Chapter I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE

Introduction

This chapter includes the review of related literature and studies, research questions, theoretical lens,

significance of the study, scope and limitation of the study and the definition of terms used in this study.

Review of Related Literatures and Studies

Reading is a complex process involving word recognition, comprehension, fluency, and motivation. Reading

is more than just making meaning from prints but it involves interaction with the texts. In school, reading is one of

the most important skills a learner should develop. Reading is a life skill that will enable learners to extend their

concepts and gain information as the basis for other learning.

Learning to read is essential to learners’ well-being. Reading habit is however the single most important

determinant of a student’s success in education and in the modern complex society (State, n.d.) A child who cannot

read at a comfortable level will experience significant difficulties mastering many types of academic content and may

have the risk to fail in school (Reid, n.d.). It was further stressed that every learner must become fully proficient in

reading to be successful in school (Aina, A J;Okusaga, T.O.; Taiwo, Adebowale and Ogundipe, 2011). Moreover,

Cayubit (2015) added that any Filipino child with sufficient reading skills would have greater chances of success in

school compared to a child whose reading skills are poor.

Due to the importance of reading, it became a dream of every teacher that every student in her class is a reader

who can acquire knowledge, skills and understanding to combat the challenges of life in order to meet the global

demand. In the journal Reading Culture: A Panacean for Educational Development published by Delta State, reading

is the Corner stone of learning. Thus, one can safely say that reading is the backbone of learning Mathematics,

Science, Social Studies and other subjects. However, the reality shows that many young learners are experiencing

some kind of difficulty and struggles in learning to read especially in our present world where there are many

distractions like games and other social media, which make their interest in reading suffer. In fact, because of

technological development and the widespread of the use of social media, students’ reading habits are changing.

Today, while technology is slowly taking a steady control over individual lives, the reading habit is fast vanishing.

Students now lack the skill and interest in reading and instead they spend more hours on electronic media, playing

online games and browsing their Facebook and Twitter accounts (Adu-sarkodee, Asante, & Akussah, 2015).
 This reality is an international scenario. According to the result of the National Assessment of Educational

Progress, more than two thirds of all 14-year-old students in the United States of America (USA) read below grade

level, and more than six million students in the said country between the ages of 12 and 18 are struggling readers.

The same scenario is happening in Germany where nearly one-fifth of 15-year-olds in their country are reading below

grade level expectations (Kissau & Hiller, 2013). In the Philippines, the situation is no different from the world. In

fact, the government issued policies and programs to keep children is school as stated in Education for All 2015

National Review. Part of it is to make each child a reader by the time he/she complete Grade 1 (Department of

Education of the Philippines & UNESCO, 2015). This policy aims to keep children in school and eventually help

them succeed in life because children with poor reading skills receive poor grades at school, get easily distracted and

frustrated, have behavior problems, seem to dislike school, often fail to develop to their full potential and eventually

will drop from school works. (Cayubit, 2015). Thus the Philippine government gave priority on developing learners’

ability to read and write to promote effective readers and enhance literacy(Davis et al., 2016).

It is for also for these reasons that United States of America Agency for International Development (USAUD)

has invested heavily in raising the reading ability of millions of children across dozens of countries. It made

improvement of reading instruction, strengthening education delivery systems, and enhancing engagement,

accountability and transparency as part of its Goal 1 of the 2011–2015 Education Strategy. Between the years 2011

and 2015, USAID had sponsored early grade reading programs reaching out to 37.7 million primary-aged

students(Piper & Spratt, 2016).

According to Mendoza (2015), learning institutions need to intensify renewed efforts as well as commitment

in promoting and sustaining effective skill, in a rapidly changing condition. Most often, the determinant of a

successful learning institution is through their students’ reading proficiency.

Apparently, in the Philippines, the ability to read and write is our priority that the government puts effort to

promote effective readers and enhance high literacy. One can be literate, but not necessarily a reader because reading

is a skill that requires the development of a habit that must be exercised regularly, if it is to be retained and enhanced.

