rate of interest is called the coupon rate; the
time the bond runs is called the term of the bond; and the date that
repayment is due is called the date of maturity.
Corporation bonds are usually classed as 1. Railroadbonds; 2.
Public utility bonds, and 3. Industrial bonds. The corporation’s total
earnings is measured against the amount of bonds for security.
Governments also issue bonds to raise money, usually for specific
purposes. In these cases the lender’s chief security lies in his faith in the
integrity of the government and in the s to raise money by taxation.

Example
Mr. Watson owns five Php10,000 railroad bonds with coupon rates of
4.5%, payable semi-annually. How much interest does he receive from
these bonds every 6 months?

Solution
Php10,000 × 0.045 -= Php450 annual interest per bond.
Php450×5 = Php2,250 total interest from 5 bonds

113
Php2,250 ÷ 2 = Php1,125 total semi-annual interest
Practice Exercise
1. What is the annual interest received on Php100,000 5.25% bond?

2. Mr. George owns Php40,000 in utility bonds bearing a coupon rate of

3.5%, payable semi-annually. How much interest does he receive
from these bonds every 6 months?

Graded Exercise
1. Abusinessman owns Php100,000 worth of industrial bonds paying
5.75%. If the interest is payable semi-annually, what amount of interest
does he receive on each interest date?

2. The investments of a bank include Php5 Million railroad bonds

paying 3.25% payable semi-annually. How much interest does the bank
collect from these bonds each year?

114
3. A small industrial corporation has borrowed Php7.5 Million with
which to expand its business. It issued 5.5% bonds for this amount.
What annual interest must it pay to the bondholders?

4. The bonded debt of a certain municipality totals Php24 Million. If the

interest rate on this municipality’s bonds is 3.5%, what are the annual
“fixed charges” (interest payable)?

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115
12. Stocks and Dividends
How Stocks Differ from Bonds
We have seen that a bond and a mortgage are very similar; essentially they are both
loans. `In return for the use of the borrowed money the lender receives interest at a
stipulated rate for the duration of the loan. Thus they both yield a certain return on
the investment of the lender. When a person buys shares of stock, however, he
does not lend the company money; he actually becomes part-owner of the
business; he is a shareholder. Money so invested is not “returnable” on a definite
date. The investor, moreover, shares in the risk of profit or loss. If there is a profit,
he shares in it; if there is a loss, he gets nothing. The amount received instead of
interest, when there is profit, is called dividend.

Kinds of Stock
There are two important kinds of shares – preferred stock and common stock.
Preferred stock entitles the owner to a fixed percent of dividend, provided that the
net profits are sufficient to warrant paying this dividend; it never pays more than
the specified fixed percent. The dividend on preferred stock must be paid first,
however, before any dividend is paid on the common stock .Only if the profits are
large enough to pay the dividend on the preferred stock first, does the common
stock participate in a share of the profit beyond the dividend requirement; that is
the significance of the term “preferred”

Par Value vs Market Value

The par value of a share of stock, if any, is stated on the stock certificate, it is
generally a fixed value – Php100, Php500, Php1,000, Php5,000. Some stocks have
no par value. The market value of a stock is the price per share at which it is
bought or sold; it has no direct relation to the par value.

Dividends
Stock dividends are customarily “declared” annually, semi-annually, or quarterly.
If a stock has a par value, the amount of the dividend is usually expressed as a
116
certain percent of the par value; if it has no par value, the dividend is expressed as
a specified number of dollars, or cents, per share. Dividends on preferred stock are
always expressed as a percent of the par value.

Example 1
What is the annual dividend received from 20 shares of a common stock with no
par value, if the quarterly dividend is Php2.25 per share?

Solution
Php2.25 × 4 = Php9.00
Php9.00 × 20 = Php180

Example 2
What is the annual dividend on 40 shares of stock , par value Php50, if the semi-
annual dividend is 3%?

Solution
Php50 × 0.03 = Php1.50 semi-annual dividend
Php1.50 × 2 = Php3.00, annual dividend
Php3.00 × 40=¿ Php120

Practice Exercise
Find the amount of the dividend received when due in each of the following
instances:

No of shares Par Value How Payable Dividend Rate

1 10 Php100 Annually 4%
2 12 Php100 Quarterly 5%
3 20 No Par Semi-annually Php6.00
4 50 Php50 Quarterly 2%
5 100 Php100 Quarterly 1.5%

117
6. Find the annual income on 50 shares of stock paying a semi-annual dividend of
Php140.
7. What is the annual income on 150 shares of stock paying a quarterly dividend of
Php5.00?

Graded Exercise
No of shares Par Value How Payable Dividend Rate
1 75 Php10.00 Semi-annually 8%
2 200 No Par Annually Php2.60
3 40 Php50 Quarterly 4.5%
4 60 No Par Quarterly 80 centavos
5 100 Php25.00 Semi-annually 3%

6.What is the annual income on 60 shares of 6.5% preferred stock, par value
Php100.00?

7. Find the amount of quarterly dividend check for 15 shares of stock paying
Php90.00 annually.

8. What is the annual income from 40 shares of 8% preferred stock, par value
Php50.00?

Online Video Links

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References:
Ariola, Marion Faye Q., Villanueva Xyrus Ulysses M. et. al, Deal with the World
of Today through Mathematics, 2018, p. 7-22.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nt2OlMAJj6o
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6nSfJEDZ_WM
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
330740074_The_Fibonacci_Numbers_and_Its_Amazing_Applications
http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/pdf_files/LANG1.pdf
https://www.palmbeachstate.edu/prepmathlw/Documents/translatingkeywords.pdf
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/prealgebra/chapter/identifying-expressions-and-
equations/
http://anibmlaya.blogspot.com/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PPZAVEznmpA

https://fractalenlightenment.com/15458/fractals/understanding-the-fibonacci-
sequence-and-golden-ratio
https://study.com/academy/lesson/patterns-in-nature-definition-examples.html

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