The Global 200: A Representation Approach to Conserving the Earth's Most Biologically

Valuable Ecoregions
Author(s): David M. Olson and Eric Dinerstein
Source: Conservation Biology , Jun., 1998, Vol. 12, No. 3 (Jun., 1998), pp. 502-515
Published by: Wiley for Society for Conservation Biology

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2387232

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Issues in International Conservation

The Global 200: A Representation Approach

to Conserving the Earth's Most Biologically
Valuable Ecoregions

The current extinction crisis re- The representation approach., ac- environmental conditions (Diner-
quires dramatic action to save the va- cepted by a growing number of con- stein et al. 1995; The Nature Conser-
riety of life on Earth. Because funding servationists, is soundly based in vancy 1997). Ecoregions function ef-
for conservation action is limited, conservation biology. It integrates fectively as conservation units at
governments, donors, and conserva- the goal of maintaining species di- regional scales because they encom-
tion groups must be strategic and ear- versity-the traditional focus of bio- pass similar biological communities
mark the greatest amount of resources diversity conservation-with another and because their boundaries roughly
for protecting the areas richest in level of conservation action, the pre- coincide with the area over which key
biodiversity. Most conservation biolo- servation of distinct ecosystems and ecological processes most strongly in-
gists recognize that, although we can- ecological processes. Although more teract (Orians 1993; Noss 1996).
not save everything, we should at least than half of all species are likely to To maintain representation of bio-
ensure that all ecosystem and habitat occur in the world's tropical moist diversity at a global scale, we first
types are represented within re- forests, the other 50% of all species stratified ecoregions by realm (ter-
gional conservation strategies (Hum- are found elsewhere. To conserve restrial, freshwater, and marine)
mel 1989; Caldecott et al. 1996; Krever that half, a full representation of the and then further divided realms by
et al. 1994; Noss & Cooperrider 1994; world's diverse ecosystems must be major habitat types (MHTs), which
BSP (Biodiversity Support Program) et the goal. describe different areas of the world
al. 1995; Dinerstein et al. 1995; United Tundra, tropical lakes, mangroves, that share similar environmental
Nations Environmental Programme and temperate broadleaf forests are conditions, habitat structure, and pat-
1995; Ricketts et al. in press). all unique expressions of biodiver- terns of biological complexity (e.g.,
The "representation" approach has sity. Although they may not support beta diversity) and that contain com-
been applied at a number of geo- the rich communities seen in tropi- munities with similar guild struc-
graphical scales, from single water- cal rainforests or coral reefs, they tures and species adaptations. The
sheds to entire continents (Hummel contain species assemblages adapted MHT classifications are roughly equiv-
1989; Nicol & Langrand 1989; Bed- to distinct environmental condi- alent to biomes. We identified 12
ward et al. 1992; Cox et al. 1994; tions and reflect different evolution- MHTs in the terrestrial realm, 3 in
MacKinnon 1994; Pressey & Logan ary histories. To lose examples of the freshwater realm, and 4 in the
1994; Caicco et al. 1995; Pressey et these assemblages, and the ecologi- marine realm (Table 1). Each MHT
al. 1994; Dinerstein et al. 1995; Feam- cal processes and evolutionary phe- was further subdivided by biogeo-
side & Ferraz 1995; Johnson 1995). nomena they contain, would repre- graphic realm (e.g., Nearctic, Indian
Here we introduce the Global 200, sent an enormous loss of biodiversity. Ocean) in order to represent unique
the first attempt to achieve represen- Although conservation action typi- faunas and floras of different conti-
tation of habitat types on a global cally takes place at the country level, nents or ocean basins. Finally, we
scale. Our primary objective is to pro- patterns of biodiversity and ecologi- identified ecoregions within each bio-
mote the conservation of terrestrial, cal processes (e.g., migration) do not geographic realm that represent the
freshwater, and marine ecosystems conform to political boundaries. Thus, most distinctive examples of biodiver-
harboring globally important biodi- we used the ecoregion as the unit of sity for a given MHT (Table 1).
versity and ecological processes. The analysis in creating the Global 200. The boundaries of terrestrial eco-
Global 200 addresses this goal by We define an ecoregion as a rela- regions for the Global 200 are taken
identifying the world's most out- tively large unit of land or water con- from intensive regional analyses of
standing examples within each major taining a characteristic set of natural biodiversity patterns across five con-
habitat type (e.g., tropical dry forests, communities that share a large ma- tinents undertaken by the World
large lakes, coral reefs). jority of their species, dynamics, and Wildlife Fund (WWF) Conservation

502

Conservation Biology, Pages 502-515

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 Issues in International Conservation 503

Table 1. The Global 200 ecoregions organized by terrestrial, freshwater, or marine realm; major habitat type; and biogeographic realm.a