Consequently, non-reader can be considered as having with reading disability. A non-reader is an individual,

with a reading disability, who demonstrates difficulties in reading skills that are unexpected in relation to age,

cognitive ability, quantity and quality of instruction, and intervention. The reading difficulties are not the result of

generalized developmental delay or sensory impairment (Lundberg & Hoien, 2001). Reading disability may be

characterized by: • difficulties in single word reading; • initial difficulties decoding or sounding out words; •
difficulties reading sight words; • insufficient phonological processing; that is, the understanding that sentences are

comprised of words, words are made up of syllables, and syllables are made up of individual sounds or phonemes;

Definition of reading.

Reading is a complex process made up of several interlocking skills and processes. These skills and strategies

are employed before, during, and after reading. Reading is a process by which the reader makes personal connections

with a text to construct meaning. Reading and responding to a text are integral parts of language learning. Effective

readers employ a wide repertoire of meaning-making (comprehension) strategies that they can deploy independently

with a range of texts (Tankersley, 2013).

Characteristic of a Non-reader

Non-readers cannot recognize words quickly and efficiently. They could not demonstrate high word

recognition. They possess weak fluency skills. They read with no good expression, intonation, pitch, and phrasing.

To add, non-readers cannot recognize some letters or words like own name, classroom labels, signs, and other

environmental print (Mather & Goldstein, 2001).

Thus, Saskatchewan (2013) urges that it is important for teachers to understand the critical elements of

reading instruction. Students who have a reading disability will require intensive direct instruction. The critical

elements of reading instruction include; strategies for reading comprehension, strategies for building meaning using

the cues and conventions of language including phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary

development, awareness of sentence structures, awareness of text structures and organizational patterns, and the

pragmatics of text and reading fluency. In addition, Saskatchewan (2012), believed that Learning English language

arts curricula must focus on teaching students through an integrated process to help them understand the relationship

among the elements and how they relate to the ultimate goal of reading. Expressive and receptive oral language

provide the foundation for these elements. These critical elements must be explicitly and intensively taught if

students are to become proficient readers and writers. Students who are at risk for reading failure require direct

teaching through a systematic format.

Further, an extensive research has found out that each of the components is an important element in teaching

children to become proficient readers. A focus on any single element is not sufficient to comprise an effective

reading program. All elements need to be taught systematically and explicitly through a balanced approach. Only

when all the elements are taught in a balanced approach do students have the opportunity to become proficient

readers who can gain knowledge from print.

In the study made by Johnston (2010) emphasized that students with very weak reading skills have serious

academic problems, which can develop into social problems as they reach the middle and high school years. Through

years of failure and labeling, they often develop hard shells of resistance to reading. They compensate with strong

auditory and observational skills, generally trying to avoid notice. Feeling helpless and hopeless, they may be

vulnerable to anti-social behavior.

Moreover, Stanovich (2014) describes the downward spiral of students who start out having trouble acquiring

alphabetic coding skills and recognizing words. With these barriers, they cannot read for meaning, and find reading

increasingly unrewarding. They practice less and have more negative experiences around reading. Increasingly, they

avoid reading or merely tolerate it, without really engaging in what’s being read. Emotional side effects begin to be

associated with school, and the entire school experience is impacted.

To escape from this spiral, students need an instructional environment that fosters the optimism that they can

improve. Motivation must be as important a focus as skills development. Effective programs provide students access

to interesting reading materials at their own levels, opportunities to share reading experiences, activities they choose

and direct, interspersed with more prescriptive lessons . . . but above all, effective programs provide instructors who

convey a message of faith in the student’s capability to achieve success

Designing Reading Programs that Work

To rescue non-readers, we need programs that teach them to read well enough to profit from their education.

The research in this realm is voluminous — and highly controversial. Although most would agree that non-readers

need explicit phonics instruction and practice in the beginning phases of reading acquisition, there is serious

disagreement about how, when, and to what degree to integrate contextual reading. Researches on which types of

classroom programs have the greatest benefits for non-readers, and why specific remediation approaches do and don’t

produce results, are not generally accepted.

