Definition 

The observation method is described as a method to observe and describe

the behavior of a subject. As the name suggests, it is a way of collecting
relevant information and data by observing. It is also referred to as a
participatory study because the researcher has to establish a link with the
respondent and for this has to immerse himself in the same setting as theirs.
Only then can he use the observation method to record and take notes.

Meaning and examples

Observation method is used in cases where you want to avoid an error that
can be a result of bias during evaluation and interpretation processes. It is a
way to obtain objective data by watching a participant and recording it for
analysis at a later stage.

A researcher can use the observation method in a Montessori school and

record the behavior of the children at a young age. Are the children
comfortable sharing their tiffin at such an early age will make a good study for
the researcher? In this example, the researcher can observe and record the
details objectively. Observation data collection method is associated with a
few ethical issues as it needs the full consent of a research participant.

Observation method in data collection can be

 Structured observation method – This is a systematic observation

method where data is collected as per a pre-defined schedule. The
specific variable is used in this method for data collection.
 Unstructured observation method – The unstructured observation
method is conducted in a free and open manner without using any pre-
determined objectives, schedules or variables.

Sampling methods for Observational Data

The researcher has a vital role to play as he will have to collect, record and
classify the data appropriately. The primary sampling methods are

 Event sampling – In the event sampling observation method the

researcher decides beforehand what events or behavior he will record
and which ones he is going to ignore
  Time sampling – In the time sampling observation method, the
researcher chooses the time when he will observe. He makes a record of
the occurrence only in the specified and pre-determined period
 Target-time or instantaneous sampling –  In the target-time or
instantaneous sampling observation method, the researcher decides
beforehand the moments when the observation will happen and will be
recorded at that moment. Everything that happens before or after that
moment is of no consequence hence is typically ignored

1) Controlled observations

The controlled observation is carried out in a closed space. It is the researcher

who has the authority to decide the place and the time where and when the
observation will take place. He also decides who the participants will be and in
what circumstances will he use the standardized process.

The participants are chosen for a variable group randomly. The researcher
observes and records a detailed and descriptive data of behavior and divides
it into a distinct category. Sometimes the researcher codes the action as per
an agreed scale by using a behavior schedule. The coding can include letters
or numbers or a range to measure behavior intensity and describe its
characteristics.

The collected data is often turned into statistics. In a controlled observation

method, the participants are informed by the researcher about the aim of the
research. This makes them aware of being observed. The researcher avoids
direct contact during the observation method and generally uses a two-way
mirror to observe and record details.

Advantages of controlled observation method

1. The data and information received from a controlled observation method

are structured and analytical. It is thus easy to analyze it quickly and is
considered less time-consuming than the other observation methods
2. Other researchers can easily replicate the report that has been created
through the controlled observation method. They use a similar
observation schedule, and this makes it easy to test for reliability.
 3. As the controlled observation method is several quick observations can
be conducted within a short time frame. Thus the researcher can collect
large samples which makes it easier for him to generalize a large
population

Limitations of controlled observation method 

1. The controlled observation method lacks validity because when the

participants are aware of being observed their behavior will automatically
change

2) Naturalistic observations

Social scientists and psychologists generally use the naturalistic observation

method. The process involves observing and studying the spontaneous
behavior of the participants in open or natural surroundings. The role of the
researcher is to find and record whatever he can see and observe in natural
habitat.

Advantages of naturalistic observation method 

1. When a participant is in a natural habitat, his flow of behavior is natural

and not forced.
2. The studies have gained better ecological validity than the controlled
observation method
3. The naturalistic observation method is used by the researchers to create
new ideas. The researcher has the chance to observe the total situation
and can find avenues that other people have not thought about

Limitations of naturalistic observation methods

1. The naturalistic observation method facilitates observations on a micro-

scale. It often lacks a representative sample and thus cannot help the
researcher in making a generalization that relates to a broader society
2. In this type of observation method, the researcher needs proper training
to recognize aspects that are significant and worth attention.
3. The observations through naturalistic observation method are not as
reliable as the researcher wants them to be because it is not possible to
control some variables. This is why other researchers cannot similarly
repeat the study or research.
4. Establishing the cause and effect relationship is not possible because the
researcher cannot manipulate the variables
3) Participant observations

The participant observation method is often considered a variant of the

naturalistic observation method because it has some similarities with it. The
point of difference is that the researcher is not a distant observer anymore
because he has joined the participants and become a part of their group. He
does this to get a more in-depth and greater insight into their lives.

he researcher interacts with other members of the group freely, participates in

their activities, studies their behavior and acquires a different way of life.
Participant observation can be overt or covert.