Conservation
Realm and ecoregion Biogeographic realmb statusc

Terrestrial ecoregions
Tropical and subtropical
moist broadleaf forests Neotropical
1. Atlantic forests-Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina CE
2. Northern Andean montane forests-Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru CE
3. Andean Yungas-Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, Peru V
4. Coastal Venezuela montane forests-Venezuela CE
5. Greater Antillean moist forests-Haiti, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Jamaica,
Puerto Rico CE
6. Choc6-Darien moist forests-Colombia, Panama, Ecuador V
7. Varzea flooded forests-Peru, Brazil, Venezuela CE
8. Talamancan and Isthmian Pacific forests-Costa Rica, Panama V
9. Napo moist forests-Ecuador, Colombia, Peru RS
10. Rio Negro-Jurua moist forests-Colombia, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela RS
11. Southwestern Amazonian moist forests-Peru, Brazil, Bolivia RS
12. Guayanan forests-Venezuela, Brazil, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana RS
Afrotropical
13. Madagascar moist forests-Madagascar CE
14. Guinean moist forests-Ghana, Guinea, C6te d'Ivoire, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Togo CE
15. Eastern Arc montane forests-Tanzania, Kenya CE
16. East African coastal forests-Tanzania, Kenya, Mozambique, Somalia CE
17. Albertine Rift highland forests-D.R. Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, Burundi, Tanzania CE
18. East African highland forests-Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda CE
19. Seychelles and Mascarene Islands forests (e.g., Mauritius, Seychelles, Comoros,
Reunion, Rodrigues) CE
20. Gulf of Guinea Islands forests-Sao Tome and Principe, Equatorial Guinea, CE
21. Macaronesian forests (Azores, Madeira, Canary, Cape Verde Islands) CE
22. Congolian coastal forests-Cameroon, Gabon, R. Congo, Nigeria, Equatorial
Guinea, Benin CE
23. Western Congo Basin forests-Central African Republic, Cameroon, R. Congo,
Gabon, D.R. Congo, Equatorial Guinea RS
24. Northeastern Congo Basin forests-D.R. Congo, Central African Republic, Sudan,
Uganda RS
25. Southern Congo Basin forests-D.R. Congo, Congo, Angola RS
Indo-Malayan
26. Annamite Range moist forests-Laos, Vietnam, Thailand V
27. Western Ghats moist forests-India CE
28. Sri Lankan moist forests-Sri Lanka CE
29. Kayah-Karen/Tenasserim moist forests-Thailand, Myanmar, Malaysia RS
30. Peninsular Malaysian lowland and montane forests-Malaysia, Thailand CE
31. Sumatran-Nicobar Islands lowland forests-Indonesia, India CE
32. Sumatran montane forests-Indonesia V
33. Central Borneo montane forests-Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei RS
34. Northern Borneo-Palawan moist forests-Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Brunei CE
35. Philippines moist forests-Philippines CE
36. Sulawesi moist forests-Indonesia RS
37. Moluccas moist forests-Indonesia RS
38. Northern Indochina subtropical moist forests-Myanmar, Thailand, Laos,
Vietnam, China V
39. Southeast China subtropical forests-China CE
40. Northeastern India and Myanmar hill forests-India, Myanmar, Bangladesh RS
41. Andaman Islands forests-India V
42. Taiwan montane forests-Taiwan V
43. Hainan Island forests-China CE
44. Nansei Shoto Archipelago forests-Japan CE
Australasian
45. New Caledonia moist forests-New Caledonia, France CE
46. New Zealand tropical forests-New Zealand CE
47. Queensland tropical forests-Australia V
48. New Guinea montane forests-Papua New Guinea, Indonesia RS
49. New Guinea lowland forests-Papua New Guinea, Indonesia RS

continued

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504 Issues in International Conservation

Table 1. (continued)