Practitioners cannot wait for consensus from the research front. They must develop approaches based on

selected research, balancing theories with direct experience to meet the pressing needs of their students. By

continuous monitoring and adjustment, drawing from the wide realm of commercially available products, and tapping

outside expertise as resources are available, schools can create programs that make readers of all students. The only

prerequisites are leadership, commitment, and support (Lyons, 2012).

concept of letters and the alphabet. The recognition and naming of letters is foundational to using the graphophonic

cueing system. By noticing letters in environmental print, singing, and recognizing their own name, students begin to

explore and understand this relationship. Students who do not develop this understanding will require explicit and

direct instruction in phonics. Likewise, Phonics instruction should begin with a foundational understanding of

phonemic awareness and letters of the alphabet. Most students eventually develop sound-letter relationships that help

them decode and spell words. Effective phonics instruction focuses students’ attention on noticing the letter-sound

patterns. By embedding phonics instruction in the total language arts program and by using teachable moments,

teachers can assist most students to develop an understanding of the graphophonic cueing system.

Vocabulary Development and the Semantic Cueing System. Beginning readers develop a word awareness.

Students need to develop a store of words that they recognize automatically and understand. By repeated reading

experiences (e.g., labels, key words, messages, word walls, lists) students develop recognition of most words they

see, hear, and write. During the reading process, students need to understand the words that allow them to

comprehend what they are reading and the strategies that they need to figure out the meaning. Vocabulary cannot be

left to chance; it has to be developed and extended and taught. However, for some of our students, developing and

expanding their vocabulary level is a complex process that requires multiple exposure to words and their meanings.

They must be taught to use various word-learning strategies as they approach new words in their reading and in their

environment. Effective vocabulary instruction occurs when students are provided multiple exposure to words in a

variety of contexts, words are taught in the context of a selection or unit, teachers help students activate prior

knowledge when learning new words, relationships are drawn between new words and known words and concepts.

Text Forms, Features, and the Textual Cueing System. Students also have to recognize that words and

sentences form different types of text, which are organized in particular structures or patterns. Typical textual cues

and conventions for fiction, for example, include a setting (when and where), characters (who), and a series of events

that focus on a problem followed by a solution. For students to be able to follow and understand text, they have to be

able to recognize the organizational structures behind the text.

Prevention and early intervention for Non Readers

It is critical that students with reading difficulties and disabilities are identified early so that the appropriate

intervention strategies may be implemented. Students who have a reading disability require explicit and intensive

instruction that is ongoing. Classroom teachers continually assess students’ learning in order to inform instruction.
 More so, when teachers have initial concerns about a student’s lack of progress, there are many things they

can do to support the student. It is important to intervene as soon as the teacher recognizes that a student is falling

behind. A suggestion also focuses on working together with parents to identify concerns and to develop a classroom

intervention plan. In many situations, these interventions may be effective and no further input may be required.

Teachers in reading class need also to be assisted in identifying the source of reading difficulty. Because classroom

teacher with possible support of special educator and/or administrator must discuss concerns with parents/guardians,

ensures vision, hearing, and medical assessments are up to date, reviews cumulative record, collects data through

informal assessments, documents observations, identifies areas of strengths and difficulties If there is sufficient

information, develops Classroom Intervention Plan. Based on the research, 90 to 95 percent of poor readers,

prevention and early intervention provided by well-trained teachers can increase reading skills to average reading

levels (Tankersley, 2013).

These intervention programs must combine instruction in reading comprehension strategies, the language

cueing systems including phonemic awareness, phonics, syntax, text, and pragmatic and fluency development.

However, there is also evidence to suggest that if we delay intervention until nine years of age, approximately 75

percent of the children continue to have difficulties learning to read throughout high school (Tankersley, 2013).

Successful intervention requires that teachers understand the reading processes and instruction, think diagnostically,

and use this information on an ongoing basis to inform instruction. Struggling readers need multi-level, flexible,

small-group instruction balanced with whole-class instruction in which the teacher models and explicitly teaches

reading strategies.