1. Overt –When the researcher asks permission from a group to mingle the

observation method is known as overt. He does so by revealing his true
purpose and real identity to the group with whom he wants to mingle
2. Covert– When the researcher does not show either his true identity or
real meaning to the group he wants to join then the observation is known
as covert. He keeps both concealed and takes on a false role and
identity to enter and mingle in the group. He generally acts as if he is a
genuine member of that group

Advantages of Participant Observation methods

1. It is easy to study and observe the natural behavior of the participants in

the group by becoming a part of that group. The respondents generally
do not know that they are being observed and behavior recorded, so they
are not restrained or constrained in their activities and behavior
2. The researcher becomes understanding by following the events of the
respondents from such a close angle.
3. During the participant observation method, the researcher develops a
good and healthy relationship with the respondents. This rapport helps
him to participate in all the activities and make observations with a
detached mind
4. The participant observation method helps the research to observe the
actual behavior of the respondents and create an inclusive
and intensive case study of that group
5. Actual participation in the activities provides the researcher with
an opportunity to converse freely with other members about various
events, their meaning and their importance to them. He gains an in-depth
knowledge which would not have been possible only by observation.
Limitations of Participant Observation methods

1. It is challenging to work undercover. For example, the researcher will

have only to observe and not record in front of others because he will not
want to blow his cover. He relies heavily on his memory which can be
faulty at times
2. Sometimes the researcher becomes too involved in the intricacies of that
group. There is a higher chance of losing his objectivity because his
reporting will be selective and dependent on his memory
3. The emotional participation of the researcher can result in bias
interpretation. He will be influenced to some degree and a time might
come when he would start supporting them unconditionally because their
views and behavior will ultimately become his. This will result in a
personal viewpoint of the scenario and not an objective or scientific
report
4. In the participant observation method, the researcher’s experience
becomes intense because of his proximity to the group members but the
range becomes limited
5. The researcher misses many vital points because of his familiarity
6. Proximity with the group will involve him in group factionalism, and he will
have to take sides. He then loses his objectivity as an impartial observer
with whom everyone is ready to cooperate.

Advantages of Observation Method

 Provides direct access to research phenomena

 By observing firsthand, the researcher can collect, check and record
accurate data
 Greater flexibility in terms of application
 Generate a permanent record of phenomena and the researcher or
others can refer with it later
 The organization method is one of the simplest methods of data
collection. It does not require too much technical knowledge
 The observation method is one of the best ways to formulate a
hypothesis. The researcher can observe and come to know about the
activities, perceptions, likes and dislikes to form a theory on his subject
 Observation method is one of the most common methods used in all
sciences and is very easy to follow and accept
 In some instances observation is the only available tool to collect
essential data and information
  The observation method does not require the willingness of the
participant to record. The researcher can observe from a distance and
record his findings

Disadvantages of Observation Method

 Faces a severe disadvantage because it takes a longer time frame

compared to other data collection methods
 There is a chance of higher observer bias in the observation method
 Several personal behaviors are not open for observation and this proves
a limitation in case of observation method
 There is a higher chance of the observer influencing the behavior of a
sample group elements
 Uncertainties of the event cannot determine the actual time when the
event will take place, and this is why every occurrence that is open to
observation cannot be observed
 Many of the incidents are abstract like love, affection and the researcher
can’t gain an exact and correct account of those
 The social phenomena generalization made by observation are not
considered reliable as it cannot be used for lab experiments
 In some cases, it is seen that two persons observing the same
phenomena come at different results and this can lead to faulty
perceptions
 Observation method is considered an expensive affair as it requires hard
effort, plenty of time and high cost

Participant observation
Participant observation was first introduced by Prof. Edward Winder Man. It means the activities of a
group in which an observer himself participate and note the situation. He willingly mixes with the
group and perform his activities as an observer not merely a participator who criticize the situation.
In other words he takes place and share the activities with his group. For example when we study the
rural and urban conditions of Asian people, we have to go there and watched what is going on. The
best philosophy of participant observation is that we watch the phenomena not to ask. The actual
behavior of the group can be observed only by participant observation not by any other method.

Merits
1. The observer is personally involved in group activities and shares their feelings and prejudices.
2. He participate himself and get insight into the behavior of the group.
3. It motivates and stimulates mutual relationship b/w the observer and observe.
4. He can get more information’s with accuracy and precision.
5. The information’s are recorded in front of the group people.
Demerits
1. The observer may develop emotional attachment to his group which will lose the objectivity of the
study.
 2. Cannot observe a certain phenomenon in a short time available to him.
3. Cannot cover a wide area through this method.
Non-Participant Observation
The non-participant observation has a lack of participation of the observer in his group activities. He
either watch the phenomena from a distance or participate in the group but never in its activities. He
only sit in the group but do not interest in the process.