Conservation
Realm and ecoregion Biogeographic realm statusb

50. New Guinea outer islands/Solomons moist forests-Papua New Guinea,

Solomon Islands RS
51. Lord Howe and Norfolk Island forests-Australia CE
Oceanian
52. Hawai'i moist forests-United States CE
53. South Pacific Islands forests-Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, I Sisito, American Samoa CE
Tropical, subtropical
dry, and monsoon
broadleaf forests Neotropical
54. Bolivian lowland dry forests-Bolivia, Brazil CE
55. Tumbesian and North Inter-Andean Valleys dry forests-Ecuador, Peru, Colombia CE
56. Southern Mexican dry forests-Mexico CE
Afrotropical
57. Madagascar dry forests-Madagascar CE
58. Maputaland-Pondoland dry forests-South Africa, Swaziland, Mozambique CE
Indo-Malayan
59. Eastern Indochina dry and monsoon forests-Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia V
60. Lesser Sundas dry and monsoon forests-Indonesia V
61. Eastern Indian monsoon forests-India V
Australasia
62. New Caledonia dry forests-New Caledonia, France CE
Oceanian
63. Hawai'i dry forests-United States CE
Tropical and subtropical
conifer forests Neotropical
64. Mexican pine-oak forests-Mexico, United States CE
65. Greater Antillean pine forests-Haiti, Cuba, Dominican Republic CE
Temperate conifer and
broadleaf forests Nearctic
66. Klamath-Siskiyou coniferous forests-United States CE
67. Appalachian and mixed mesophytic forests-United States CE
68. Pacific temperate rainforests-United States, Canada CE
69. Sierra Nevada conifer forests-United States CE
70. Southeastern conifer and broadleaf forests-United States CE
Neotropical
71. Valdivian temperate rainforests-Chile, Argentina CE
Palearctic
72. Russian Far East temperate forests-Russia, China V
73. Altai-Sayan montane forests-Russia, Kazakstan, Mongolia, China RS
74. Caucasus and Northeast Anatolia temperate forests-Georgia, Azerbaijan,
Turkey, Russia, Iran, Armenia V
75. Middle Asian mountains temperate forests and steppe-Kyrgyzstan,
Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakstan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, India,
Mongolia, China, Iran V
76. Western Himalayan temperate forests-Pakistan, India, Nepal CE
77. Southern European montane forests-Bulgaria, Greece, Spain, Italy, France,
Andorra, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Czech
Republic, Germany, Romania, Ukraine, Yugoslavia CE
78. Central China temperate forests-China CE
79. Eastern Himalayan broadleaf and conifer forests-Bhutan, India, Nepal,
Myanmar, China V
Australasian
80. Eastern Australia temperate forests-Australia V
81. Tasmanian temperate rainforests-Australia CE
82. South Island temperate rainforests-New Zealand RS
Boreal forests and taiga Nearctic
83. Canadian boreal taiga-Canada RS
84. Northern Cordillera boreal forests-Canada RS
Palearctic
85. Central and Eastern Siberian boreal forests and taiga-Russia RS
86. Ural Mountains boreal forests and taiga-Russia RS
87. Kamchatka boreal taiga and grasslands-Russia RS
continued

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 Issues in International ConservatiQn 505

Table 1. (continued)

Conservation
Realm and ecoregion Biogeographic realm statusb

Arctic tundra Nearctic and Palearctic

88. Alaskan North Slope coastal tundra-United States, Canada V
89. Low Arctic tundra-Canada RS
90. Chukotsky coastal tundra-Russia RS
91. Taimyr coastal tundra-Russia RS
92. Scandinavian alpine tundra and taiga-Norway, Sweden, Finland V
Temperate grasslands,
savannas, and
shrublands Neotropical
93. Patagonian steppe and grasslands-Argentina, Chile V
Nearctic
94. Tallgrass prairies-United States CE
Palearctic
95. Eastern Himalayan alpine meadows-Bhutan, Nepal, India, Myanmar, China RS
96. Tibetan Plateau steppe-China, India RS
97. Daurian steppe-Mongolia, Russia, China RS
Tropical and subtropical
grasslands, savannas,
and shrublands Neotropical
98. Llanos savannas-Venezuela, Colombia V
99. Cerrado woodlands and savannas-Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay V
100. Beni savannas-Bolivia V
Afrotropical
101. Angolan Escarpment woodlands-Angola CE
102. Zambezian woodlands and savannas-Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe,
Mozambique, Angola, Namibia, Botswana, D.R. Congo, Burundi V
103. Sudanian savannas-Central African Republic, Chad, Uganda, Ethiopia,
D.R. Congo, Cameroon, Sudan, Nigeria, Eritrea V
104. East African acacia savannas-Kenya, Tanzania, Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda V
Indo-Malayan
105. Terai-Duar savannas and grasslands-Nepal, India, Bhutan, Bangladesh CE
Palearctic
106. Arabian fog woodlands and shrublands-United Arab Emirates, Oman, Yemen,
Saudi Arabia V
107. Red Sea fog woodlands-Egypt, Sudan, Djibouti, Eritrea CE
Australasian
108. Northern Australia and Trans-Fly savannas-Australia, Papua New Guinea,
Indonesia RS
Flooded grasslands and
savannas Neotropical
109. Pantanal flooded savannas-Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay V
110. Everglades flooded grasslands-United States CE
Afrotropical
111. Sahelian flooded savannas-Mali, Chad, Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon, Senegal,
Mauritania V
112. Zambezian flooded savannas-Botswana, Namibia, Angola, Zambia, Malawi,
Mozambique CE
113. Sudd flooded grasslands and savannas-Sudan, Ethiopia V
Tropical montane
grasslands and
savannas Neotropical
114. North Andean paramo-Ecuador, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru V
Afrotropical
115. East African moorlands-Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, D.R. Congo, Rwanda RS
116. Ethiopian Highlands-Ethiopia, Somalia, Eritrea, Sudan CE
117. Zambezian montane savannas and woodlands-Zimbabwe, Mozambique,
Malawi, Zambia, Tanzania CE
118. South African montane grasslands and shrublands-South Africa, Lesotho,
Swaziland CE
Indo-Malayan
119. Mt. Kinabalu montane and alpine scrub and forest-Malaysia RS