Research Questions

The primary purpose of this study is to explore the live experiences of Grade 7 and Grade 8 non-readers, and

to go deeper into the heart of the issue and to bring fore the point of view, perceptions, insights and feelings of the

participants. Specifically, the study seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What are the challenges encountered by the students in their English reading class?

2. What are the coping mechanisms of the students in overcoming their difficulties in reading an English

language?

3. What are the themes generated from the experiences of non-readers in their reading classes?

Theoretical lens
 This study is anchored on the theory supported by Lev Vygotsky‘ Social Development theory, which provides

the importance of scaffolding lessons in reading by teachers who are considered as the more knowledgeable others or

that affect their learners‘ zone of proximal development in reading. Balaban. N (1995) as cited in To and Vygotsky

(1995) further stressed that scaffolding refers to the way the adult guides the child's learning via focused questions

and positive interactions (To & Vygotsky, 1995). Likewise, reading teacher manages the scaffolding process may

also use sources like worksheets, online materials, and televisions ads to scaffold students‘ learning.

Scaffolding is justified as a form of prompting the learners to read based on their existing schema. Karl Jung‘s

Schema Theory provides an archetypal convergence of Vygotsky‘s theory that propels a connection of meaningful

learning experiences, where learners construct their own meanings, in a more constructivist approach of teaching.

(“Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology,” 1875).

This is also anchored on the traditional theory of reading or the so-called Skill Model wherein it was stated

that reading comprehension results in the teaching of reading skills and comprehension separately in a logical and

sequential order. This model is also called bottom-up or data-driven processing model. In this model, letters are

taken in a left to right order until such a time that words can be taken as a whole. According to this model, the reader

starts reading with letters and, as he attends to them, he begins to have expectations for the words they will spell. As

the reader identifies the words, he has further expectations for how they combined together and what they will mean

when assembled into phrases and sentences (Note, 2007).

This study is also anchored on the PsychoLingustic Theory of Reading which state that reading is a process of

predicting meaning based on the reader’s knowledge of oral language syntax, semantics and phonological cues.

Basically, it means that reading is based on the reader’s stored knowledge of the oral language (Sheridan, 1981).

This is also based on the more recent theory of reading which is the Schema Theory. According to this theory

that the underlying assumption of meaning for the readers does not only depend in the printed material itself, but also

in the interaction with the cognitive structure or the schemata or previous knowledge and experiences the reader had

in his mind. These schemata are the “ideational scaffolding” that will help the reader understand new information

that he will read. So we can say that the reader’s interpretation and understanding of the meaning of the reading

material is greatly influenced by the reader’s personal background, experiences, knowledge, beliefs and history. As

an implication to the teaching and learning process, this theory emphasized that teachers should utilize pre-existing

knowledge and experiences of the reader, set clear purposes for reading, ask appropriate questions before, during and

after the reading lessons (Sheridan, 1981).

The findings of the study will give future comprehensive strategies on how to decrease the number of Non-

readers and not limited to Grades 7 and 8 participants that are related to the following:

Students. The findings of this study would help students to understand their own struggles

and struggles of their schoolmates who had difficulty in reading the English language. This study would

further give them insights on how to help such students in their school.

Parents. This study is beneficial to parents in assessing their children’s reading skills and

challenges. This will also guide them to understand their learners better and eventually help them in their

reading struggles.

English Language Teachers. The results of this study can be beneficial to language

teachers in understanding their struggling readers and eventually aid them in determining appropriate

strategies in assisting non-readers.

Principals/School Heads. The result of the study will provide school administrators

insights of the challenges in decreasing non-readers. It may be of great help in designing a plan of action in

support to the School reading program. The result of the study will help solve the problem regarding the

struggles being experienced by the non-readers.

Future Researcher. The findings of the study will enable future researchers to conduct

follow up studies to determine the problems and struggles experienced by the non-readers and on how to

address it. This study may also serve as a reference for other researchers in conducting further studies related

to this.

Scope and Delimitation

This study cannot be generalized and cannot go beyond the current informants. As such, it is confined only to

thirteen (13) non-readers, Grade 7 and Grade 8, from public school of Don Manuel Javellana Memorial National

High School from the Division of Panabo City. The data will be gathered from 7 non-readers through in-depth

interviews and another 6 non-readers who will undergo focus group discussion for triangulation purposes. The study

is dependent on the ability of the informants and participants to describe their experiences on their challenges

encountered and their coping mechanism. Informants and participants have varied experiences and therefore, may be
subjective. Since administrative permission is necessary to gain access to informants, parents, principals and

superintendents will be informed of the study and its purpose.

The study will be based upon an open-ended questions through one-on-one interviews and focus group

discussion. Due to the fact that there are only 7 informants for the in-depth interviews and 6 participants for the focus

group discussion, the results of the investigation may not be generalizable to other Divisions of the country. This

study is descriptive in its investigation.

Definition of Terms

Non-readers. These are the Grade 7 and Grade 8 learners from Don Manuel Javellana

Memorial National High School who cannot utter words when they will read.

Reading Challenges. These are the hard experiences encountered by the grade 7 and 8

non- readers when they are on their reading classes.

Reading Strategies. These are the approaches suggested in this study to help non-

readers to cope up with their reading challenges.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This study will employ qualitative phenomenological design. This approach will collect or gather, analyze,

interpret and give data results that are enabling to answer the research questions and provide further

recommendations. It seeks to find out the live experiences and the challenges of non-readers as they encounter

problems and struggles in their reading class. The qualitative approach is deemed appropriate for this investigation

because Creswell (2009) confirms that it is good to adopt case studies for explorative research, where an analytical

approach can be adopted by using theory to collate and investigate experiences or practices. Creswell (2009) also

suggested that the research embark on the quest to understanding by entering in the field of perception of participants,

seeing how they experienced, live and display the phenomenon, and looking for the meaning of the participants’

experiences. Thus, the researcher is interested in this design since Solokowski (2010) believed that phenomenological

study contributes to deeper understanding attributed to the individual lived experiences of non-readers of which

according to McBride and Schostak (2008), a quantitative study could not provide.

Research Locale

This study will be conducted in Panabo City Division particularly in Don Manuel Javellana Memorial

National High School. The school is located at Barangay DAPCO, Homeland Subdivision of Panabo City that can be

found between Municipality of Carmen and Sto. Tomas. Panabo City is composed of 40 barangays and has 13

public secondary schools. This school belongs to the 2nd Legislative District of the Province of Davao del Norte in

Region XI.

Research Respondents

Purposive sampling will be used in the selection of informants. Participants to this study will be the 13

identified non-readers coming from Don Manuel Javellana Memorial National High School of Panabo City. The

names of the participants will not be obscured in as much as the study is quite non-argumentative in nature for the

participants. Participants are the identified non readers from grade 7 and grade 8. The researcher is planning to have

13 participants who will be involved in this study. Seven (7) for the in- depth informants’ interview of which Guest

et al. (2006) declared more than six (6) is a sufficient number of interviews. According to Guest et al, minimum of
six (6) under in-depth interviews will enable development of meaningful themes and useful interpretations. On the

other hand, there will be another six non-readers who will serve as participants for the focus group discussion.

Research Instruments

An interview guide will be used in the data gathering. This contains three (3) open-ended questions with three

(3) sub-questions each that will elicit responses on the challenges and coping mechanism of grade 7 and grade 8 non-

readers. The interview guide will be enhanced by the English master teachers and then will be pilot tested the three

informants who are not part of the target informants.

1. What are your experiences on the conduct of your reading classes?

1.1. How do assigned teacher in your reading class implement the reading program?

1.2. Can you cite strategies that usually used by your reading teacher?

1.3. What are the experiences that motivates you to learn reading?

2. What are the challenges that you encountered during reading class in your school?

2.1. What can you say about your reading class?

2.2. What things/activities in your reading class do you like and dislike most?

2.3. What are the difficulties that you encountered in your reading class?

3. How do you coped up with your challenges towards reading?

3.1. How did you discover that you have difficulty in reading?

3.2. Do you have any strategies in coping up with the challenges that you had been experienced?

3.3. How do you use that strategies in coping up with your difficulties in reading?

Data Gathering Procedures

The researcher will follow research process in collecting data. Below will be the following: First, the

researcher will ask permission letter from the Dean of IMaGoCS where the researcher is currently enrolled for thesis

writing. Second, the researcher will seek approval from the Division Superintendent of Panabo City, Dr. Dee D.

Silva, CESO VI. Third, the researcher will secure letter of permission from the Principal of Don Manuel Javellana

Memorial National High School to ask permission to conduct in-depth interview. The researcher will then set the

schedule of interview to the informants using guide questions. Then after that, the researcher will meet up with the

other group of non-readers to conduct clarificatory group discussion to triangulate the information. Then, the

researcher will use qualitative data analysis base from the data gathered. After analyzing and interpreting the data, the
researcher will conduct validity and reliability tests to guarantee dependability throughout the study by presenting the

transcriptions to the informants for verification purposes. Then, the researcher will make qualitative write-ups and

observe ethical consideration after verification to the selected participants. Lastly, the researcher will submit the

write-ups to the adviser for revisions and discussions.

Data Recording Procedures

Audio recording and field noting will be utilized during the Key Informants Interview and Focus Group

Discussion. Two reading teachers who are also a Grade 7 and Grade 8 teachers will be asked to do hand noting. Tape

recording will also be used accurately to capture the response of the informants and participants.

Data Analysis Procedures

The data gathered will be accurately transcribed into words by carefully listening to their answers through the

use tape recorder. Next, in field noting during interviews, non-verbal signs of the participants will be considered like

gestures and facial expressions. Then every significant statement will be highlighted because this will provide

understanding on the participants’ experience in their reading activities. Afterwards, the researcher will make cluster

themes and emerging themes. These themes will be used as bases for the result and discussion of the study.

Reliability. In qualitative research, “reliability” repeatedly refers to the firmness of

answers to multiple coders of data sets. This requires external check on the highly interpretative

coding process (Creswell, 2007) by the researcher added by the experts and participants. Researcher’s

focus on reliability of this study will be on the transcription of participants’ responses from the

interview and on coding process. The transcriptions of data from the field notes and audio recorder

into words will be used for better analysis and for the creation of code names for themes. This will be

achieved by re-reading participants transcribed responses. Coding process will also undergo through

consultation from the adviser. After it will be coded and analyzed, it will be presented to the

participants to ensure stability of their responses.

Validity. According to Creswell (2007), the framework of thinking about

validation in qualitative research is to suggest that researchers employ accepted strategies to document

the “accuracy” of their studies. It calls “validation strategies”. Moreover, the researcher will employ

some of the validation strategies suggested by Creswell (2007). This includes:

Triangulation. Typically, this process involves corroborating evidences

from different sources in order to understand the theme or prospective of the study.
 Content Validity. The researcher will consult English master teachers to

validate the items in the research questions to ensure that the ideas in the questions to be asked

would corroborate in the field of study.

Qualitative Write-Up. Identifying significant statements, clustering into themes

will be the basis in this study to provide the researcher a clear expression in organizing the reports.

Strategies in writing will be used in presenting the finding and discussions. Various quotations from

the participants will root in the passages. Exact wording from the participants will be used to form

codes and themes. Similarly, quotations will be linked with the researcher’s interpretation. Moreover,

guidelines for formatting of manuscript will be followed in presenting the finding of the study. Finally,

results will be linked directly to the central questions.

Ethical Considerations. In view to the fact that in this study, data gathered will be

treated with outmost confidentially in order to safeguard personal details and identity of the

participants involved in the study and to ensure the reliability of the research. Finally, all the responses

will remain confidential and all the statements quoted will be coded to maintain the obscurity of the

informants.

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