The difference between participant & non-participant observation is that, in the former the observer
himself take part in a group and become the member of that group also participate in their activities
with full fledge while the latter refers to the less or no participation of the observer in his group, their
membership and activities. He watch from a distance but do not have active eye sight that what is
going on in the field of research.

Merits
1. Although observer himself never attach to the group but the objectivity maintained.
2. Less emotional involvement of the observer leads to accuracy and greater objectivity.
3. having secondary relationship with his group, so the information’s are collected entirely.
4. Through non-participant observation the research remains very smooth.
Demerits
1. Do not have full knowledge about the group activities.
2. Cannot understand the whole phenomena.
3. Cannot get real and deep insight into the phenomena.
Controlled Observation
Here observer and observe or subject both are controlled. For systematic data collection control is
imposed on both for accuracy and precision. When observation is pre-planned and definite, then it is
termed as controlled observation. In control observation, mechanical devices are used for precision
and standardized. So, control increase accuracy, reduce bias, ensure reliability and standardization.
Some of the devices are as under.

1. Observational plan.
2. Observational schedule.
3. Mechanical appliances like, camera, maps, films, video, tape recorder etc.
4. Team of observers.
5. Socio Matric Scale.
Un-Controlled Observation
Uncontrolled observation takes place in natural setting without the influence of external or outside
control. The observer does not plan in advance but this is related to day-to-day happenings and
socio-cultural problems. It studies some of our life situations.

Structured and Un-Structured Observation

It this type careful information’s are recorded in a standardized way. It is a planned observation of a
phenomena and to follow certain patterns, rules and designs for the purpose what, how and when to
observe, . Unstructured observation is opposite to structured. This is not systematic and un-planned
observation. A researcher do not set a plan in advance but he get the information’s freely. There is
no rules to follow by the researcher.
General or Layman Observation
General or layman observation make by people in day-to-day happenings. They see many things
daily but there is no objectivity of their study. For example a person see the children playing in a
garden is general observation.

Scientific Observation
Scientific observation is based on some scientific rules and deliberate thinking. The observer must
know what to observe. He have proper planning, objectivity, hypothesis and observation schedule in
his study. Scientific observation is reliable and more standardized than general observation.

1. Complete Observer

This is a detached observer where the researcher is neither seen nor noticed
by participants. It’s one way of minimizing the Hawthorne Effect as
participants are more likely to act natural when they don’t know they’re being
observed.
While this was once considered an objective role for the ethnographer, it’s
fallen out of favor because it’s the role most likely to raise ethical questions
about possible deception. How would you feel if you found out someone was
watching you, but you didn’t know? Sort of Big Brotherish, most likely.

However, in public places like coffee shops, office building lobbies, airports,
subway stations, or even public bathroomsthe complete observer role may be
the only means to collect the type of data you need. And with the ubiquity of
video cameras, remote observation remains a viable option.
2. Observer as Participant

Here the researcher is known and recognized by the participants and in many
cases, the participants know the research goals of the observer.

There is some interaction with the participants but the interaction is limited.
The researcher’s aim is to play a neutral role as much as possible.

This approach is generally used when “following a customer home” to

understand how someone uses software products to accomplish goals.

3. Participant as Observer

Here the researcher is fully engaged with the participants. She is more of a
friend or colleague than a neutral third party. While there is full interaction with
participants, they still known that this is a researcher.
This method is often used when studying remote indigenous populations or
inner-city cultures. There’s an anthropologist joke[pdf] that a household photo
of a native village consists of a married couple, their parents, and a graduate
student.

4. Complete Participant

This is a fully embedded researcher, almost like a spy. Here the observer fully
engages with the participants and partakes in their activities.

Participants aren’t aware that observation and research is being conducted,

even though they fully interact with the researcher. This has sometimes been
referred to as “going native,” in reference to performing indigenous fieldwork.

In customer research, this is like a secret shopper or the show Undercover

Boss. The idea is that the best way to understand a type of role, people, or
culture is to experience it firsthand. Want to understand Burning Man? Then
go as a complete participant.

Controlled Observation:
This technique involves a situation being slightly controlled by the researcher,
but with no IV.Usually conducted in a laboratory type setting. For example the
Milgram study. The picture below is of a study by Milgram which was a
controlled observation.
Strengths: