Physical Layer

•WMSU Fundamentals of Networking

Module Title: Physical Layer

Module Objective: Explain how physical layer protocols, services, and network media
support communications across data networks.
Topic Title Topic Objective
Purpose of the Physical Layer Describe the purpose and functions of the physical layer in the
network.
Physical Layer Characteristics Describe characteristics of the physical layer.

Copper Cabling Identify the basic characteristics of copper cabling.

UTP Cabling Explain how UTP cable is used in Ethernet networks.

Fiber-Optic Cabling Describe fiber optic cabling and its main advantages over other
media.
Wireless Media Connect devices using wired and wireless media.
1 - Purpose of the Physical Layer
1.1 The Physical Connection
• Before any network communications can occur, a physical connection to a local
network must be established.
• This connection could be wired or wireless, depending on the setup of the network.
• This generally applies whether you are considering a corporate office or a home.
• A Network Interface Card (NIC) connects a device to the network.
• Some devices may have just one NIC, while others may have multiple NICs (Wired
and/or Wireless, for example).
• Not all physical connections offer the same level of performance.
1.2 The Physical Layer
• Transports bits across the network
media
• Accepts a complete frame from
the Data Link Layer and encodes it
as a series of signals that are
transmitted to the local media
• This is the last step in the
encapsulation process.
• The next device in the path to the
destination receives the bits and
re-encapsulates the frame, then
decides what to do with it.
2 - Physical Layer Characteristics
2.1 - Physical Layer Standards
Physical Layer Standards address three functional areas:
• Physical Components
• Encoding
• Signaling

2.2 Physical Components

The Physical Components are the hardware devices, media, and other
connectors that transmit the signals that represent the bits.
• Hardware components like NICs, interfaces and connectors, cable
materials, and cable designs are all specified in standards associated
with the physical layer.
2.3 Encoding

• Encoding converts the stream of bits

into a format recognizable by the next
device in the network path.
• This ‘coding’ provides predictable
patterns that can be recognized by the
next device.
• Examples of encoding methods
include Manchester (Ethernet
100BASE-TX uses 4B/5B encoding and
1000BASE-T uses 8B/10B encoding)
2.4 Signaling

• The signaling method is how the bit values, Light Pulses Over Fiber-Optic Cable
“1” and “0” are represented on the
physical medium.
• The method of signaling will vary based on
the type of medium being used.

Electrical Signals Over Copper Cable

Microwave Signals Over Wireless

2.5 Bandwidth
• Bandwidth is the capacity at which a medium can carry data.
• Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to
another in a given amount of time; how many bits can be transmitted in a second.
• Physical media properties, current technologies, and the laws of physics play a role
in determining available bandwidth.

Unit of Bandwidth Abbreviation Equivalence

Bits per second bps 1 bps = fundamental unit of bandwidth

Kilobits per second Kbps 1 Kbps = 1,000 bps = 103 bps

Megabits per second Mbps 1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bps = 106 bps

Gigabits per second Gbps 1 Gbps – 1,000,000,000 bps = 109 bps

Terabits per second Tbps 1 Tbps = 1,000,000,000,000 bps = 1012 bps

3 - Copper Cabling
3.1 Characteristics of Copper Cabling
• Copper cabling is the most common type of cabling used in networks
today. It is inexpensive, easy to install, and has low resistance to
electrical current flow.
• Limitations:
❖ Attenuation – the longer the electrical signals have to travel, the
weaker they get.
❖ The electrical signal is susceptible to interference from two
sources, which can distort and corrupt the data signals
(Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Radio Frequency
Interference (RFI) and Crosstalk).
3.2 Types of Copper Cabling
3.3 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
• UTP is the most common networking
media.
• Terminated with RJ-45 connectors
• Interconnects hosts with intermediary
network devices.

Key Characteristics of UTP

1. The outer jacket protects the copper
wires from physical damage.
2. Twisted pairs protect the signal from
interference.
3. Color-coded plastic insulation
electrically isolates the wires from
each other and identifies each pair.
3.4 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
• Better noise protection than UTP
• More expensive than UTP
• Harder to install than UTP
• Terminated with RJ-45 connectors
• Interconnects hosts with intermediary
network devices

Key Characteristics of STP

1. The outer jacket protects the copper
wires from physical damage
2. Braided or foil shield provides
EMI/RFI protection
3. Foil shield for each pair of wires
provides EMI/RFI protection
4. Color-coded plastic insulation
electrically isolates the wires from
each other and identifies each pair
3.5 Coaxial Cable
Consists of the following:
1. Outer cable jacket to prevent minor physical
damage
2. A woven copper braid, or metallic foil, acts as the
second wire in the circuit and as a shield for the
inner conductor.
3. A layer of flexible plastic insulation
4. A copper conductor is used to transmit the
electronic signals.