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506 Issues in International Conservation

Table 1. (continued)

Conservation
Realm and ecoregion Biogeographic realm statusb

Australasian
120. Maoke Range alpine heathiands-Indonesia RS
Deserts and xeric
shrublands Neotropical
121. Sonoran and Baja Deserts-Mexico, United States V
122. Chihuahuan and Tehuacan Deserts-Mexico, United States V
123. Galapagos Islands scrubs-Ecuador V
124. Atacama Desert-Chile CE
Afrotropical
125. Namib and Karoo deserts and shrublands-South Africa, Namibia CE
126. Kaokoveld Desert-Namibia, Angola V
127. Madagascar Spiny Desert-Madagascar CE
128. Horn of Africa deserts-Somalia V
129. Socotra Island Desert-Yemen V
Palearctic
130. Central Asian deserts-Turkmenistan, Kazakstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan CE
Australasian
131. Sandy Australian deserts and central ranges-Australia RS
Mediterranean
shrublands and
woodlands Neotropical
132. Chilean matorral-Chile CE
133. California chaparral and woodlands-United States, Mexico CE
Afrotropical
134. Fynbos-South Africa CE
Palearctic
135. Mediterranean shrublands and woodlands-Portugal, Spain, France, Italy,
Monaco, Greece, Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Albania, Turkey,
Libya, Lebanon, Israel, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Malta, Cyprus, Macedonia,
Bulgaria, Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Slovenia, Gibraltar CE
Australasian
136. Southwest Australian shrublands and woodlands-Australia CE
Freshwater ecoregions
Small rivers and streams Nearctic
137. Mississippi piedmont rivers and streams-United States
138. Southeastern rivers and streams-United States
139. Pacific Northwest coastal rivers and streams-United States
140. Gulf of Alaska coastal rivers and streams-United States, Canada
Neotropical
141. Guayanan highlands freshwater ecosystems-Venezuela, Brazil, Guyana,
Colombia
142. Greater Antillean streams-Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic
143. Upper Amazon and Orinoco Rivers and streams-Ecuador, Venezuela,
Colombia, Peru, Brazil, Bolivia
144. Upper Parand River-Brazil, Paraguay
Afrotropical
145. Madagascar freshwater ecosystems-Madagascar
146. Gulf of Guinea rivers and crater lakes-Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon,
Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Congo, D.R. Congo, Central African Republic, Ghana
147. Congo Basin piedmont rivers and streams-D.R. Congo, R. Congo, Angola,
Zambia, Central African Republic
Indo-Malayan
148. Sri Lankan rivers and streams-Sri Lanka
149. Sundaland rivers and swamps-Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei
150. Western Ghats rivers and streams-India
Palearctic
151. Russian Far East rivers and wetlands-Russia, China, Mongolia
Australasian
152. New Guinea rivers and streams-Papua New Guinea, Indonesia
153. New Caledonia rivers and streams-New Caledonia, France
154. Eastern Australian rivers and streams-Australia

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 Issues in International Conservation 507

Table 1. (continued)

Conservation
Realm and ecoregion Biogeographic realm statusb

Large rivers Nearctic

155. Colorado River-United States, Mexico
Neotropical
156. Varzea and Igap6 freshwater ecosystems-Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela
157. Brazilian Shield Amazonian rivers and streams-Brazil, Bolivia
Afrotropical
158. Congo River-D.R. Congo, R. Congo, Angola
Indo-Malayan
159. Mekong and Salween Rivers-Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, China
160. Yangtze River and lakes-China
Lake and closed basin
freshwater ecosystems Nearctic
161. Great Basin lakes and springs-United States
Neotropical
162. Chihuahuan rivers and springs-Mexico, United States
163. Mexican Highland lakes-Mexico
164. High Andean lakes-Chile, Bolivia, Argentina, Peru
Afrotropical
165. Rift Valley lakes-D.R. Congo, Uganda, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Kenya, Rwanda,
Malawi, Mozambique, Burundi, Zambia
Palearctic
166. Lake Baikal-Russia
167. Yunnan lakes and streams-China
168. Lake Biwa-Japan
Indo-Malayan
169. Palawan and Mindanao streams and lakes (Lake Lanao)-Philippines
170. Lake Inle-Myanmar
171. Central Sulawesi lakes-Indonesia
Australasian
172. Lakes Kutubu and Sentani-Papua New Guinea, Indonesia
Marine ecoregions
Large deltas, mangroves,
and estuaries Nearctic
173. Chesapeake Bay and Delaware Bay-United States
Neotropical
174. Central American mangroves-Belize, Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua, El
Salvador, Panama, Guatemala, Costa Rica
175. Panama Bight mangroves-Ecuador, Panama, Colombia
176. Orinoco-Amazon mangroves and coastal swamps-Venezuela, Trinidad and
Tobago, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana, Brazil
177. Mexican mangroves-Mexico
Afrotropical
178. Senegal and Gambia river mangroves and wetlands-Senegal, Gambia, Guinea,
Guinea-Bissau
179. Guinean-Congolian coast mangroves-Nigeria, Cameroon, Benin, Togo, Ghana,
R. Congo, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Saio Tome and
Principe, D.R. Congo, Sierra Leone, Angola
180. East African mangroves-Kenya, Tanzania, Somalia, Mozambique
Palearctic
181. Volga River Delta-Russia, Kazakstan
182. Mesopotamian Delta and marshes-Iraq, Iran, Kuwait
183. Danube River Delta-Romania, Ukraine, Moldavia
184. Lena River Delta-Russia
Indo-Malayan
185. Mekong River Delta mangroves-Vietnam, Cambodia
186. Sundarbans mangroves-India, Bangladesh
187. Sundaland and Eastern Indonesian archipelago mangroves-Indonesia
188. Indus River Delta and Rann of Kutch-Pakistan, India
Australasian
189. New Guinea mangroves-Papua New Guinea, Indonesia

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508 Issues in International Conservation

Table 1. (continued)

Conservation
Realm and ecoregion Biogeographic realm statusb

Coral reef and associated

marine ecosystems Western Atlantic
190. Mesoamerican Reef-Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico
191. Southern Caribbean Sea-Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago,
Netherlands Antilles
192. Greater Antilles and Bahamian marine ecosystems-Jamaica, Cuba, Haiti,
Dominican Republic, Cayman Islands, Bahamas, United States, Turks and Caicos
Western Indian Ocean
193. East African marine ecosystems-Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Somalia
194. Western Madagascar marine ecosystems-Madagascar
195. Red Sea marine ecosystems-Egypt, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Eritrea,
Djibouti, Sudan, Jordan
196. Agulhas Current marine ecosystems-Mozambique, South Africa
Northern Indian Ocean
197. Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf-Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates,
Qatar, Oman, Iran, Pakistan, Yemen
198. Maldives, Lakshadweep, and Chagos marine ecosystems-Maldives, India,
United Kingdom
199. Andaman and Nicobar Islands marine ecosystems-India
Eastern Indian Ocean
200. Western Australian marine ecosystems-Australia
Western Pacific Ocean
201. Isthmus of Kra marine ecosystems-Thailand, Malaysia
202. Nansei Shoto marine ecosystems-Japan
203. Sulu Sea-Philippines, Malaysia
204. Sulawesi Sea-Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia
205. Banda-Flores Seas marine ecosystems-Indonesia
206. Northern New Guinea and Coral Sea marine ecosystems-Papua New Guinea,
Indonesia, Solomon Islands
207. Micronesian marine ecosystems-Palau, Federated States of Micronesia
Eastern Pacific Ocean
208. Panama Bight marine ecosystems-Panama, Colombia, Ecuador
Southern Pacific Ocean
209. South Pacific marine ecosystems (Vanuatu, Fiji, New Caledonia, Samoa, Tonga,
Tuvalu)
210. Great Barrier Reef-Australia
211. Eastern Polynesian Island marine ecosystems (particularly, Hawai'i, Marquesas,
Easter Island, Societies and Tuamotus)
212. Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island marine ecosystems-Australia
Coastal marine
ecosystems Northern Atlantic Ocean
213. Icelandic and Celtic marine ecosystems-Iceland, France, Ireland, United
Kingdom, Denmark
214. Grand Banks-Canada, United States
215. Wadden Sea-Denmark, Germany, Belgium, The Netherlands
Western Atlantic Ocean
216. Northeast Brazilian coast marine ecosystems-Brazil
Eastern Atlantic Ocean
217. Gulf of Guinea marine ecosystems-Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, R. Congo,
D.R. Congo, Angola, Cameroon, Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Saio Tome and Principe
218. Western Guinea current marine ecosystems-Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau,
Guinea, Sierra Leone, Cape Verde, Liberia, Mauritania
Southern Atlantic Ocean
219. Benguela Current-Namibia, South Africa, Angola
220. Southwest Atlantic coast marine ecosystems-Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil
Mediterranean Sea
221. Mediterranean Sea
Western Pacific Ocean
222. Yellow Sea and East China Sea-China, North Korea, South Korea, Japan
Eastern Pacific Ocean
223. Californian Current-United States, Canada, Mexico

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 Issues in International Conservation 509

Table 1. (continued)

Conservation
Realm and ecoregion Biogeographic realm statusb

224. Sea of Cortez-Mexico

225. Peru Current-Peru, Chile
226. Galapagos Islands marine ecosystems-Ecuador
227. Magellanic Marine ecosystems-Chile, Argentina
Southern Pacific Ocean
228. South temperate Australian marine ecosystems-Australia
Polar and subpolar
marine ecosystems Antarctic Seas
229. Antarctic Peninsula and Weddell Sea
230. New Zealand marine ecosystems-New Zealand
Arctic Ocean and Seas
231. Bering and Beaufort Seas-Russia, United States, Canada
232. Sea of Okhotsk and Northern Sea of Japan-Russia, Japan
233. Svalbard/Franz Joseph Land marine ecosystems-Russia, Norway

a We anticipate that there will be some minor modification of the Global 200 list in the future as new information becomes available and on-
going analyses are finalized.
bNumbers of ecosystems correspond to Figs. 1 and 2.
CCE, critical or endangered; V vulnerable; RS, relatively stable or intact.

Science Program and others (Victor ecosystem framework, derived from grations, extraordinary adaptive radia-
1955; Freitag 1971; Zohary 1973; several global and regional analyses tions), and global rarity of MHT (Olson
Miyawaki 1975; Yim 1977; Chinese (e.g., Hayden et al. 1984; World Con- & Dinerstein 1997). We compared
Vegetation Map Compilation Com- servation Union and World Conserva- only the biodiversity value of ecore-
mittee 1979; New Zealand Depart- tion Monitoring Centre 1988; Sher- gions sharing the same MHT because
ment of Conservation 1987; Noirfa- man et al. 1990; Croom et al. 1992; the relative magnitude of parameters
lise 1987; Changchun Institute of Ray & Hayden 1993; Kelleher et al. such as richness and endemism varies
Geography and Chinese Academy of 1995; Groombridge & Jenkins 1996; widely among MHTs. For ecoregions
Sciences 1990; Kurnaev 1990; Bohn Sullivan & Bustamante 1996; Ormond of equal biological distinctiveness in
1994; Krever et al. 1994; WWF & et al. 1997). the same MHT and biogeographic
World Conservation Union 1994, Within each MHT and biogeo- realm, we selected the ecoregions
1995, 1997; Dinerstein et al. 1995; graphic realm, ecoregions are classi- that had more intact habitats and
Ecological Stratification Working fied by their biological distinctive- biotas based on assessments of their
Group 1995; Gallant et al. 1995; Hil- ness at one of four levels: globally conservation status (Dinerstein et al.
big 1995; Omemik 1995; Thackway outstanding, regionally outstanding 1995; Ricketts et al. in press; E.
& Cresswell 1995; Mongolian Minis- (e.g., Nearctic), bioregionally out- Wikramanayake, unpublished data).
try for Nature and the Environment standing (e.g., Caribbean), or locally We identified 233 ecoregions
et al. 1996; Ricketts et al. in press; important. Biological distinctiveness, whose biodiversity and representa-
Bohn & Katenina 1996; S. Gon, per- as a discriminator, evaluates the rela- tion values are outstanding on a global
sonal communication; Wikramana- tive importance and rarity of differ- scale (Table 1, Figs. 1 & 2). They rep-
yake et al., unpublished data). These ent units of biodiversity. It can be resent the terrestrial, freshwater, and
assessments were conducted in col- used to estimate the urgency of ac- marine realms, and the 19 MHTs
laboration with hundreds of regional tion based on the opportunities for nested within these realms. Among
experts and included extensive liter- conserving distinct units around the the 3 realms, 136 (58%) are terrestrial,
ature reviews. world. On a global scale, and within 36 (16%) are freshwater ecoregions,
Freshwater ecoregions were based each biogeographic realm, we chose and 61 (26%) are marine. Terrestrial
on several regional analyses and con- the set of ecoregions with the great- ecoregions outnumber those of the
sultations with regional experts (Ho- est biological distinctiveness based other realms largely because there is
cutt & Wiley 1986; Frest & Johannes on the following parameters: spe- more localized endemism in terres-
1993; World Conservation Monitor- cies richness, endemism, taxonomic trial than in marine biotas. Gaps in
ing Centre 1992; Maxwell et al. 1995; uniqueness (e.g., unique genera or biogeographic information for fresh-
Kottelat & Whitten 1996; Abell et al. families, relict taxa or communities, water and marine biodiversity also ac-
1997; Olson et al. 1997). Marine primitive lineages), unusual ecologi- count for some of the variation.
ecoregions delineated by the Global cal or evolutionary phenomena (e.g., The results of the analysis target a
200 are nested within a large marine intact large vertebrate faunas or mi- number of well-known biodiversity

Conservation Biology
Volume 12, No. 3, June 1998

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Conservation Biology
Volume 12, No. 3, June 1998

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 Issues in Intemational Conservation 511

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512 Issues in International Conservation

priorities. For example, the Western et al. 1994; BSP et al. 1995; Dinerstein MHTs, upwelling areas are heavily
Arc forests of the Amazon Basin, the et al. 1995; Harcourt et al. 1996; Mac- overfished, enclosed seas are de-
Atlantic Forest ecoregion of Brazil, Kinnon & Bunting 1996; Bryant et al. graded, and coral reefs and man-
the Choco-Darien ecoregion of north- 1997; Dinerstein et al. 1997; Dobson groves are severely affected by habi-
western South America, Peninsular et al. 1997; Ricketts et al. in press; E. tat destruction, degradation, and
Malaysia, and the northern Borneo for- Wikramanayake, unpublished data). overfishing around the world (Sher-
est ecoregions are among the richest Terrestrial ecoregions were classi- man et al. 1990; Suchanek 1994; Bry-
tropical moist forests on Earth. Simi- fied into one of three broad conser- ant et al. 1995; Kelleher et al. 1995;
larly, the forests of Madagascar and vation status categories: critical/en- Olson et al. 1996).
New Caledonia were also recog- dangered, vulnerable, or relatively The Global 200 is an effective tool
nized as highly distinctive at global stable/relatively intact. for (1) targeting distinctive biogeo-
scales, partly because of the number Among terrestrial Global 200 ecore- graphic units of biodiversity and (2)
of endemic higher taxa (e.g., fami- gions, 47% are considered critical or promoting ecosystem-level represen-
lies and genera). Other results high- endangered, 29% vulnerable, and 24% tation at global scales. The Global
light less well-known areas. For ex- relatively stable or intact (Table 1). 200 broadens the goals of conserva-
ample, Mexico harbors both the Terrestrial ecoregion boundaries ap- tion from a primary focus on pre-
world's richest and most complex proximate original extent, showing serving species diversity to an en-
subtropical conifer forests and the extensive habitat loss, fragmenta- compassing view of habitat diversity,
most diverse dry forests in the tion, and degradation within. In ecological processes, evolutionary
world; the moist forests of Sulawesi ecoregions that have been dramati- phenomena, and adaptations of spe-
display some of the highest levels of cally altered, characteristic species cies to different environmental con-
mammal endemism in the Indo- and communities survive in only a ditions around the world. In some
Pacific region, and the Congolian few remaining small blocks of habi- cases, it also distinguishes representa-
Coastal forests are Africa's richest tat (Collar & Andrew 1988; Diner- tive ecoregions that are more intact
moist forests and exhibit pronounced stein et al. 1995). Among the terres- than others, highlighting the best op-
narrow endemism. Results for marine trial MHTs, ecoregions falling within portunities for long-term conservation.
and freshwater ecoregions also con- the tropical dry forests, temperate Like any effort to set priorities, the
firmed documented patterns and grasslands, Mediterranean shrublands, Global 200 cannot address all as-
highlighted many less recognized and temperate broadleaf forests are pects of biodiversity conservation.
priorities, such as the extraordinary the most threatened. Island ecore- The Global 200 does not explicitly
temperate freshwater biotas of the gions are projected to experience a target hemispheric-scale ecological
streams of southeastern North Amer- wave of extinctions over the next phenomena such as migrations of
ica and the Yangtze River headwaters two decades because of the fragility marine mammals,' sea turtles, birds,
in central China, and the unusually of island ecosystems, the sensitivity or fish; intratropical migrations of
high levels of endemism of temperate and endemicity of island species, bats, birds, and insects; widespread
marine invertebrates in the South and the severe threats native island and dynamic pelagic ecosystems; hy-
Australian coastal ecoregion. biotas face worldwide from intro- drothermal vent communities; abys-
Ecoregions vary greatly not only in duced species and habitat loss (Raven sal ecosystems; cave and groundwa-
their biological distinctiveness but 1988; Wilson 1988, 1992; World Con- ter ecosystems; or global ecosystem
also in their conservation status. servation Monitoring Centre 1992; Su- dynamics such as carbon sequestra-
Conservation status represents an es- jatnika et al. 1995; Brooks et al. 1997; tion. More-detailed, fine-scale analy-
timate of the current and future abil- Reaka-Kudla 1997; Stattersfield et al. ses are essential to identify impor-
ity of an ecoregion to maintain via- 1998). tant targets within ecoregions.
ble species populations, to sustain We have not completed an assess- One tactical concern about the
ecological processes, and to be re- ment of the status of freshwater and Global 200 is that it is too ambitious;
sponsive to short- and long-term en- marine ecoregions, but preliminary that is, by focusing on 233 ecore-
vironmental changes. We conducted analyses show that freshwater ecosys- gions rather than on a handful of
conservation status assessments for tems, particularly seasonally flooded conservation units we run the risk of
the terrestrial Global 200 ecoregions forests, cataracts, and freshwater com- placing less emphasis on the most
based on landscape-level features, munities in xeric areas, are endan- diverse and distinct ecoregions. We
such as total habitat loss and the de- gered worldwide (Goulding et al. argue that the broad geographic
gree of fragmentation, and esti- 1996; Abell et al. 1997; Olson et al. reach of the Global 200 makes al-
mates of future threat and degree of 1997). Moreover, most temperate most every nation on Earth a stake-
protection. We drew heavily from freshwater biotas are threatened by holder in a global conservation strat-
regional conservation assessments to invasion of exotics, pollution, dams, egy. From the global scale to regional
estimate conservation status (Krever and habitat degradation. In marine and national conservation strate-

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 Issues in International Conservation 513

gies, the Global 200 lends weight to Biodiversity Support Program, Conservation tion gap analysis of Brazil's Amazonian vege-

shared priorities and provides a glo- International, The Nature Conservancy, tation. Conservation Biology 9:1134-1147.
World Resources Institute, and World Wild- Freitag, H. 1971. Studies in the natural vegeta-
bal perspective for lobbying efforts
life Fund. 1995. A regional analysis of geo- tion of Afghanistan. Pages 89-106 in P. H.
by local conservation groups. The graphic priorities, for biodiversity conserva- Davis, P. C. Harper, and I. C. Hedge, edi-
Global 200 also can help major de- tion in LAC. A report. USAID, Biodiversity tors. Plant life of South-West Asia. The Bo-
velopment agencies to better recog- Support Program, Washington, D.C. tanical Society of Endinburgh, Edinburgh,

nize and mitigate the effects of Caicco, S. L., J. M. Scott, B. Butterfield, and B. United Kingdom.
Csuti. 1995. A gap analysis of the manage- Frest, T. J., and E. J. Johannes. 1993. Mollusk
projects that result in land-use change
ment status of the vegetation of Idaho species of special concern within the
or to forego development activities (USA). Conservation Biology 9:498-511. range of the Northern Spotted Owl. Final
in particularly sensitive ecoregions. Caldecott, J. O., M. D. Jenkins, T. Johnson, report prepared for the Forest Ecosystem
For these reasons we see the Global and B. Groombridge. 1996. Priorities for Management Working Group, USDA For-

200 as a map guiding conservation conserving global species richness and en- est Service. Deixis Consultants, Seattle,
demism. Biodiversity and Conservation 5: Washington.
investments so that a comprehen-
699-727. Gallant, A. L., E. F. Binnian, J. M. Omemik,
sive plan eventually can be achieved Changchun Institute of Geography and Chi- and M. B. Shasby. 1995. Ecoregions of
by the global conservation commu- nese Academy of Sciences. 1990. The con- Alaska. U.S. Geological Survey profes-
nity and the nations of the world. servation atlas of China. Science Press, sional paper 1567. Map. U.S. Government
Beijing. Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
The widespread destruction of the
Chinese Vegetation Map Compilation Commit- Goulding, M., N. J. H. Smith, and D. J. Mahar.
Earth's biodiversity occurring today
tee. 1979. Vegetation map of China. Map 1996. Floods of fortune: ecology and
must be matched by a response an or- (1:10,000,000). Science Press, Beijing. economy along the Amazon. Columbia
der of magnitude greater than cur- Collar, N. J., and P. Andrew. 1988. Birds to University Press, New York.
rently exists. The Global 200 provides watch: the ICBP world checklist of threat- Groombridge, B., and M. D. Jenkins, editors.

a necessarily ambitious template for a ened birds. ICBP technical publications 1996. The diversity of the seas: a regional
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 Issues in International Conservation 515

Note and E. Dinerstein. This document is Fund-U.S., 1250 24th Street NW, Washington,
D.C. 20037, U.S.A.
available on the Internet at http://
This Issues in International Conser-
www.world wildlife fund.org.
vation piece summarizes a much
more comprehensive document, "The Eric Dinerstein
Global 200: A Representation Ap-
David M. Olson Conservation Science Program, World Wildlife
proach to Conserving the Earth's Dis- Fund-U.S., 1250 24th Street NW, Washington,
tinctive Ecoregions" by D. M. Olson Conservation Science Program, World Wildlife D.C. 20037, U.S.A.

3 AW

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