There are different types of connectors used with coax

cable.

Commonly used in the following situations:

• Wireless installations - attach antennas to wireless
devices
• Cable internet installations - customer premises
wiring
4 UTP Cabling
4.1 Properties of UTP Cabling
•UTP has four pairs of color-coded copper wires
twisted together and encased in a flexible plastic
sheath. No shielding is used. UTP relies on the
following properties to limit crosstalk:
• Cancellation - Each wire in a pair of wires uses
opposite polarity. One wire is negative, the other
wire is positive. They are twisted together and the
magnetic fields effectively cancel each other and
outside EMI/RFI.
• Variation in twists per foot in each wire - Each wire
is twisted a different amount, which helps prevent
crosstalk amongst the wires in the cable.
4.2 UTP Cabling Standards and Connectors
Standards for UTP are established by the TIA/EIA. TIA/EIA-568 standardizes
elements like:
• Cable Types
• Cable Lengths
• Connectors
• Cable Termination
• Testing Methods

Electrical standards for copper cabling are established by the IEEE, which
rates cable according to its performance. Examples include:
• Category 3
• Category 5 and 5e
• Category 6
UTP Cabling Standards and Connectors (Cont.)

RJ-45 Connector Poorly terminated UTP cable

Properly terminated UTP cable

RJ-45 Socket
4.3 Straight-through and Crossover UTP Cables

Cable Type Standard Application

Ethernet Straight-through Both ends T568A or T568B Host to Network Device

Ethernet Crossover * One end T568A, other end T568B Host-to-Host, Switch-to-Switch, Router-to-
Router
* Considered Legacy due to most NICs using Auto-MDIX to sense cable type and complete connection
Rollover Cisco Proprietary Host serial port to Router or Switch
Console Port, using an adapter
5 - Fiber-Optic Cabling
5.1 Properties of Fiber-Optic Cabling
• Not as common as UTP because of the expense involved
• Ideal for some networking scenarios
• Transmits data over longer distances at higher bandwidth than any other
networking media
• Less susceptible to attenuation, and completely immune to EMI/RFI
• Made of flexible, extremely thin strands of very pure glass
• Uses a laser or LED to encode bits as pulses of light
• The fiber-optic cable acts as a wave guide to transmit light between the two
ends with minimal signal loss
5.2 Types of Fiber Media
Single-Mode Fiber Multimode Fiber

• Larger core
• Very small core
• Uses less expensive LEDs
• Uses expensive lasers
• LEDs transmit at different angles
• Long-distance applications
• Up to 10 Gbps over 550 meters

Dispersion refers to the spreading out of a light pulse over time. Increased dispersion means
increased loss of signal strength. MMF has greater dispersion than SMF, with a the maximum cable
distance for MMF is 550 meters.
5.3 Fiber-Optic Connectors

Lucent Connector (LC) Simplex Connectors

Straight-Tip (ST) Connectors

Subscriber Connector (SC) Connectors Duplex Multimode LC Connectors

5.4 Fiber Patch Cords

SC-SC MM Patch Cord LC-LC SM Patch Cord ST-LC MM Patch Cord ST-SC SM Patch Cord

A yellow jacket is for single-mode fiber cables and orange (or aqua) for multimode fiber cables.
5.5 Fiber versus Copper
Optical fiber is primarily used as backbone cabling for high-traffic, point-to-point
connections between data distribution facilities and for the interconnection of buildings
in multi-building campuses.
Implementation Issues UTP Cabling Fiber-Optic Cabling

Bandwidth supported 10 Mb/s - 10 Gb/s 10 Mb/s - 100 Gb/s

Distance Relatively short (1 - 100 meters) Relatively long ( 1 - 100,000 meters)

Immunity to EMI and RFI Low High (Completely immune)

Immunity to electrical hazards Low High (Completely immune)

Media and connector costs Lowest Highest

Installation skills required Lowest Highest

Safety precautions Lowest Highest

6 - Wireless Media
6.1 Properties of Wireless Media
•It carries electromagnetic signals representing binary digits using radio or
microwave frequencies. This provides the greatest mobility option. Wireless
connection numbers continue to increase.
•Some of the limitations of wireless:
• Coverage area - Effective coverage can be significantly impacted by the physical
characteristics of the deployment location.
• Interference - Wireless is susceptible to interference and can be disrupted by many
common devices.
• Security - Wireless communication coverage requires no access to a physical strand
of media, so anyone can gain access to the transmission.
• Shared medium - WLANs operate in half-duplex, which means only one device can
send or receive at a time. Many users accessing the WLAN simultaneously results in
reduced bandwidth for each user.
6.2 Types of Wireless Media
• The IEEE and telecommunications industry standards for wireless data
communications
• cover both the data link and physical layers. In each of these standards, physical layer
• specifications dictate:
• Data to radio signal encoding methods
• Frequency and power of transmission
• Signal reception and decoding requirements
• Antenna design and construction

• Wireless Standards:
• Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) - Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology
• Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15) - Wireless Personal Area network (WPAN) standard
• WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) - Uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide broadband wireless
access
• Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4) - Low data-rate, low power-consumption communications, primarily
for Internet of Things (IoT) applications
 6.3 Wireless LAN

•In general, a Wireless LAN (WLAN) requires the following devices:

• Wireless Access Point (AP) - Concentrate wireless signals
from users and connect to the existing copper-based network
infrastructure
• Wireless NIC Adapters - Provide wireless communications
capability to network hosts

•There are a number of WLAN standards. When purchasing WLAN equipment, ensure compatibility,
and interoperability.

•Network Administrators must develop and apply stringent security policies and processes to protect
WLANs from unauthorized access and damage.
Wireless Standards
• 802.11
• In 1997, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) created the
first WLAN standard. They called it 802.11 after the name of the group formed to
oversee its development. Unfortunately, 802.11 only supported a maximum
network bandwidth of 2 Mbps - too slow for most applications. For this reason,
ordinary 802.11 wireless products are no longer manufactured.

• 802.11a
• 802.11a supports bandwidth up to 54 Mbps and signals in a regulated
frequency spectrum around 5 GHz. This higher frequency compared to
802.11b shortens the range of 802.11a networks. The higher frequency
also means 802.11a signals have more difficulty penetrating walls and
other obstructions.
Wireless Standards
• 802.11b
• EEE expanded on the original 802.11 standard in July 1999, creating the 802.11b
specification. 802.11b supports bandwidth up to 11 Mbps, comparable to
traditional Ethernet.
• Pros of 802.11b - lowest cost; signal range is good and not easily obstructed
• Cons of 802.11b - slowest maximum speed; home appliances may interfere on
the unregulated and

• 802.11g
• 802.11g attempts to combine the best of both 802.11a and 802.11b. 802.11g
supports bandwidth up to 54 Mbps, and it uses the 2.4 Ghz frequency for greater
range. 802.11g is backwards compatible with 802.11b, meaning that 802.11g
access points will work with 802.11b wireless network adapters and vice versa.
Wireless Standards
• 802.11n
• The newest IEEE standard in the Wi-Fi category is 802.11n.
It was designed to improve on 802.11g in the amount of
bandwidth supported by utilizing multiple wireless signals
and antennas (called MIMO-multiple input multiple output
technology) instead of one.
• 802.11n connections supports data rates of over 100 Mbps.
802.11n also offers somewhat better range over earlier Wi-
Fi standards due to its increased signal intensity. 802.11n
equipment will be backward compatible with 802.11g gear.
Wireless Standards
• 802.11ac
• 802.11ac builds upon previous 802.11 standards, particularly the 802.11n
standard, to deliver data rates of 433Mbps per spatial stream, or 1.3Gbps
in a three-antenna (three stream) design. The 802.11ac specification
operates only in the 5 GHz frequency range and features support for
wider channels (80MHz and 160MHz) and beamforming capabilities by
default to help achieve its higher wireless speeds.802.11b

• 802.11ad
• 802.11ad is a wireless specification under development that will operate
in the 60GHz frequency band and offer much higher transfer rates than
previous 802.11 specs, with a theoretical maximum transfer rate of up to
7Gbps (Gigabits per second).
End of Slide