SMA 104: CALCULUS I

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Functions
Example 1:
Suppose we have 2 functions, f and g, both having  as a domain and suppose one of them
squares each member of a domain and the other doubles each member of a domain.
We wrote f(x) to represent the image of x under the function f and g(x) to represent the image of
g(x) under g.
i.e. f(x) = x 2 and g(x) = 2x. In this case,
f (5 ) = 25 and g (5) = 10 , f (a ) = a 2 , g (k ) = 2k , f (a + h ) = (a + h ) = (a + h ) and so on.
2

Example 2: Given that h(x ) = x 2 - x , find the value of

a) h (10 ) b) h(- 3) c) h(t + 1)
Solution:
( a ) h( x ) = x 2 - x
h(10 ) = 100 - 10 = 90
(b) h(- 3) = 9 + 3 = 12
(c ) h(t + 1) = (t + 1) - (t + 1)
2

= t 2 + 2t + 1 - t - 1
= t2 +t
Composite functions
Example 3: Given that f ( x ) = 10 + x and g (x ) = x 3 . Find (a) fg b) gf
Solution:
a) g (x ) = x 3 f ( g ( x ) ) = f ( x 3 ) = 10 + x 3 \ fg = 10 + x 3
b) gf f(x)=10+x ; g{ f ( x )} = g[10 + x ] = (10 + x )3

Example 4: Given that f(x)=5x+1 and that g (x ) = x 2 , express the composite functions (a) fg b)
gf in their simplest possible forms.
Solution:
(a) g ( x ) = x 2 ; f [ g ( x )] = f (x 2 ) = 5 x 2 + 1; fg = 5 x 2 + 1
(b) f ( x ) = 5 x + 1; g[ f (x )] = g (5x + 1) = (5x + 1) = 25x 2 + 10x + 1
2

The Inverse of a function

Consider the function f ( x ) = x 3 + 1
1
8
If we are given a member of the range say f(x)=9 ,it is possible to find the corresponding
member of the domain.
Example 5: Find the inverse of f ( x ) = x 3 + 1
1
8
Solution:

1
 1 3
Let y= x +1
8
1 3
x +1= y
8
1 3
x = y -1
8 3
x = 8 ( y - 1)
x = 3 8 ( y - 1)
\ f ( x ) = 3 8 (x - 1)
-1

e.g. If f(x)=9; , we have y = 9, i.e.

1 3
x +1 = 9
8
1 3
x =8
83
x = 64
x=4
We may also use the inverse function
i.e. f -1 ( x ) = 3 8( x - 1) ; f -1 (9 ) = 3 8(9 - 1) = 3 64 = 4
Example 6:
. Find f (x )
5x + 7 -1
Let f ( x ) =
3x + 2
Solution:
5x + 7 5x + 7
f (x ) = ; y= ; y (3 x + 2 ) = 5 x + 7; 3 xy + 2 y = 5 x + 7
3x + 2 3x + 2
7 - 2y 7 - 2x
3 xy - 5 x = 7 - 2 y; x (3 y - 5) = 7 - 2 y; x = ; f -1 ( x ) =
3y - 5 3x - 5
Example 7: Given that f(x)=5x+1 ,find the values of (a) f (36 ), (b) f -1 -1
(0)
Solution:
Let y=5x+1
y -1 x -1
5 x = y - 1; x = ; f -1 (x ) =
5 5
-1
( a ) f (36 ) = = 7; (b) f (0 ) =
-1 35 -1

5 5
Example 8: Given that f(x)=10x and g(x)=x+3, find
a) fg (x ) b) ( fg )-1 x
Solution:
a) g ( x ) = x + 3; f ( g ( x )] = f ( x + 3) = 10 x + 30 ; ( fg )( x ) = 10 x + 30
b) ( fg )( x ) = 10 x + 30 ;
y - 30 x - 30 x
Let y = 10 x + 30 y - 30 = 10 x; x = ; ( fg )-1 x = = -3
10 10 10

2
Exercise 1
Find the inverse of the following functions
1. f ( x ) = (x - 32)
5
9
2. f (x ) = 180 (x - 2 )
5( x + 7 )
3. f ( x ) = -9
3
4. f ( x ) = 2
1
x
Answers to Exercise 1
1. f ( x ) = ( x - 32)
5
9
y = ( x - 32)
5
9
9 y = 5 x - 160
9 y + 160
x=
5
9 x + 160
f (x ) =
-1

5
9x
= + 32
5

2. f ( x ) = 180( x - 2 )
y = 180 x - 360
y + 360
x=
. 180
x + 360 x
f -1 ( x ) = = +2
180 180
5( x + 7 ) 5 x + 35 5 x + 35
3. f (x ) = - 9; y = - 9; y+9 =
3 3 3
3 y + 27 - 35 3y - 8
3( y + 9 ) = 5 x + 35; x = ; x= ; f -1
(x ) = 3x - 8
5 5 5

4. f ( x ) = 2 Þ y = 2 Þ x 2 = Þ x = ± (x ) = ±
1 1 1 1 -1 1
; f
x x y y x

Injections (One-to-one functions)

Let f : A ® B be a function, then f is said to be 1 - 1 (injective) if x ' , x Î A and x ¹ x ' , then
( )
f (x ) ¹ f x ' or
( )
If f (x ) = f x ' implies x = x ' "x, x ' Î A
That is distinct elements in the domain have distinct images.
Example 9: Let f : Â ® Â be defined by f ( x ) = x 2 .Is f 1 - 1 ?
Solution:

3
 f is not 1 - 1 since - 1 ¹ 1 but f (- 1) = f (1) .
Example 10: Let f : Â ® Â be defined by f ( x ) = 2 x + 1 .Is f 1 - 1 ?
Solution:
f is 1 - 1 since if a, b Î Â such that f (a ) = f (b ) , then
2a + 1 = 2b + 1
Þ 2 a = 2b
Þa=b
Example 11: T
S
f
1 a \ f is 1- 1
2 b
3 c

Onto functions (surjective functions)

Let f : A ® B . Then we say that f is an onto (or surjective function) if for every y Î B ,there
exists x Î A such that y = f ( x ) .
i.e f ( A) = Im f = B i.e the image of f is the entire codomain B .In this case,we say that f is a
function from A onto B .
Example 12:
Let

a 1
b 2
c 3
d 4

This is not an onto function since 4 has no corresponding image.

Example 13: Let f : Â ® Â be defined by f ( x ) = x 2 .Is f onto?

Solution:
f is not onto since -1Π and - 1 has no pre-image in  .
Example 14:

Let
1 f is onto
x
2
S y T
3
z
4 4
5
Example 15: Let f : Â ® Â be defined by f (x ) = 2 x + 1 .Is f onto?
Solution: f is onto.
Bijective functions
A bijective function is a function which is both 1 - 1 and onto
A function f : A ® B is invertible if and only if it is a bijection i.e a 1 - 1 and onto function.
Example 16: Let f : Â ® Â be defined by f (x ) = x 2 + 1 . Is f onto? Is f 1 - 1 ? Is f a
bijection?
Solution:
a) f is not onto since for example 0 Î Â has no corresponding preimage.
b) f is not 1 - 1 since f (- 1) = f (1) = 2 and - 1 ¹ 1 .
c) f is not a bijection since it is not an onto and 1 - 1 function.
Example 17: Let f : Â ® Â be defined by f ( x ) = 2 x + 1 .Find the formula for f -1 .
Solution:
Let y = 2 x + 1 ; making x the subject,

2 x = y - 1; x = ( y - 1)
1
2
Hence f -1 (x ) = (x - 1)
1
2
3x - 5
Example 18:Let f ( x ) = .Find a formula for f -1 .
7
Solution:
3x - 5
Let y = , then
7
7y -5 7x - 5
> y = 3x - 5 Þ 3x = 7 y - 5; x = ; \ f -1 ( x ) =
3 3
Composition of functions
Let f : A ® B and g : B ® C. The composite function g o f of is the function from A to
C defined by ( g of )( x ) = g ( f ( x )) for all x Î A
Example 19: Let A = {1,2}, B = {3,4,5} and C = {6,7} and let f : A ® B and g : B ® C be
defined by f (1) = 3, f (2 ) = 5, g (3) = 6, g (4 ) = 7, g (5 ) = 6 .
Find image i.e. im ( g o f )
Solution:
A B C
f g
1 3 6
2 4 7
5

Im ( g o f )={6}

5
Example 20: Let f : Â ® Â and g : Â ® Â be defined by f ( x ) = 2 x + 1 and g ( x ) = x - 2 .Find
2

the formula defining the composition

(i) g of (ii) fof = f (iii) fog (iv) (g of ) (2 )
2

Solution:
(i ) ( g of )( x ) = g ( f ( x )) = g (2 x + 1)
= (2 x + 1) - 2
2

= 4x2 + 4x +1- 2
= 4x 2 + 4x -1

(ii ) ( fof )( x ) = f ( f ( x )) = f (2 x + 1)
= 2 (2 x + 1) + 1
= 4x + 2 +1
= 4x + 3
(
(iii ) ( fog )( x ) = f ( g ( x )) = f x 2 - 2 )
(
= 2 x2 - 2 +1 )
= 2x2 - 4 +1
= 2x2 - 3
(iv ) ( g of )( x ) = 4 x 2 + 4 x - 1

( )
( g of )(2 ) = 4 2 2 + 4(2 ) - 1
= 4(4 ) + 8 - 1
= 16 + 8 - 23

Exercise 2
1.Let g ( x ) = 5 x - 3 and f (x ) = x + 1 for x Î Â .Find the composite function h = g of .
3

2.Let f : Â ® Â be defined by f (x ) = x - x .Show that f is not injective.

3

6
Limits
The concept of limits of a function is one of the fundamental ideas that distinguishes Calculus
from other areas of mathematics e.g. Algebra or Geometry.
If f(x) becomes arbitrarily close to a single number L as x approaches a from either side, then the
lim
limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L written as f (x) = L .
x®a
Consider a function y=f(x)
lim
f ( x ) = L means the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is equal to a number L i.e. as x gets
x®a
closer and closer to a ( x ¹ a ), f(x) gets closer and closer to L.
lim
Example 21: Let f ( x ) = x 2 . Find f ( x)
x®2
Solution:
lim lim 2
f (x ) = x = 22 = 4
x®2 x®2
lim
Example 22: Let f(x) = 5x – 3. Find 5x - 3
x®2
Solution:
lim
5 x - 3 = (5 ´ 2 - 3) = 7
x®2
Example 23: Let
1
f (x) =
x .
Find
lim 1
x®¥ x
Solution:
lim 1
=¥ (undefined)
x ®0 x

Properties of limits
lim
1. k=k
x®a
lim lim lim
2. [ f (x ) + g ( x )] = f (x) + g (x )
x®a x®a x®a
lim lim lim
3. f ( x )´ g ( x ) = f ( x )´ g (x )
x®a x®a x®a

1
 f (x ) lim f ( x )
4. lim = x ®a provided that lim g ( x ) ¹ 0
x ®a g (x ) lim
g (x )
x®a

lim
f (x )
5. lim n f (x ) = n x ® a

1
1
x = æç
lim lim x ö 2
e.g 2
÷
x®a è x ® aø
Example 24:
lim x 2 - 4 x + 3 lim x 2 - lim 4 x + lim 3
x ®5 = x®5 x ®5 x ®5

= 52 - 4 ´ 5 + 3
= 25 - 20 + 3
=8
Example 25:
3x + 5 lim 3 x + 5 3 ´ 2 + 5 11
lim = x ®2 = =
x®2 5 x + 7 lim 5 x + 7 5 ´ 2 + 7 17
x®2

Example 26:
x 2 - 4 lim x2 - 4
lim ¹ x®2
since lim x - 2 = 0
x®2 x - 2 lim x - 2 x®2
x®2

lim x 2 - 4 lim ( x + 2)( x - 2) lim

Hence = = ( x + 2) = 4
x ® 2 x-2 x ®2 ( x - 2) x®2

Example 27:
2
2
x + 3 x x ®8
3 lim x 3 + lim 3 x
lim = x ®8
x ®8 16 16
4- lim 4 - lim
x 2
x ®8 x ®8 x

83 + 3 8
=
16
4-
8
4+6 2
=
2
= 2+3 2
Example 28:

2
 3x 5 5
+ 3 +
lim 3x + 5 lim x x = lim x
=
x ® ¥ 6x - 8 x ® ¥ 8 x ® ¥ 8
6 - 6 -
x x
lim 5 lim
3 +
x ® ¥ x ® ¥ x 3 + 0 1
= =
lim lim 6 - 0 2
6 - 8
x ® ¥ x ® ¥
lim 4x 2 - x
Example 29: Divide by the highest power of x.
x ® ¥ 2x3 - 5
æ4 1 ö
lim ç x - x 2 ÷ 0 - 0 0
ç ÷= = =0
x ® ¥ç 5 ÷ 2-0 2
ç 2- 3 ÷
è x ø

Example 30:
ælim 2 ö
x 2 ç1 + 2 ÷
lim x +2 x®¥
2
è x ø
=
x ® ¥ 3x - 6 3x - 6
1
æ 2 ö2
xç1 + 2 ÷
lim è x ø
=
x ® ¥ 3x - 6

æ 2 ö
x ç1 + 2 ÷
è x ø
= lim
æ 6ö
xç 3 - ÷
è xø

lim 2
1+
x®¥ x2
=
lim æ 6ö
ç3 - ÷
x ® ¥è xø
1
=
3

Example 31:

3
 lim x 3 - 1
=3
x ® 1 x -1

( )
lim x 2 + x + 1 ( x - 1)
=
lim 2
x + x +1
x ®1 (x - 1) x ®1
= 1+1+1
=3

Example 32:
lim æ x 3 - 8 ö 0
ç ÷=
x ® 2 çè x - 2 ÷ø 0

lim (x - 2 )(x 2 + 2 x + 4 )
x®2 x-2
lim
x 2 + 2 x + 4 = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12
x®2

Exercise 3
lim 5 x + 1
1.
x ® ¥ 10 + 2 x
lim x 2 - 4 x - 5
2.
x ® 5 x -5
lim x 2 - 25
3.
x ®5 x-5
lim 2 + x - 2
4.
x®0 x
x
5.The domain of the functions f ( x ) = and g ( x ) = 7 - x is  .Write down as simply as possible.
5
a. f -1 (x ) b. g -1 ( x ) c. fg ( x ) d. ( fg )-1 ( x )

Solutions to Exercise 3

1
lim 5 x + 1 lim 5 + x 1
1. = =2
x ® ¥ 10 + 2 x x ® ¥ 10 + 2 2
x

4
 lim x 2 - 4 x - 5 lim ( x - 5 )( x + 1)
2. =
x ®5 x-5 x ® 5 ( x - 5)
lim
= x +1 = 6
x®5
lim 2 x - 4
Or = 2(5) - 4 = 6
x®5 1
lim ´2 - 25 lim ( x + 5 )( x - 5 )
= = 10
3. x ® 5 x - 5 x®5 ( x - 5)

lim 2 x
Or = 2(5) = 10
x®5 1

lim 2- x - 2 2-x + 2
4. ´
x®0 x 2-x+ 2
2- x-2
=
(
x 2 + 2- x )
-x -1
= =
(
x 2 + 2- x )
2 + 2- x
lim -1 -1 -1 2 2 2 2 2
= = ´ = =
x®0 2+ 2-x 2 + 2 2 2 2 2 4´ 2 4

L' Hospital Rule

lim f (x ) 0
= or ¥
x ® a g (x ) 0

lim f ( x ) lim f ' ( x )

Then =
x ® a g ( x) x ® a g' ( x)
e.g
lim x 3 - 1 lim 3 x 2
1. =
x ® 1 x -1 x ® 1 1
= 3 ´1
=3

lim x 3 - 8 0 lim 3x 2
2. = = 12
x®2 x-2 0 x®2 1

lim cos x - 2 x - 1 lim - sin x - 2

3. = =
x®0 3x x®0 3 3

5
Continuity
Continuity at a point.
A function is considered continous if the following conditions are met.
1. f ( a ) is defined.
2. lim f ( x ) exists.
x® a

3. lim f ( x ) = f ( a )
x ®a

Otherwise it is discontinuous.
x2 - 4
Example 33: Show that f ( x ) = is not continous at x=2
x-2
Solution:
4-4 0
Condition 1: f ( 2 ) = = , which is undefined
2-2 0
lim lim x 2 - 4
Condition 2: f (x) =
x®2 x®2 x-2
lim ( x + 2 )( x - 2 )
=
x®2 x-2
lim
= x+2=4
x®2
Therefore, lim f ( x ) exists.
x®2

Condition 3: lim f ( x ) = 4, but f (2) is undefined

x® 2

lim
\ f ( x ) ¹ f (2)
x®2
Therefore f(x) is not continous at x=2
Note: It is possible to redefine f(x) to make it continous at x=2, as follows:

ì x2 - 4
ï x -2 ,x ¹ 2
ï
f ( x) = í
ï
îï4, x = 2

lim
f ( x ) = 4, i.e.lim exists, we redefine f(x) so that
x®2 x ®2

lim f ( x )
= f ( 2) = 4
x®2
Example of a continous function.

X y = x2

6
Example of a discontinous function.

1
y=
x

Remarks
1.Polynomials are always continous functions.
e.g f ( x ) = x 2 - 2 x + 1 at c since
Condition 1: f (c ) is defined i.e. f ( c ) = c 2 - 2c + 1
lim f ( x ) lim 2
Condition 2: = x - 2 x + 1 = c 2 - 2 x + 1 exists.
x®c x®c
lim f ( x ) 2
Condition3: = c - 2c + 1 = f ( c )
x®c

2 .Discontinuity means a function breaks at a particular point.

Example 34: Discuss the continuity of f ( x ) if
ì x3 + 27
ï x + 3 ; x ¹ -3
ï
f ( x) = í
ï27; x = -3
ïî
Solution:Condition 1: f(-3)=27, therefore f(x) is defined at x=3
lim
x 3 + 27
(
lim ( x + 3) x - 3x + 9
2
)
Condition 2: x+3 =
x ® -3
x ® -3 ( x + 3)
lim 2
= x - 3x + 9
x ® -3
=9+9+9
= 27
lim f ( x )
Condition 3: = f ( -3) = 27
x ® -3
\ f ( x ) is continous.
Example 35:Determine whether or not the function below is continous at x=1

7
 ì x2 - 1
ï x - 1 if x ¹ 1
ï
í
f ( x ) = ï 2 if x = 1
ïî

Solution:
Condition 1: f (1) = 2 hence f (1) is defined.
lim f ( x ) lim x 2 - 1 lim ( x + 1)( x - 1) lim f ( x )
Condition 2: = = = 2 Therefore exists.
x ®1 x ® 1 x - 1 x ® 1 ( x - 1) x ®1 .
lim x2 - 1
Condition3: lim f ( x ) = f (1) , hence f (x ) is continous at x=1
x ®1 x -1
Example 36: .Discuss the continuity of f (x ) if
ì x2 - 4
ï x -2 ,x ¹ 2
ï
f ( x) = í
ï3 x = 2
ïî

Solution:
Condition 1: f(2) = 3, so f(x) is defined at x=2
Condition 2:
lim f ( x ) lim x 2 - 4
=
x ® 2 x ®2 x-2
lim ( x + 2)( x - 2)
= hence lim f ( x ) exists.
x ® 2 ( x - 2)
=2
\ f (x ) lim f ( x ) lim f ( x )
Condition 3: f (2 ) = 3 but =2 \ ¹ f (2) Thus f(x) is discontinuous
x®2 x®2
at x = 2
Exercise
Define the continuity of a real valued function f (x ) at a point x=a. Hence determine if the
following function is
continous at x=1.
ì x -1
3

ï x -1 , x ¹ 1
ï
f ( x) = í
ï3, x = 1
ïî

8
 1
Example37:Show that f ( x ) = for is x ¹ 2 is not continous at x =2.
x-2
Solution:

2
1
f ( x) =
x-2

Because f is not defined at the point x = 2 it is not continous there. Moreover f has what might
be called an infinite discontinuity at x = 2
Combinations of continous Functions.
Any sum or product of continous functions is continous. That is, if the functions f and g are
continous at x = a , then so are f + g and f × g e.g if f and g are continous at x = a , then
lim éë f ( x ) + g ( x ) ùû = lim f ( x ) + lim g ( x ) = f ( a ) + g ( a )
x ®a x®a x ®a

Example 38: f ( x ) = x is continous everywhere,i.e.

y = f ( x)

It follows that the cubic polynomial function f ( x ) = x 3 - 3 x 2 + 1 is continous everywhere. More

generally every polynomial function p ( x ) = bn x n + bn -1 x n -1 + K + b1 x + b0 is continous at each
point of the real line.
If p ( x ) and q ( x ) are polynomials, then the quotient law for limits and the continuity of
polynomials imply that
p ( x ) lim p ( x) p (a) p( x)
lim = x ®a = provided q ( a ) ¹ 0 . Thus every rational function f ( x ) = is
x ®a q ( x ) lim q ( x ) q ( a ) q( x)
x ®a
continous wherever it is defined.

9
The point x = a where the function f is discontinuous is called a removable discontinuity of
f provided that there exists a function F such that F ( x ) = f ( x ) for all x ¹ a in the domain of f ,
and this new function F is continous at x = a .
x-2
Example 39: Suppose that f ( x) = 2
x - 3x + 2
x - 3 x + 2 = ( x - 1)( x - 2 )
2

x-2
\ f ( x) =
( x - 1)( x - 2 )
This shows that f is not defined at x = 1 and x = 2 Þ f ( x ) is continous except at these points.
x-2 1 1
But f ( x ) = = . The new function F ( x ) = is continous at x = 2 , where
( x - 1)( x - 2 ) x - 1 x -1
F ( 2 ) = 1 . Therefore f has a removable discontinuity at x = 2 ; the discontinuity at x = 1 is not
removable.
y=F(x)

Composition of Continous Functions

Let h ( x ) = f ( g ( x ) ) where f and g are continous functions.The composition of two continous
functions is continous or more precisely, if g is continous at a and f is continous at g ( a ) , then
f o g is continous at a where f o g = f ( g ( x ) ) .
Proof: The continuity of g at a means that lim g ( x ) = g ( a ) ,and the continuity of f at g ( a )
x ®a

implies that lim f ( g ( x) ) = f ( g ( a ) )

g ( x)® g (a)

( )
i.e. lim f ( g ( x ) ) = f lim g ( x ) = f ( g ( a ) )
x®a x®a
2
æ x - 7 ö3
Example 40: Show that the function f ( x ) = ç 2 ÷ is continous on the whole real line.
è x + 2x + 2 ø
Solution: Consider the denominator
10
 x 2 + 2 x + 2 = ( x + 1) + 1 > 0 for all value of x. Hence the rational function
2

( ) is
1
x-7
r ( x) = 2 is defined and continous everywhere. Thus f ( x ) = éë r ( x ) ùû
2 3

x + 2x + 2
continous everywhere.
One-sided limits
Let S Í ¡ and f : S ® ¡ be a function. If for every x Î S , f ( x ) ® L as x ® a and
+
x > a always, then we say that x ® a from the right and write x ® a or we say lim f ( x ) = L . +
x ®a

Similarly, if f ( x ) ® L as x ® a and x < a always, we say that x ® a from the left and write
-
x ® a or we say lim- = L .
x ®a

The limits lim+ f ( x ) and lim- f ( x ) are called one-sided limits of f and a
x ®a x®a
Remarks
1. lim f ( x ) = L iff lim+ f ( x ) = lim- f ( x ) = L
x ®a
x ®a x® a

i.e the limit of a function f ( x ) exists if the right hand side limit = left-hand side limit.
2. If lim+ ¹ lim- f ( x ) , then lim f ( x ) does not exist.
x®a
x ®a x ®a

x
Example 41: Given f ( x ) = ,Find lim+ f ( x ) and lim- f ( x )
x -1 x ®1 x ®1
Solution:

0 1 1 1 2
1
2 2
0 -1 ¥ 3 2

1
Also consider the graph of f ( x ) = y
x -1

0 1 x

11
lim- f ( x ) = -¥ if x < 1
x ®1
lim+ f ( x ) - ¥1 if x > 1
x ®1

\ lim f ( x ) = ¥ Þ lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x ®1 x ®1
Example 42: Consider the following graph y
1
y = f ( x) = 2
x
1
y= 2
x

lim+ f ( x ) = ¥ lim+ f ( x ) = ¥
x ®0 x ®0
Example 43: Draw the graph of
ì1, if x = 1
ïï
f ( x ) = í - x, if - 1 < x < 1
ï
ïî -1, if x > 1
Solution: 4 y
3
2
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
-1
-2
-3

(
Example 44: Evaluate lim+ 1 + x - 2 and lim- 1 + x - 2
x®2
) x®2
( )
Solution:
(
lim+ 1 + x - 2
x®2
)
= lim1
+
+ lim+ x - 2
x ®2 x ®2

= 1+ 0 = 1
( )
On the other hand, lim- 1 + x - 2 does not exist (is not real).
x®2

12
Definition: A function f is said to be continous from the right at x = p if lim+ f ( x ) = f ( p ) .
x® p

We say that f is continous from the left at q if lim- f ( x ) = f ( q )

x® p

A function is said to be continous if its continous from the right and from the left i.e
lim+ f ( x ) = lim- f ( x ) = f ( p )
x® p x® p

ì+1 if x ³ 0
ï
Example 45: Discuss the continuity of g ( x ) = sin x = í
ï-1 if x < 0
î
Solution:
lim- g ( x ) = -1 and lim+ g ( x ) = -1 .Therefore Its left-hand and right-hand limits at x = 0 are
x ®0 x ®0
unequal
Thus g ( x ) has no limit as x ® 0 . Hence the function g is not continous at x = 0 , it has what
might be called a finite jump discontinuity there. (see the graph below)

y
(0,1)

(0,-1) (not on the graph)

ì sin x
ïï x if x ¹ 0
Example 46:Discuss the continuity of h ( x ) = í
ï
îï0 if x = 0
Solution:
sin x
lim h ( x ) = lim = 1 whereas h ( 0 ) = 0
x®0 x ®0 x
Þ the limit and the value of h at x = 0 are not equal.
Thus the function h is not continous there (see the graph below)
y=h(x)
1

13
 The point (0,0)is on the graph, the
point (0,1) is not.
Remark:
Another way of finding out if functions are continous at x = a is by:
1. Checking if f ( a ) is defined.
2. Checking if lim+ f ( x ) = lim- f ( x ) and exist and are equal.
x ®a x ®a

3. Ensuring that both are equal to f ( a ) .

ì x + c if x < 0
ï
Example 47: Find the value of c such that f ( x ) = í is continous at x = 0.
ï4 - x 2 if x ³ 0
î
Solution:
Condition 1: Is f ( x ) defined at x = 0 ?
f ( x ) = 4 - x2
Yes,
\ f (0) = 4 - 02 = 4
Condition 2: Does lim f ( x ) exist? In other words,
x ®0

Does lim- f ( x ) exist?

x ®0

Yes, lim- f ( x ) = 0 + c = c
x ®0

Does lim+ exist?

x®0

Yes, lim+ f ( x ) = 4 - x 2 = 4 - 02 = 4
x®0

(c ) Is lim- f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) .
x®0 x®0

For them to be equal, lim- f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) Þ c = 4

x®0 x®0

Thus, lim f ( x ) exists, i.e. lim f ( x ) = 4

x ®0 x ®0

Condition 3: Is lim f ( x ) = f(0)

x ®0

Yes, lim f ( x ) = f(0) = 4

x ®0
Conclusion: for f(x) to be continous at x = 0, then c = 4.
Exercise: Evaluate
x2 - 2 x x-2 y+6 2- y x
1. lim lim 2 lim+ 2 lim lim+
x ®3 x + 1 2. x ®-¥ x + 2 x + 1 3. x ®6 y - 36 4. x ®+¥ 7 + 6 y 2 5. x ®3 x -3 6.
x
lim-
x ®2 x - 4
2

14
 4- y 5x2 - 2 x2
7. lim 8. lim 9. limsin( )
y ®4 2 - y x ®¥ x+3 x ®p p +x
10. For the following problems find the points where given function is not defined and therefore
not continous. For each such point a, tell whether this discontinuity is removable.
x
a) f ( x ) =
( x + 3)
3

x-2
b) f ( x ) =
x2 - 4
1 x - 17
c) f ( x ) = d) f ( x ) =
1- x x - 17
ì- x if x < 0 ì1 + x2 if x < 0
ïï ï
ï
e) f ( x ) = í f) f ( x ) = í
ï ï sin x if x > 0
ïî x 2 if x > 0 ïî x
11. For the following problems find a value of the constant c so that the function f ( x ) is
continous for all x.
ìx + c if x < 0 ì2 x + c if x £ 3
ï ï
a) f ( x ) = í Answer: c=4 b) f ( x ) = í Answer:
ï4 - x 2 if x ³ 0 ï2c - x if x > 3
î î
c=9

ìc 2 - x 2 if x < 0 ìc 3 - x 3 if x £p
ï ï
c) f ( x ) = í Answer: c=0 d) f ( x ) = í
ï ïc sin x if x > p
î2 ( x - c ) if x ³ 0
2
î
Answer: c = p

15
THE DERIVATIVE OF FUNCTIONS
Definition:The d.erivative of the function f is the function f ' defined by
f ( x + h) - f ( h )
f ' ( x ) = lim for all x for which this limit exists.
h®0 h
The function f is differentiable at x = a if lim f ( x ) = f ( a ) exists.
x ®a

The process of finding the derivative f is called differentiation of f .

'

Solution:
Example 48: Apply the definition of the derivative directly to differentiate the
x
function f ( x ) = .
x+3
Solution:
f ( x + h) - f ( x )
f ' ( x ) = lim
h®0 h
x+h x
-
= lim x + h + 3 x + 3
h ®0 h
= lim
( x + h )( x + 3) - x ( x + h + 3)
h ®0 h ( x + h + 3)( x + 3)
x 2 + 3x + hx + 3h - x 2 - hx - 3x
= lim
h ®0 h ( x + h + 3)( x + 3)
3h
= lim
h ® 0 h ( x + h + 3)( x + 3)

3
= lim
h ® 0 ( x + h + 3)( x + 3)

3 3
= =
( x + 3)( x + 3) ( x + 3)2
This process is known as differentiation from first principles.
Differentiation of Quadratic Functions
Example 49: Let f ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c ,where a,b and c are constants. Show from first principles
that
f ' ( x ) = 2ax + b
Solution:
f ( x + h) - f ( x )
f ' ( x ) = lim
h®0 h

1
 é a ( x + h )2 + b ( x + h ) + c ù - é ax 2 + bx + c ù
= lim ë û ë û
h®0 h

= lim
( ax 2
+ 2ahx + ah 2 + bx + bh + c - ax 2 - bx - c )
h®0 h
2ahx + ah 2 + bh
= lim
h®0 h
= lim ( 2ax + ah + b )
h®0

= 2ax + b
Example 50: Show from first principles that If f ( x ) = 3 x 2 - 7 x + 7, then f ' ( x ) = 6 x - 7
Differential Notation
Dy f ( x + h ) - f ( x )
Dx = h ; Dy = f ( x + Dx ) - f ( x ) ; =
Dx h
dy Dy
Þ = lim
dx Dx ® 0 Dx
dy dy
If y = f ( x ) , we often write = f ' ( x ) e.g. If y = ax 2 + bx + c ,then = f ' ( x ) = 2ax + b
dx dx
Examples: Find the derivatives of the following functions from first principles.
Example 51: f ( x ) = x 2
Solution:
f ( x + h) - f ( x )
f ' ( x ) = lim
h®0 h
( x + h) - x2
2

= lim
h ®0 h
x 2 + 2hx + h 2 - x 2
= lim
h ®0 h
2hx + h 2
= lim
h ®0 h
= lim 2 x + h = 2 x
h ®0

1
Example 52: f ( x ) =
x
f ( x + h) - f ( x )
Solution: f ' ( x ) = lim
h®0 h

2
 1 1
-
= lim x + h x
h ®0 h
x-x-h
= lim
h ®0 h ( x + h) x

-1 -1
= lim = 2
h ®0 ( x + h ) x x
Example 53: f ( x ) = x
f ( x + h) - f ( x )
Solution: f ' ( x ) = lim
h®0 h
x+h - x
= lim
h ®0 h

= lim
( x+h - x )( x+h + x )
h ®0
h ( x+h + x )
x+h-x
= lim
h ®0
(
x+h + x
h )
1 1
= lim =
h ®0 x+h + x 2 x
Exercise: Differentiate the following functions from first principles.
1) y = x 3 2) f ( x ) = x 2 + 3 x - 2 3) f ( t ) = kt
Basic Differentiation Rules
The derivative of a constant
dc
If f ( x ) = c (a constant) for all x, then f ' ( x ) = 0 for all x. That is = f ' ( x) = 0
dx
f ( x + h) - f ( x)
f ' ( x ) = lim
Proof: h®0 h
c-c 0
= lim = lim = 0
h ®0 h h®0 h

The Power Rule

If n is a positive integer and f ( x ) = x n , then f ' ( x ) = nx n -1
f ( x + h) - f ( x)
f ' ( x ) lim
Proof:
h®0 h
( x + h ) - xn
n

= lim
h®0 h
n ( n - 1) n - 2 2
But ( x + h ) = xn + nx n -1h +
n
x h + L + hn
2!

3
 n ( n - 1) n - 2 2
x n + nx n -1h + x h + K + hn - x n
\ f ' ( x ) = lim 2!
h®0 h
n ( n - 1) n - 2
= lim nx n -1 + x h + K + h n -1 = nx n -1
h®0 21
dy
Example 54: Find (a) f ' ( x ) if f ( x ) = 6 x5 (b) Find if y = t17
dt
Solution:
dy
(a) f ( x ) = 6 x 5 Þ f ' ( x ) = 30 x 4 (b) y = t17 Þ = 17t 16
dt
The derivative of a linear combination
If f and g are differentiable functions and a and b are fixed real numbers, then
d
éë af ( x ) + bg ( x ) ùû = af ' ( x ) + bg ' ( x )
dx
Proof: Let k ( x ) = af ( x ) + bg ( x )
k ( x + h) - k ( x)
\ k ' ( x ) = lim
h ®0 h
é af ( x + h ) + bg ( x + h ) ùû - éë af ( x ) + bg ( x ) ùû
= lim ë
h ®0 h
é f ( x + h) - f ( x) ù é g ( x + h) - g ( x) ù
= a lim ê ú + b lim ê ú
h ®0
ë h û h®0
ë h û
= af ' ( x ) + bg ' ( x )
dy
Example 55: Let y = 36 + 24 x + 8 x5 - 6 x10 . Find .
dx
dy
Solution: y = 36 + 24 x + 8 x 5 - 6 x10 Þ = k ' ( x ) = 24 + 40 x 4 - 60 x 5
dx
The derivative of a Polynomial
Let y = f ( x ) = an x n + an -1 x n -1 + L + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a2
dy
f ' ( x) = = nan x n -1 + ( n - 1) an -1 x n - 2 + K + 3a3 x 2 + 2a2 x 2 + a1
dx
dy
if y = f ( x ) = 7 x 3 - 6 x 2 + 4 x + 2 then = f ' ( x ) = 21x 2 - 12 x + 4
dx
5. The Product Rule and Quotient Rule
(a)The Product Rule
If f and g are differentiable at x ,then fg is differentiated at x ,then
d
éë f ( x ) g ( x ) ùû = f ' ( x ) g ( x ) + f ( x ) g ' ( x )
dx
Proof: Let k ( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x )

4
 k ( x + h) - k ( x)
\ k ' ( x ) = lim
h ®0 h
f ( x + h) g ( x + h) - f ( x) g ( x)
= lim
h®0 h
Add and subtract at f ( x ) g ( x + h )

f ( x + h) g ( x + h) - f ( x) g ( x + h ) + f ( x) g ( x + h) - f ( x) g ( x)
= lim
h®0 h
f ( x + h ) g ( x + h) - f ( x) g ( x + h ) f ( x) g ( x + h) - f ( x) g ( x)
k ' ( x ) = lim + lim
h®0 h h® 0 h
f ( x + h) - f ( x) ö g ( x + h) - g ( x) ö
æ
= ç lim
è h ®0 h
÷
ø h®0
( )
æ
lim g ( h + x ) + f ( x ) ç lim
è h®0 h
÷
ø
= f ' ( x) g ( x) + f ( x) g' ( x)
The product rule says that the derivative of the product of two functions is formed by multiplying
the derivative of each by the other and then adding the results.
(
Example 56: Find the derivative of f ( x ) = 1 - 6 x3 4 x 2 - 6 x + 2 )( )
Solution
f ' ( x ) = ( -18 x 2 )( 4 x 2 - 6 x + 2 ) + (1 - 6 x 3 ) ( 8 x - 12 )
= -72 x 4 + 108 x 3 - 36 x 2 + 8 x - 12 - 48 x 4 + 36 x
= 120 x 4 + 144 x 3 - 36 x 2 + 8 x - 12

Now, suppose k ( x ) = f1 ( x ) f 2 ( x )K f n ( x )
k ' ( x ) = f1' ( x ) f 2 ( x )K f n ( x )
+ f1 ( x ) f 2' ( x )K f n ( x )
M
+ f1 ( x ) f 2 ( x )K f ' ( x )
( )(
Example 57: Let k ( x ) = ( x - 2 ) x 2 + 6 x 4 + 1 Find k ' ( x) .
.
)
Solution:
\ k ' ( x ) = (1) ( x 2 + 6 )( x 4 + 1) + ( x - 2 )( 2 x ) ( x 4 + 1) + ( x - 2 ) ( x 2 + 6 ) ( 4 x )
= x 6 + x 2 + 6 x 4 + 6 + 2 x ( x 5 + x - 2 x 4 - 2 ) + 4 x ( x3 + 6 x - 2 x 2 - 12 )
= x 6 + x 2 + 6 x 4 + 6 + 2 x 6 + 2 x 2 - 4 x 5 - 4 x + 4 x 4 + 6 x 2 - 8 x3 - 48 x
= 3x 6 - 4 x 5 + 10 x 4 - 8 x 3 + 9 x 2 - 52 x + 6
(b)The Reciprocal Rule
d æ 1 ö f ' ( x)
If f is differentiable at x and f ( x ) ¹ 0 , then ç ÷=-
dx çè f ( x ) ÷ø éë f ( x ) ùû
2

5
 1 k ( x + h) - k ( x )
Proof: Let k ( x ) = Þ k ' ( x ) = lim
f ( x) h® 0 h
1 1
-
f ( x + h) f ( x)
= lim
h®0 h
f ( x) - f ( x + h)
= lim
h®0 hf ( x + h ) f ( x )

æ 1 öæ f ( x + h) - f ( x) ö
= - çç lim ÷ ç lim ÷
h®0 f ( x + h ) f ( x ) ÷ h®0 h
è øè ø
f ' ( x)
=-
éë f ( x ) ùû
2

1
Example 58: Find k ' ( x ) if k ( x ) = 2
x +1
d 2
- x +1 ( ) -2 x
Solution: k ' ( x ) = dx =
( ) ( )
2 2
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
(c)Power rule for a negative integer n
d n
If n is a negative integer, then
dx
( x ) = nx n -1
Proof: Let m = -n , so that m is a positive integer. Then
d m
d n d -m d æ 1 ö
x
mx m -1 ( )
x = ( ) x ( )
= ç m ÷ = dx 2 = - 2m = ( -m ) x- m -1 = nx n -1
dx dx dx è x ø xm x ( )
5 x4 - 6 x + 7
Example 59: Find f ' ( x ) if f ( x ) =
2x2
Solution:
5x 4 - 6 x + 7
f ( x) =
2x2
5 2 3 7
= x - + 2
2 x 2x
5 2 7
: = x - 3 x -1 + x -2
2 2

\ f ' ( x) =
5
2
( )7
(
( 2 x ) - 3 - x -2 + -2 x -3
2
)
3 7
= 5x + -
x 2 x3

6
The Quotient Rule
f
If f and g are differentiable at x and g ( x ) ¹ 0 then is differentiable x and
g
d é f ( x) ù f ( x) g ( x) - f ( x) g ( x)
' '

ê ú =
dx ë g ( x ) û éë g ( x ) ùû
2

f ( x)
Proof: Let k ( x ) =
g ( x)
k ( x + h) - k ( x)
k ' ( x ) = lim
h® 0 h
f ( x + h) f ( x)
-
g ( x + h) g ( x)
= lim
h ®0 h
f ( x + h) g ( x) - g ( x + h) f ( x)
= lim
h ®0 hg ( x + h ) g ( x )

Add and subtract f ( x ) g ( x )

g ( x) f ( x + h) - f ( x) g ( x) + f ( x ) g ( x) - f ( x) g ( x + h)
lim
h® 0 h ( g ( x ) g ( x + h ))

g ( x) f ( x + h) - f ( x) g ( x) f ( x) g ( x) - f ( x) g ( x + h)
= lim + lim
h®0 h ( g ( x ) g ( x + h )) h ® 0 h ( g ( x ) g ( x + h))

é f ( x + h ) - f ( x ) ùû é g ( x ) - g ( x + h ) ùû
= lim g ( x ) ë + lim f ( x ) ë
h®0 hg ( x ) g ( x + h ) h®0 h ( g ( x ) g ( x + h))

f ( x + h) - f ( x) é g ( x + h ) - g ( x ) ùû
g ( x ) lim f ( x ) lim ë
=
h ®0 h -
h®0 h
lim g ( x ) g ( x + h ) lim g ( x ) g ( x + h )
h ®0 h ®0

g ( x) f ' ( x) f ( x) g ' ( x)
= -
( g ( x )]2 ( g ( x )]2
g ( x) f ' ( x) - f ( x) g ' ( x)
=
( g ( x )]2

7
Slope of a tangent
f (a + h) - f (a)
Let M be a slope of a tangent line at point P. Then M = lim
h ®0 h
Example 60: .If f ( x ) = x , find the slope of tangent line at at the point P ( a, a 2 )
2
.
Solution: f ( a + h ) = ( a + h )
2

f (a + h) - f (a)
M = lim
h ®0 h
(a + h)
2
- a2
a 2 + 2ah + h 2 - a 2
= lim = lim = lim 2a + h = 2a
h®0 h h®0 h h®0

Example 61: Find the slope and the equation of the tangent line to a graph of f ( x ) = x 3 at the
point P ( 3, 27 ) .
Solution:
f (a + h) - f (a)
M = lim
h ®0 h
(a + h)
3
- a3 a 3 + 3a 2 h + 3ah2 + h3 - a 3
= lim = lim
h®0 h h® 0 h
= lim 3a 2 + 3ah + h 2
h®0

= 3a 2
But a=3
y - y0 y - 27
Let a = 3 ´ 32 = 27 ; M = ; 27 = ; y - 27 = 27 x - 81; y = 27 x - 54
x - x0 x-3
In general, consider y = f ( x ) ,the slope of the tangent line at any arbitrary point P ( x, y ) on the
f ( x + h) - f ( x )
curve is given by m = f ' ( x ) = lim ,where f ' ( x ) is a derived function of f ( x ) .
h® 0 h
f ( x ) is read as “f prime of x”
'

Example 62: Let f ( x ) = x 2 + 1 ,find f ( x ) .Use this result to find the slope of the tangent line
y = x2 + 1 at point x = 2, x = 0 and at x = -2 .
Solution:
f ( x + h) - f ( x)
f ( x ) = lim
h ®0 h
( x + h ) + 1 - x2 - 1
2

= lim
h®0 h
x 2 + 2 xh + h 2 + 1 - x 2 - 1
= lim = lim 2 x + h = 2 x
h®0 h h ®0

Therefore f ( x ) = 2 x

8
When x = 2 , f ' ( 2 ) = 4 ; When x = 0 , f ' ( 0 ) = 0 ; when x = -2 , f ' ( -2 ) = -4
f ( x + h) - f ( x )
Definition: The function f ' ( x ) defined by the format f ' ( x ) = lim is called the
h®0 h
derivative of f ( x ) with respect to x.
The derivative can also be defined in various other equivalent ways e.g
f ( x ) - f ( x0 ) f ( x0 + Dx ) - f ( x0 )
f ' ( x0 ) = lim = lim
x ® x0 x - x0 Dx ® 0 Dx
Note:
1 .A function is said to be differentiable at a point x = x0 if it has a derivative at this point, i.e
f ( x0 ) exists. If f ( x ) is differentiable at x = x0 it must be continous there.
d f ( x ) dy
2. If y = f ( x ) , f ' ( x ) = = =derivative of y with respect to x.
dx dx
y-dependent variable
x-independent variable
3. The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation.
4. If you ever required to differentiate a given function from first principles, you should always
start the proof by quoting the formula below
f ( x + h) - f ( x )
f ' ( x ) = lim
h®0 h
Examples
1.Find the derivative of f ( x ) = 3x2 - 5x + 4 from first principles

f ( x + h) - f ( x)
f ' ( x ) = lim
h ®0 h
3( x + h ) - 5 ( x + h ) + 4 - 3x2 + 5x - 4
2

= lim
h®0 h
3 éë x 2 + 2 xh + h 2 ùû - 5 x - 5h + 4 - 3x 2 + 5 x - 4
= lim
h®0 h
3 x 2 + 6 xh + 3h 2 - 5 x - 5h + 4 - 3 x 2 + 5 x - 4
= lim
h®0 h
= lim6 x + 3h - 5
h®0
= 6x - 5
x
Differentiate f ( x ) = from 1st principles
x -9
Solution:
f ( x + h) - f ( x)
f ' ( x ) = lim
h ®0 h

9
 x+h x
-
= lim x + h - 9 x - 9
h®0 h
= lim
( x + h )( x - 9 ) - x ( x + h - 9 )
h®0 h ( x - 9 )( x + h - 9 )

x 2 - 9 x + xh - 9h - x 2 - xh + x9
= lim
h®0 h ( x - 9 )( x + h - 9 )

x-9- x -9
= lim =
h ® 0 ( x - 9 )( x + h - 9 )
( x - 9)
2

x dy -9
Confirm: If y = , =
x-9 dx ( x - 9 )2
Differentiate (a) x + 2 (b) f ( x ) = x - 2 from 1st principles
Solution:
y = x + 2 = f ( x)

f ( x + h) - f ( x)
f ( x ' ) = lim
h ®0 h

( x + h) + 2 - x+2
lim
h® 0 h

= lim
( x + h ) + 2 - ( x + 2)
h ®0
h[ ( x + h ) + 2 + x + 2]

h
= lim
h ®0
h[ ( x + h) + 2 + x + 2]

1
= lim
h ®0
( x + h) + 2 + x+2

1
x+2 + x+2
1
=
2 x+2
(b) f ( x ) = x - 2
Further examples
Differentiate the following with respect to x
y = x5
Solution:

10
d x5 ( ) = 5x 4
Þ
dy
= 5 x4
dx dx
y = x3
Solution:
d d x3 ( )
dx
( )
5x = 5
3

d
= 5 ´ 3 x 2 = 15 x 2

3. y = -7 x10

Solution:
dy
= -70 x9
dx

3. y = f ( x ) = 24 x 2
Solution:
dy
= 48 x .
dx
4.
y = f ( x ) = 8 x3 - 4 x 2 + x - 5

Solution
dy d
f ' ( x) = =
dx dx
(
8 x3 - 4 x 2 + x - 5)
d d d d
= ( 8 x 3 ) - ( 4 x 2 ) + ( x ) - (5)
dx dx dx dx
= 24 x 2 - 8 x + 1 - 0
= 24 x 2 - 8 x + 1
5.

f ( x ) = y = ( x + 3)
4

Solution
1x 4 + 4(3) x3 + 6(3)2 x 2 + 4(3)3 x + 1(3) 4
= x 4 + 12 x 3 + 54 x 2 + 108 x + 81
dy
= 4 x 3 + 36 x 2 + 108 x + 108
dx
2
6. y= 3
x
Solution:
dy -6
= 2. - 3( x -3-1 ) = -6 x -3-1 = -6 x -4 = 4
dx x

11
 1
7. y =
x
Solution:
1 1 3
dy
- 1 - -1 1 - 1 1 1 1
y=x ; =- x 2 =- x 2 =- ´ 3 =-
2
dx 2 2 2 2 x3
x2
1
8. y = x 2
1 1
dy 1 2 -1 1 - 2 1
Solution: = x = x =
dx 2 2 2 x
-2 1
9. (a ) y = 2 (b ) 3
x 3x
The Chain Rule
If y = f ( u ) where u = g ( x ) and g ( x ) are differentiable functions, then the composite function
dy dy du
defined by y = f éë g ( x ) ùû which has a derivative given by = ´
dx du dx
Examples
1. Differentiate ( 3x + 2)
4

Solution:
du dy dy dy du
Let y = ( 3 x + 2 ) and u = 3 x + 2 ;then y = u 4 ;
4
= 3; = 4u 3 ;But by chain rule = ´
dx du dx du dx
dy
= 4u 3 ´ 3 = 12u 3 ;But u = 3 x + 2 ; \ = 12 ( 3x + 2 )
3

dx
2. Differentiate ( x 2 + 3 x )
7

Solution:
Let y = ( x 2 + 3 x ) ; Let u = x 2 + 3x ; \ y = u 7 ;
7

du dy dy dy du
= 2 x + 3, = 7u 6 \ = ´ = 7u 6 ( 2 x + 3 )
dx du dx du dx

(
= 7 ( 2 x + 3) x 2 + 3x )
6

dy
(
= 7 ( 2 x + 3) x 2 + 3 x )
6
\
dx
1
3.Diffrentiate
1+ x
Solution:

( )
1
-1
Let y = 1 + x and u = 1 + x or 1+ x 2

12
 1 1
dy -1 du 1 2 -1 1 - 2 1
\y =u ; = -1u -1-1 = -u -2 ; = x = x =
du dx 2 2 2 x
dy dy du 1 1 1 1
= ´ =- 2 ´ =- 2 =-
dx du dx u 2 x
( )
2
2u x 2 1+ x x

4.Diffrentiate 1 + x2
Solution:
1

(
Let y = 1 + x 2 ) 2
and u = 1 + x 2 ;
1
dy 1 12 -1 1 - 12 1
\y =u ; = u = u =
2
du 2 2 2 u
du dy du 1 x
= 2 x; ´ = ´ 2x =
dx du dx 2 u 1 + x2

( )
1 -1
5. y = = 1+ x
1+ x
Solution:
1 1
du 1 2
u = 1+ x = 1+ x2; = x
dx 2
dy -1
y = u -1 ; = -1u -2 = 2
du u
1 1
dy dy du 1 1 - 1 1 -
\ = × =- 2 ´ x 2 =- ´ x 2
dx du dx u 2
( )
2
1+ x 2
dy 1
=-
dx
( )
2
2 1+ x x
Exercise
Differentiate
2 2
æ 1 ö
1. ( 3 x + 5 ) ( ) 3. ( 6 x - 4 x )
3 - -2 1
2. 3x - 5 x 5. ç x -
2 2 3 3
4. ÷
(x )
3
2
- 7x è xø
Mixed Examples
(
Differentiate the expression y = x 2 - 3 ( x + 1) and simplify the result.
2
)
(
Solution: Let u = x 2 - 3 and let v = ( x + 1) ;) 2 du
dx
= 2 x;
dv
dx
= 2 ( x + 1)1 = 2 ( x + 1)

13
dy dv du
dx
=u +v
dx dx
( )
= x 2 - 3 ( 2 )( x + 1) + ( x + 1) 2 x
2

(
= 2 ( x + 1) x 2 - 3 + 2 x ( x + 1)
2
)
(
= 2 ( x + 1) éë x 2 - 3 + x ( x + 1) ùû )
= 2 ( x + 1) éë x 2 - 3 + x 2 + x ùû
2 ( x + 1)( 2 x + 3)( x - 1) = 2 ( x + 1) éë 2 x 2 + x - 3ùû

2.Differentiate ( x 2 + 1) ( x3 + 1)
3 2

( ) and v = ( x
3
u = x2 + 1
)
2
Let 3
+1
d dv du
( uv ) = u + v
dx dx dx
dy
dx
( ) ( )
= 2 3x 2 ( x + 1) = 6 x 2 x 3 + 1
du
( )
= 3( 2 x ) x 2 + 1
2

dx
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= x 2 + 1 6 x 2 x3 + 1 + x3 + 1 3( 2 x ) x 2 + 1
3 2 2

= 6 x ( x + 1) ( x + 1) + 6 x ( x + 1) ( x + 1)
3 2 2
2 2 3 3 2

= 6 x ( x + 1)( x + 1) é x ( x + 1) + ( x + 1) ù
2
3 2 2 3
ë û
= 6 x ( x + 1)( x + 1) éë 2 x + x + 1ùû
3 2 2 3

3. Differentiate ( x - 3 ) ( x + 2 )
2 -2

Solution:
y = ( x - 3) ( x + 2 )
2 -2

u = ( x - 3) ; v = ( x + 2 )
2 -2

du dv
= 2 ( x - 3) ; = -2 ( x + 2 )
-3

dx dx
d dv du
( uv ) = u + v = ( x - 3) ( -2 )( x + 2 ) + ( x + 2 ) ( 2 )( x - 3)
2 -3 -2

dx dx dx

= -2 ( x - 3) ( x + 2 ) + 2 ( x - 3)( x + 2 )
2 -3 -2

-2 ( x - 3 ) 2 ( x - 3) -2 ( x - 3) + 2 ( x - 3)( x + 2 )
2 2

= + =
( x + 2) ( x + 2) ( x + 2)
3 2 3

2 ( x - 3) éë - ( x - 3) + x + 2 ùû 2 ( x - 3)( 5) 10 ( x - 3)
= =
( x + 2) ( x + 2) ( x + 2)
3 3 3

x +1
4. Differentiate y =
x2 - 2
Solution:

14
 Let u = x + 1;
v = x2 - 2
du dv
v -u
dy d æ u ö
= ç ÷ = dx 2 dx
dx dx è v ø v

du
= 1;
dv dy
= 2x =
x 2 - 2 1 - ( x + 1)( 2 x ) ( )
dx dx dx ( )
2
x2 - 2

=
( =
)
x 2 - 2 - ( x + 1) 2 x x 2 - 2 - 2 x 2 - 2 x - x 2 - 2 x - 2
=
( ) ( x 2 - 2) 2 ( )
2 2
x2 - 2 x2 - 2
x
5. Differentiate
(1 + x ) 2

1
Solution: Let u = x; (
v = 1 + x2 ) 2

æ1ö
1 1

( ) ( )
-
1 + x2 2 - x ç ÷ (2x ) 1 + x2 2
dy è2ø
=
dx
( ( ))
2
1 + x2
1
x2
1 1 (1 + x ) 2 2
- 1

( ) ( ) ( )
-
1 + x2 2 - x2 1 + x 2 2 1 + x2 2
=
1+ x 2
1+ x 2

(1 + x ) - x 2 2

=
1
=
1
1 1 3

(1 + x )(1 + x )
2 2 2
(1 + x )(1 + x ) 2 2 2
(1 + x ) 2 2

x2 - 4
6. y =
x2 + 4
Solution:
1

(x 2
-4 ) 2 1 1
y= 1 (
; u = x 2 - 4 2 ; v = x2 + 4 ) ( ) 2

(x 2
+ 4) 2

dy 8x
=
dx 1 3

( x2 - 4 )( 2 x2 + 4 ) 2

1+ x ö
7. y = æç ÷
è2+ xø

Solution:

15
 1+ x du ( 2 + x ) - (1 + x ) 1
Let u = ; = = ;
2+ x dx (2 + x) (2 + x)
2 2

1 1
dy 1 - 2 1
y =u ;2
= u =
du 2 2 u
dy dy du 1 1 1 1
\ = ´ = ´ = =
dx du dx 2 (1 + x )( 2 + x ) ( 2 + x ) 2 (1 + x ) 2 ( 2 + x )- 2 ( 2 + x )2 2 ( x + 1) 2 ( 2 + x ) 32
2 1 1 1
-1

1
=
2 ( x + 1)( 2 + x )
3

Exercise

1.
1 - x2 x2 ( x + 1)
3
x 2 x 2 - x3
6. y =
(3 x - x )
4

1 + x2 3. 1 + x2 3. x + 2 4. 1+ x 5. x2 - 1 ( x 2 + 1)

16
IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS
Explicit functions if x e.g y = x 2 - 5 x + 4
Here, y is given as an expression in x .If however y is given implicity by an equal such as
x = y4 - y + 1
He cannot express y in terms of x.
Consider
1
x = y2 ,Þ y = x 2
1
dy 1 - 2 1
\ = x = 1
dx 2
2x2
1
=
2y
dy 1
=
dx 2 y
dx
But = 2y
dy
dy 1
\ =
dx dx
dy
When it is impracticable to express either variable explicitly in terms of the other, we can still
differentiate both sides with respect to x.
A term like y n can be differentiated by first differentiating wrt y then, as the chain rule demands,
dy
multiplying by thus
dx
d d dy dy
dx
( yn ) =
dy
( yn )
dx
= ny n -1
dx
Similarly if we have a term of a form x m y m , then we use the product rule and obtain
d m n d n d m
dx
( )
x y = xm ( )
dx
y + yn ( ) dx
x
dy
= nx m y n -1 + mx m -1 y n
dx
Example
1.Find the gradient of the curve
x 2 + 2 xy - 2 y 2 + x = 2 at a point (-4,1)
To find the gradient, differentiate wrt x

1
 d 2 d d d d
dx
( )x + ( 2 xy ) -
dx
( )dx
2 y 2 + ( x ) = ( 2)
dx dx
æ dy ö dy
2x + ç 2x + 2 y ÷ - 4 y + 1 = 0
è dx ø dx
dy
( 2 x - 4 y ) = -1 - 2 x - 2 y
dx
dy -1 - 2 x - 2 y
=
dx 2x - 4 y
x = -4, y = 1
dy -1 + 8 - 2 -5
= =
dy -12 12
dy
2.Find if x 2 + y 2 - 6 xy + 3 x - 2 y + 5 = 0
dx
dy é dy ù dy
2x + 2 y - 6 ê y + x ú + 3 - 2 = 0
dx ë dx û dx
dy
dx
[ 2 y - 6 x - 2] = 6 y - 3 - 2 x
dy 6 y - 2 x - 3
=
dx 2 y + 6 x - 2
Find the slope of the tangent to the curve at a point (1, 2)
x 2 + xy + y 2 = 7
dy dy
2x + y + x + 2 y =0
dx dx
dy
( x + 2 y ) = -2 x - y
dx
dy -2 x - y
=
dx x + 2y
x = 1, y = 2
dy -2 - 2 -4
= =
dx 1 + 4 5
dy
if ( x + y ) + ( x - y ) = x + y
3 3 4 4
Find
dx
æ dy ö æ dy ö dy
3 ç ÷ ( x + y ) + 3 ç - ÷ = 4 x3 + 4 y 3
2

è dx ø è dx ø dx
2 x + 6 xy = x + y
3 2 4 4

é dy ù dy
6 x 2 + 6 ê y 2 + 2 yx ú = 4 x3 + 4 y 3
ë dx û dx
dy 3 dy
6 x + 6 y + 12 xy
2 2
= 4x + 4 y
3

dx dx
dy
dx
(12 xy - 4 y ) = 4 x - 6 x 2 - 6 y 2
3 3

dy 4 x3 - 6 x 2 - 6 y 2
=
dx 12 xy - 4 y 3

2
 d2y
4.If 4 x 2 - 2 y 2 = 9 find
dx2
8 x - 4 ydy = 0
dx
dy 8 x 2 x
= =
dx 4 y y
2
æ dy ö d y2
8 - 4ç ÷ - 4y 2 = 0
è dx ø dx
2
æ dy ö d2y
8 - 4ç ÷ = 4y 2
è dx ø dx
2
æ dy ö
8 - 4ç ÷
d2y è dx ø
=
dx 2
4y

( )
2
8 - 4 2x
y
=
4y
8- x 2
2
16
y
=
4y
8 y - 16 x 2 2 y 2 - 4 x 2
2
= =
4 y3 y3
2 y - 4x x
y
y 2

2 y 2 - 4x2
=
y3
dy
4.Find where x 2 + 2 xy + y 2 = 3
dx
æ dy ö dy
2x + 2ç y + x ÷ + 2 y =0
è dx ø dx
dy dy
2x + 2 y + 2x + 2 y =0
dx dx
dy
( 2 x + 2 y ) = -2 x - 2 y
dx
dy -2 x - 2 y
=
dx 2 x + 2 y
-2 ( x + y )
=
2( x + y )
dy
= -1
dx
dy
5. where x 2 - 3 xy + y 2 - 2 y + 4 x = 0
dx

3
 é dy ù dy dy
2x - 3 ê y + x ú + 2 y - 2 + 4 = 0
ë dx û dx dx
dy dy dy
2 x - 3 y - 3x + 2 y - 2 + 4 = 0
dx dx dx
dy
dx
[ 2 y - 2 - 3x] = -4 + 3 y - 2 x
dy 3 y - 2 x - 4
=
dx 2 y - 3 x - 2
dy
6.
dx
( 3x 2 - 4 xy = 7 )
æ dy ö
6x - 4ç y + x ÷ = 0
è dx ø
dy
6x - 4 y - x =0
dx
dy 4 y - 6 x 4y
= =6-
dx -x x
dy d2y
x - 3 xy - y = 3 find
2 2
and at the point (1,1)
dx dx2
æ dy ö dy
2 x + 3ç y + x ÷ - 2 y =0
è dx ø dx
æ dy ö æ dy ö
2 x + 3 y + 3ç x ÷ - 2 ç y ÷ = 0
è dx ø è dx ø
dy é dy d2yù éæ dy ö2 d2yù
2 + 3 + 3 ê + x 2 ú - 2 êç ÷ + y 2 ú = 0
dx ë dx dx û êëè dx ø dx úû
2
dy dy d2y æ dy ö d2y
2 + 3 + 3 + 3x 2 - 2 ç ÷ - 2 y 2 = 0
dx dx dx è dx ø dx
2
dy d y æ dy ö
2
2 + 6 + 2 [3 x - 2 y ] - 2 ç ÷ = 0
dx dx è dx ø
2
æ dy ö dy
2ç ÷ - 6 - 2
d y
2
dx dx
= è ø
dx 2
3x - 2 y
dy
if x 2 + y 2 - 6 xy + 3 x - 2 y + 5 = 0
dx
dy dy dy
2x + 2 y - 6 y - 6x + 3 - 2 = 0
dx dx dx
dy
dx
[2 y - 6 x - 2] = 2 x - 6 y + 3
dy 2 x - 6 y + 3
=
dx 2 y - 6 x - 2
dy d2y
Given that 3 x + 5 xy + 4 y - 4 y = 0 ,obtain the values of
2 2
and at (0,1)
dx dx2
4
 dy dy dy
6x + 5 y + 5x + 8y - 4 = 0
dx dx dx
dy
dx
[5 x + 8 y - 4 ] = -6 x - 5 y
dy -6 x - 5 y
=
dx 5 x + 8 y - 4
dy -3
0,1 =
dx 4
æ dy d y ö æ d 2 y æ dy ö ö
2
dy 2
6 + 5 + 5ç + x 2 ÷ + 8ç y 2 + ç ÷ ÷
dx è dx dx ø çè dx è dx ø ÷ø
2
dy dy d2y d2y æ dy ö d2y
6 + 5 + 5 + 5x 2 + 8 y 2 + 8 ç ÷ - 4 2 = 0
dx dx dx dx è dx ø dx
d2y dy æ dy ö
dx 2
[5 x - 4 + 8 y ] + dx ç10 + 8 dx ÷ = 0
è ø
4- x x<4
y=
x-4 x³4
dy é dy ù
- ê 10 + 8 ú
d y
2
dx ë dx û
= ( 0,1)
dx 2
5x - 4 + 8 y
5é 5´ 8ù
ê10 -
4 úû
= ë
4
5x - 4 + 8 y
0
=
4
=0
dy
Find if x 3 - 3 xy 2 + y 3 = 1
dx

5
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
Recall:
a
1. log1b = 0 2. log bb = 1 . logb ac = logb a + logb c 4. log b = log b a - log b c 5.
c
log b a r = r log b a
1
1 1
e.g. log b a = 2
log b a 6. log b = log b c -1 = -1log b c
2 c
7. If log c a = y Þ c y = a
Taking logs on both sides
log a log b a
log c y = log a; y log c = log a; y = ; y= Change to any base.
log c log b c
The number e (natural number)
e ; 2.718281828
loge b (log to base e of b) is called natural logarithm of b, abbreviated as lnb
x
1
æ 1ö
a) lim (1 + x ) = e; and lim ç 1 + ÷ = e
x
x®0 x ®¥
è xø
Derivative of logb x (b is any base)
d log b x + h - log b x 1æ x+hö 1 æ hö
( log b x ) = lim = lim ç log b
h®0 h
÷ = lim logb ç1 + ÷
dx h®0 h è x ø h ®0 h è xø
h
Let = t ; h = tx
x
d 1
(log b x ) = lim log b (1 + t )
dx t ® 0 tx
1 1
1 1 1 1 1
= lim log (1 + t ) = lim log b (1 + t ) t = logb lim (1 + t ) t = log b e
x h ®0 t x t ®0 x t ®0 x
d 1
( log b x ) = logb e ;
dx x
d 1 1
If b=e, (log e x ] = log e e =
dx x x
loge x is the natural logarithm of x
dy 1
log e x = ln x; y = ln x =
dx x
Example
d d
Use ( ln x ) to find ( logb x )
dx dx
Solution:
y = log b x; b y = x ln b y = ln x; y ln b = ln x
dy 1 dy 1
ln b = ; =
dx x dx x ln b

1
 1
ln bx - ln x ( 0 )
ln x dy x 1
Or y= ; = =
dx ( ln b )
2
ln b x ln b
Derivative of a x
Let y = a x ; ln y = x ln a differentiate both sides with x
1 dy dy dy d x
y dx
= ln a;
dx
= y ln a;
dx
= a x ln a \
dx
( )
a = a x ln a

Examples:
Differentiate the following functions with respect to x
1. y = 3x ;
1 dy dy
Solution: ln y = ln 3x ; ln y = x ln 3 ; = ln 3 ; = y ln 3 ; = 3 x ln 3
y dx dx
2. y = 3 sin x

Solution:
1 dy dy
ln y = ln 3sin x ; ln y = sin x ln 3 ; = cos x ln 3 ; = y cos x ln 3 ; = 3sin x cos x ln 3
y dx dx
3. y = x x

Solution:
1 dy 1 dy
ln y = x ln x; = ln x + x ; = ( ln x + 1) y = x x ( ln x + 1)
y dx x dx

4. y = x y
Solution:
1 dy dy y dy 1 y
ln y = ln x y ; ln y = y ln x ; = ln x + ; ( - ln x] =
y dx dx x dx y x
( )
2
dy y æ 1 ö y 1 - y ln x y y y2 xy
= ¸ ç - ln x ÷ ; = ¸ = ´ = =
dx x è y ø x y x 1 - y ln y x (1 - y ln y ) x (1 - y ln y )
5. y = ( x 2 + 1) + x10 x
10 2
+1

Solution:
dy
= 10 ( 2 x ) ( x 2 + 1) + 2 x10 x +1 ln10 = 20 x ( x 2 + 1) + 2 x10 x +1 ln10
9 2 9 2

dx
6. y = sin x tan x sin x > 0 ;
Solution:
ln y = tan x ln sin x
1 dy cos x sin x cos x
= tan x + sec2 ´ ln sin x = + sec2 x ln sin x
y dx sin x cos x sin x
dy
= (1 + sec 2 x ln sin x ) y = sin x tan x (1 + sec 2 x ln sin x )
dx

2
 du
( y = ln sin x; Let u = sin x; = cos x; y = ln u
dx
dy 1 dy du 1 cos x
= ; ´ = ´ cos x = )
du u du dx u sin x
7. y = ln (x2 + 6 )
Solution:
du dy 1 dy dy du 1 2x
Let u = x 2 + 6; = 2 x ; y = ln u ; = \ = ´ = ´ 2x ; = 2
dx du u dx du dx u x +6
2x
Or directly
x +6
2

(
8. y = ln 3x + 2 x
3
)
dy 9 x 2 + 2
Solution: =
dx 3x3 + 2 x
1
9. y = ln x + 1 = ln ( x + 1) 2
1
1
dy 2 ( )2
-
x + 1 1 1 1
= = ´ =
Solution: dx 1
2 x + 1 2 x + 1 2 2 ( x + 1)
1 1
( x + 1) 2 ( ) ( )
du 1 1 1
dy 1
0r y = ln u; u = ( x + 1) 2 ;
= ( x + 1) 2 ;
-
=
dx 2 du u
dy dy du 1 1 1
\ = ´ = ´ =
dx du dx
( x + 1) 2 2 ( x + 1) 2 2 ( x + 1)
1 1

10. y = ln ax
dy 1
u = ax =
du u
du dy 1 1
=a = a=
dx dx ax x
é x + ( x + 5) ù
11. y = ln ê ú
êë ( x - 1) úû
3

Solution:
1
1
= ln x + ln ( x + 5 ) 2 - ln ( x - 1) = ln x + ln ( x + 5 ) - 3ln ( x - 1)
3

2
dy 1 1 æ 1 ö 3
= + ç ÷ -
dx x 2 è x + 5 ø x - 1
1 1 3
= + -
x 2 x + 10 x - 1
æ x 2 sin x ö
12. y = ln ç ÷
è 1- x ø

3
 1
2 x cos x 1 2x 1 1 2 1
= ln x 2 + ln sin x - ln (1 - x ) 2 = + - ln (1 - x ) = 2 + cot ( x ) + ´ = + cot x +
x 2
sin x 2 x 2 x -1 x 2 (1 - x )

æ cos x ö
( )
1

13. y = ln ç 2 ÷ = ln cos x - [ln x + ln sin x]

2 2

è x sin x ø
1 1 sin x 2 cos x tan x 2
= ln cos x - 2 ln x - ln sin x = - - - = - - cot x
2 2 cos x x sin x 2 x
Exercise
Differentiate the following with respect to x
1. y = 7 ; 2. y = 3
x 2- x2

3. y = xe + e x 4. y = 2sec x 5. y = ( cos x )
x

d2y æ æ 1 öö
6. Find if y = sin t and x = cos t + ln ç tan ç t ÷ ÷
dx 2
è è 2 øø

4
DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Recall
1. limsinh = 0 lim cosh = 1;
h®0 h® 0

sinh cosh sinh

lim = lim = 1 (by L' Hospital Rule); \ lim =1
h®0 h h ®0 1 h®0 h

1 - cosh sinh
Also, lim = lim = limsinh = 0
h® 0 h h ® 0 1 h®0

Recall also the factor formulae

P+Q P -Q
cosP + cosQ = 2 cos cos
2 2
P+Q P -Q
cosP - cos Q = -2sin sin
2 2
P+Q P -Q
sin P + sin Q = 2sin cos
2 2
P+Q P -Q
sin P - sin Q = 2 cos sin
2 2
Derivatives of sin x and cos x
Derivative of sin x from 1st Principles
f ( x + h) - f ( x)
f ' ( x ) = lim
h ®0 h
f ( x ) = y = sin x
f ( x + h ) = sin ( x + h )

sin ( x + h ) - sin x
= lim
h®0 h
sin ( x + h ) - sin x
lim ;
h® 0 h
sin x cos h + sinh cos x - sin x
lim
h® 0 h
æ sin x cosh sinh cos x sin x ö
lim ç + -
h ®0
è h h h ÷ø
cosh sinh
sin x lim + cos x lim - sin x
h ®0 h h ® 0 h
= cos x
(Or by factor method

sin A - sin B = 2cos

( A + B ) sin ( A - B )
2 2
sin ( x + h ) - sin x ; Let A = ( x + h ) ; B = x

sin ( x + h ) - sin x = 2cos

( x + h ) + x sin ( x + h - x )
2 2

1
 2x + h h
sin ( x + h ) - sin x = 2cos sin
2 2
æ 2x + h ö h
2cos ç
2 ÷ø 2
sin
lim è
h ®0 h
æ hö h
2 cos ç x + ÷ sin
lim è 2ø 2
= h® 0 h
æ hö h h
cos ç x + ÷ sin sin
è 2 ø 2 æ h ö 2
= lim = lim cos ç x + ÷ lim
h® 0 1
h
h® 0
è 2 ø h®0 1
h
2 2
æ hö æ hö
= lim cos ç x + ÷ ´ 1 = lim cos ç x + ÷ = cos x
h ®0
è 2ø h ® 0
è 2ø
st
Derivative of cos x from 1 Principles
f ( x + h) - f ( x )
f ' ( x ) = lim
h®0 h
cos ( x + h ) - cos ( x )
= lim
h ®0 h
cos A - cos B = -2sin
( A + B ) sin A - B
2 2
x+h+x x+h-x
cos ( x + h ) - cos x = -2sin sin
2 2
2x + h h
= - 2sin sin
2 2

-2sin
( 2 x + h ) sin h æ hö h
-2sin ç x + ÷ sin
æ hö h
sin ç x + ÷ sin
lim 2 2 = lim è 2ø 2
= - lim è
2ø 2
= - sin x
h® 0 h h ®0 h h®0 h
2

d d
Therefore ( sin x ) = cos x ; ( cos x ) = - sin x
dx dx
Recall
cos 2 x 1
1. cos2 x + sin 2 = 1 Þ +1 = 2 Þ cot 2 x + 1 = cos ec2 x
sin x
2
sin x
sin x
2
1
Similarly, 1 + = Þ 1 + tan 2 x = sec2 x
cos x cos x
2 2

2
Derivative of tan x
sin x dy cos x cos x - sin x ( - sin x )
y = tan x; y = ; =
cos x dx cos2 x
cos 2 x + sin 2 x 1 d
= = = sec2 x ; \ ( tan x ) = sec 2 x
cos x
2
cos x
2
dx
Derivative of cot x
cos x
y = cot x =
sin x
dy - sin x sin x - cos x cos x - éësin 2 x + cos2 x ùû 1
= = = - 2 = - cos ec 2 x ;
dx sin x
2
sin x
2
sin x
d
\ ( cot x ) = - cos ec 2 x
dx

Examples
Differentiate
1. y = x 2 tan x
Solution:
dy
= x 2 sec 2 x + 2 x tan x
dx
sin x
2. y =
1 + cosx
Solution:

dy (1 + cos x ) cos x - sin x ( - sin x ) cos x + cos 2 x + sin 2 x 1 + cos x 1

= = = =
dx (1 + cos x ) (1 + cos x ) (1 + cos x ) 1 + cos x
2 2 2

d2 y p
3.Let y = sec x Find 2 at x =
dx 4
Solution:

dy
= sec x tan x
dx
d2y
= sec x sec2 x + tan x ( sec x tan x )
dx2
= sec3 x + tan 2 x sec x
p æp ö æp ö p d2y
d2y
( 2 ) + 1( 2 ) =2 2+ 2 =3 2
3
At x = , = sec ç ÷ + tan 2 ç ÷ sec =
3
dx2
4 dx2 è4ø è4ø 4

3
 ( )
4. y = x 2 + 1 sec x;
. Solution:
dy
dx
( )
= 2 x sec x + x 2 + 1 sec x tan x
5. y = sin 2 x
du
Solution: Let u = 2 x; = 2,
dx
dy dy dy du
y = sin u; = cos u; \ = ´ = cos u ´ 2=2cos 2 x
du dx du dx
6. y = sin x = ( sin x )
2 2

Solution:
dy
= 2 ( cos x ) sin x = 2cos x sin x
dx
7. sec3 x = ( sec x )
3

Solution:
dy
= 3 ( sec x tan x ) sec x = 3sec 2 x tan x
dx
dy p
8. Given that y sin x = 3x2 ,determine at x =
dx 2
Solution:
dy
y cos x + sin x = 6 x
dx
dy 6x
sin x =
dx y cos x
dy 6x
=
dx y sin x cos x
dy p
= 3p
dx 2
Exercise
1. Differentiate (a) tanx (b)cotx (c)secx (d) cosecx from first principles( from the definition of
derivatives).
d d
1.Show that (a) ( sec x ) = sec x tan x (b) ( cos ex ) = - cos ecx cot x
dx dx
dy
In each of the following questions, find
dx

4
 3
æ ö
( )
1 1 1
3. tan 5x = ( tan5x )
2
4. y = x tan x = x ç tan x 2 ÷ 5. y = cos sin x 6.
2 3 2 2

è ø
( )
2
y = 2cos ec 2 4 x3 = 2 cos ec 4 x3
1
æ 1 + sin x ö 2 dy 1
7. If y = ç ÷ Show that =
è 1 - sin x ø dx 1 - sin x
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
The functions sin -1 x, tan -1 x, cos-1 x etc are called inverse functions.
Examples
Find the derivative of sin -1 x
Solution:
dy
Let y = sin -1 x Þ sin y = x ; Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get cos y = 1;
dx
dy 1 1
= =
dx cos y 1 - x2
Or sin 2 y = x 2 ; (1 - cos y ) = x ;
2 2
- cos2 y = x 2 - 1; cos2 y = 1 - x 2 ;cos y = 1 - x 2
(
2. y = tan -1 x 2 + 1 ;)
dy dy 2x 2x 2x
tan y = x 2 + 1; sec 2 y = 2 x; = = 2 x cos 2 y = ( )2 = 4
dx dx sec y 2
x + 2x + 2
4 2 x + 2 x2 + 2
3. Differentiate with respect to x
x -1
(a) y = cos -1 x (b) y = sin -1 (2 x + 1) (c) y = cos-1 ( x 2 + 1) (d) y = sin -1 ( ) (e)
x +1
y = 4 x 2 ln(tan -1 x)
2x 1+ x
(f) y = tan -1 ( ) (g) y = tan -1 ( ) (h) y = cos-1 (tan x) (i) y = cos-1 ( x 2 + 1)
1- x 2
1- x

5
EXPONENTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
Recall:
ab
3. ( a b ) = a bc = ( a c )
-c b -c c b
1. ab × a c = a b + c 2. a c = a × a = a
b

4. Equations involving ln x and e x

If y = ln x = loge x , y = log e x Þ e y = x
5. eln x = x
Proof:
Let y = eln x ; ln y = ln eln x ; ln y = ln x ln e ; ln y = ln x; y = x
æ yö y
or ln y - ln x = 0; ln ç ÷ = 0 ; e 0 = ; y = x but y = eln x ; \ eln x = x; \ e ln x = x 2
2

è xø x
6. Solve for y.
(a) e3 y = 2 + cos x
Solution:
ln e3 y = ln ( 2 + cos x )
3 y ln e = ln ( 2 + cos x )
3 y = ln ( 2 + cos x )
1
y = ln ( 2 + cos x )
3
(b) ln ( y - 1) - ln y = 3x
Solution:
( y - 1) = 3x ; y - 1 = e3 x ;
log e
y y
( )
y - 1 = ye3 x ; y - ye3 x = 1; y 1 - e3 x = 1; y =
1
1 - e3 x
Derivative of y = e x
Let y = e x ; ln y = ln e x ; ln y = x ln e; ln y = x
Differentiate both sides with respect to x.
1 dy dy dy d
= 1; = y ; but y = e x = ex ; \ (ex ) = ex
y dx dx dx dx
Examples
Differentiate the following with respect to x.
1. y = eax
Solution:
du dy
Let u = ax ; =a; y = eu ; = eu
dx du
dy dy du
\ = ´ = aeu = ae ax
dx du dx
d ax d
\ ( e ) = eax ( ax ) = aeax
dx dx

1
2. y = esin x
Solution:
du dy dy
let u = sin x ; dx = cos x; y = e ; du = e ; dx = e cos x
u u u

=e
dy d
= esin x ( sin x ) = esin x cos x = cos xesin x or
dx dx

3. y = x2e x
Solution:
dy d x d
dx
= x2
dx
e + ex x2
dx
( )
= x 2e x + 2 xe x = xe x ( x + 2 )
+1
4. y = e x
2

Solution:
1

y=e
( x +1)
2 2

xe x +1
2
dy d 2 æ1 - ö
1

( )
1
=e x2 +1
x + 1 2 ; = e x 2 + 1 ç ( 2 x )( x + 1) 2 ÷ =
dx dx è2 ø x2 + 1
xe x +1
2
du 1 1 1
Or let u = ( x + 1) ; ( ) dy dy dy du
-
2
= ( 2x ) x2 + 1
2 2
; y=e ;
u
=e ;\ =
u
´ =
dx 2 du dx du dx x2 + 1
5. e y = x 2 - 3
Solution:
d d dy y dy 2 x 2x
e y ( y ) = ( x 2 - 3) ; e = 2x ; = y = 2 OR
dx dx dx dx e x -3
Take natural logarithms on both sides
dy 2x
( ) ( )
ln e y = ln x 2 - 3 ; y ln e = ln x 2 - 3 ; y = ln ( x 2 - 3) ;
dx
=
x -3
2

6. e xy = x 2
Solution:
d é dy ù dy dy 2 x - ye xy
e xy ( xy ) = 2 x ; e xy ê x + y ú = 2 x ; xe xy + ye xy = 2 x ; =
dx ë dx û dx dx xe xy
2 x - yx 2 2 x - yx 2 2 - yx 2 y 1 é 2 ù
= = = = 2 - = ê - yú
( )
x x 2
x 3
x 2
x x x ëx û
OR
dy 2 dy 1 é 2 ù
ln e xy = ln x 2 ; xy ln e = 2ln x; xy = 2ln x; x +y= ; = ê - yú
dx x dx x ë x û
7. y = cos ye- x
Solution:

2
 dy -u du
Let u = e- x ; y = cos -1 u; = ; ; = -e - x ;
du 1- u 2 dx
dy dy du -e - x e -2 x
= × = ´ -e - x =
dx du dx 1 - e -2 x 1 - e -2 x
dy
Exercise: Find
dx
e x - e- x (e x ) 5. y = e-2 x ln x
1. y = e 2 x + 2 x ; 2. y = e x
+ e x ; 3. y = x ; 4. y = e
e + e- x ;
6. y = ln e 2 x + e -2 x ; 7. e xy - 3x + 3 y 2 = 11 ; 8. xe y + 2 x - ln ( y + 1) = 3 ; 9. xe y - ye x = 2

3
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
Consider x = f ( t ) and y = g ( t ) ,then x and y are both functions of (t).These equations are called
parametric equations for x and y and the variable t is called a parameter.
Example of parametric equation is x = 2t , y = t 2 - 1

Derivative of parametric equations

dx dy dy dy dt dx
x = f ( t ) and y = g ( t ) ; = f ' (t ); = g' (t ) ; \ = ´ where ¹0
dt dt dx dt dx dt
Examples
æ dy ö
1. Find the derivative ç ÷ of x = 2t , y = t 2 - 1
è dx ø
Solution:
dx dy dy dy dt 1 dy
= 2, = 2t ; \ = ´ = 2t ´ = t ; =t.
dt dt dx dt dx 2 dx
2. x = t 3 + t 2 , y = t 2 + t
Solution:
dy dy dy dy dt 1 2t + 1
= 3t 2 + 2t , = 2t + 1 ; = ´ = ( 2t + 1) ´ 2 = 2
dt dt dx dt dx 3t + 2t 3t + 2t
3. x = cos t , y = sin t
Solution:
dx dy dy dy dt cos t dy cos t x
= - sin t , = cost ; = ´ = = - cot t ; = - cot t = - =-
dt dt dx dt dx - sin t dx sin t y
t t3 æ1 1ö
4. Find the gradient of the curve x = ,y= at the point ç , ÷ .
1+ t 1+ t è2 2ø
Solution:
dx (1 + t ) - t (1) dy (1 + t ) 3t - t 3t 2 + 3t 3 - t 3 3t 2 + 2t 3
2 3
1
= = ; = = =
(1 + t ) (1 + t ) dt (1 + t ) (1 + t ) (1 + t )
2 2
dt 2 2 2

dy dy dt 3t 2 + 2t 3
´ (1 + t ) ; = 3t 2 + 2t 3
2
= ´ =
dx dt dx (1 + t ) 2

t 1
, 1 + t = 2 ; 2t = 1 + t; t = 1;
1
Where x =
2
1 t3 1
When y = ; = ; 2t 3 = 1 + t ; t = 1;
2 1+ t 2
dy
When t = 1 , = 3 (12 ) + 2 (13 ) = 5
dx
dy
5. If x = t 3 + t 2 , y = t 2 + t find in terms of t.
dx
Solution:

1
dx dy dy dy dt 1 2t + 1 2t + 1
= 3t 2 + 2t , = 2t + 1 ; \ = ´ = 2t + 1 ´ 2 = =
dt dt dx dt dx 3t + 2t 3t + 2t t ( 3t + 2 )
2

2t 3t dy
6. If x = , y= , find in terms of t.
t+2 t+3 dx
Solution:
dx ( t + 2 ) 2 - 2t (1) 2t + 4 - 2t 4
= = =
dt (t + 2) (t + 2) (t + 2)
2 2 2

dy ( t + 3) 3 - 3t (1) 3t + 9 - 3t 9
= = =
dt ( t + 3) ( t + 3) ( t + 3)
2 2 2

( t + 2) 9 (t + 2)
2 2
dy dy dt 9
\ = ´ = ´ =
dx dt dx ( t + 3) 2 4 4 ( t + 3) 2
Exercise
dy
1. Find
dx
, in terms of t when a) x = at 2 , y = 2at ; b) x = ( t + 1) ,
2
(
y = t2 -1 ; )
p
2. x = cos2 t , y = sin 2 t ; 3. x = t ,
1
y= ;
t
4. x = t 2 -
2
, ( )
y = sin t 2 ;

d2y
Parametric formula for
dx2
Let x = f ( t ) , y = g (t )
dy dy dt æ dx ö d 2 y dy '
= ´ ç dt ¹ 0 ÷ = y '
; = But by chain rule
dx dt dx è ø dx 2 dx
dy ' dy' dt d 2 y dy ' dt
= ´ ; \ 2 = ´
dx dt dx dx dt dx
Similarly,
d ''
d 3 y dx ( ) d '' dt
y
dx3
=
dx
;
dx
( y ) ´ dx
dt
Example
d2y
1. Find if x = t - t 2 , y = t - t 3
dx 2

Solution:
dx dy dy dy dt 1 - 3t 2 1 - 3t 2
= 1 - 2t , = 1 - 3t ;2
= ´ = ; y =
'

dt dt dx dt dx 1 - 2t 1 - 2t
'
=
(
dy (1 - 2t )( -6t ) - 1 - 3t ( -2 ) )
2

=
-6t + 12t + 2 - 6t
2 2
\
dy ' 6t 2 - 6t + 2
=
dt (1 - 2t ) (1 - 2t ) dt (1 - 2t )
2 2 2

2
d 2 y dy ' dy ' dt 6t 2 - 6t + 2 1 6t 2 - 6t + 2
= = ´ = ´ =
dx2 dx dt dx (1 - 2t ) 1 - 2t (1 - 2t )
2 3

d2y
2.Find where x = cos 2 t , y = sin 2 t .
dx 2

Solution:
dx dy
= 2 ( - sin t ) cos t ; = 2 ( cos t ) sin t
dt dt
dy dy dt 2cos t sin t d2y
= ´ = = -1 \ 2 = 0
dx dt dx -2sin t cos t dx
d y2
Find if x = t , y = t ;
dx2
Solution:
1
dx dy 1 - 2
= 1; = t
dt dt 2
1 3
dy dy dt 1 - 2 1 1 dy ' 1 -2
= ´ = t ´ = ; =- t
dx dt dx 2 1 2 t dt 4
3
d 2 y dy ' dt 1 -2 1 1
= ´ = - t =- 3 =-
dx dt dx
( )
2 3
4 4 t
4t 2
æ æ 1 öö
4. y = sin t , x = cos t + ln ç tan ç t ÷ ÷
è è 2 øø
Solution:
1 21 1
sec t cos t
dy dx 1 1
= cos t; = - sin t + 2 2 = -sin t +( ´ 2 ) = - sin t +
dt dt 1
tan t
1 1
2cos2 t sin t
1 1
2cos t sin t
2 2 2 2 2
1
= - sin t +
sin t
dx - sin 2 t + 1 cos2 t
= =
dt sin t sin t
dy dy dx sin t
= ´ = cos t ´ = tan t
dx dt dt cos 2 t
d2y sin t sin t
= sec2 t ´ = = tan t sec3 t
dx 2
cos t cos t
2 4

Exercise
d2y
Find where 1. x = 2t - 5, y = 4t - 7 ; 2. x = cos t , y = 5sin t ; 3.
dx2
p
x = t2 -
2
, ( )
y = sin t 2

3
HIGHER DERIVATIVES
If f is a differentiable function, then its derivative f ' is also a function, so f ' may have a
derivative of its own, denoted by ( f ' )' = f '' . This new function f '' is called the second derivative
of f because it is the derivative of the derivative of f . Thus
d d æd ö
f '' ( x ) =
dx
( )
f ' ( x) = ç
dx è dx
f ( x)÷
ø
Examples
d d
1. If f ( x ) = x8 , then f ' ( x ) = 8 x 7 .So f '' ( x ) = ( f ' ( x ) ) = ( 8 x 7 ) = 56 x 6
dx dx
d æ dy ö d y 2
Notation: If y = f ( x ) , then y '' = f '' ( x ) = ç ÷ = 2
dx è dx ø dx
d æ d2y ö d3y
y ''' = f ''' ( x ) = ç ÷=
dx è dx 2 ø dx 3
The process can be continued. The fourth derivative f ''' is usually denoted by f iv or f ( 4 ) .In
general, the nth derivative of f is denoted by f ( n ) and is obtained from f by differentiating n
times. If y = f ( x ) , we write
dny
y = f = n
n n

dx
2. If y = x - 6 x 2 - 5 x + 3 ; y ' = 3 x 2 - 12 x - 5 ; y '' = 3 x 2 6 x - 12 ;
3
y ''' = 6 , y (iv ) = 0
3. Find y '' if x 4 + y 4 = 16
Solution: Differentiating implicitly w.r.t. x,
3
dy dy dy x3 æxö dy x3
4x + 4 y
3
= 0 ; 4 y3
3
= -4 x 3 ; = - 3 = -ç ÷ ; =- 3
dx dx dx y è yø dx y
d y d æ dy ö d æ x ö d dy 3 x3 dy 3 x 2
( ) ( )
2 3
= ç ÷ = ç- 3 ÷ = - x 3 y -3 = - x3 ( -3) y -4 -3
+ y -3 x 2
= -
dx 2
dx è dx ø dx è y ø dx dx y 4 dx y 3
d 2 y 3x 3 æ - x 3 ö 3 x 2 -3x 6 3x 2 -3x 6 - 3 x 2 y 4 -3x ( x + y )
2 4 4

= 4 ´ç 3 ÷- 3 = 7 - 3 = = but
dx2 y è y ø y y y y7 y7
y 4 + x 4 = 16
d2y 48x 2
=- 7
dx2 y

Or
æ 2 æ dy ö 2 2 ö
3 d y
12 x + 4 ç 3 y ç ÷ + y
2
÷=0
ç è dx ø dx2 ÷ø
è

4
 2
æ dy ö d y 2
12 x 2 + 12 y 2 ç ÷ + 4 y 3 2 = 0
è dx ø dx
2
æ dy ö d2y
3x2 + 3 y 2 ç ÷ + y3 =0
è dx ø dx 2
d y -3 x2 3 y 2 dy 2 3x 2 3 æ x6 ö
2
= 3 - 3 ( ) =- 3 - ç 6÷
dx2 y y dx y yè y ø
3 x 2 3 x6 -3 x 2 y 4 3 x6 -3 x2 ( y 4 + x 4 ) -3 x 2 (16) -48 x2
=- 3 - 7 = - 7 = = =
y y y7 y y7 y7 y7
Examples
d2y
1. If 4 x 2 - 2 y 2 = 9 , find
dx2
Solution:
dy dy 8 x 2 x
8x - 4 y = 0; = = ;
dx dx 4 y y
ì d 2 y dy dy ü
8 - 4íy 2 + × ý=0
î dx dx dx þ
2
d2y æ dy ö
8 - 4 y 2 - 4ç ÷ = 0
dx è dx ø
2
d2y æ dy ö
-4 y 2 = 4 ç ÷ - 8
dx è dx ø
2
æ dy ö
8 - 4ç ÷
d y è dx ø ; But dy = 2 x ,
2
=
dx 2
4y dx y
2
æ 2x ö 16 x 2
8 - 4 ç ÷ 8- 2
d2y è y ø y 8 y 2 - 16 x 2 2 y 2 - 4 x 2
= = = =
dx 2 4y 4y 4 y3 y3

dy 2 x
Or = ,
dx y
dy 2 y - 2 x æ 2 x ö 2 y - 4 x
2

2 y - 2x × ç ÷
d2y dx = è y ø= y 2 y 2 - 4 x2
= =
dx 2 y2 y2 y2 y3

5
 d2y
2. x 2 + 3xy - y 2 = 3 ; Find at (1,1).
dx2
Solution:

é dy ù dy
2x + 3 ê x + yú - 2 y =0
ë dx û dx
dy dy dy -2 x - 3 y
2 x + 3x + 3 y - 2 y = 0; =
dx dx dx 3x - 2 y
é d 2 y dy ù dy é d 2 y æ dy ö 2 ù
2 + 3 êx 2 + ú + 3 - 2 ê y 2 + ç ÷ ú = 0
ë dx dx û dx êë dx è dx ø ûú
2
æ dy ö 6dy
2ç ÷ - -2
d y
2
è dx ø dx dy -2 x - 3 y dy -2(1) - 3(1) -5
= ; But = = = = = -5
dx 2
3x - 2 y dx 3 x - 2 y dx 3(1) - 2(1) 1
d 2 y 2 ( -5 ) - 6( -5) - 2
2

= = 50 + 30 - 2 = 78
dx 2 3(1) - 2(1)
d2y
3. 3 x 2 + 5 xy + 4 y 2 - 4 y = 0 . Find at (0,1).
dx2
Solution:
dy dy dy dy
6 x + 5( x + ) + 8 y - 4 = 0
dx dx dx dx
dy dy dy dy
6x + 5x + 5 + 8y - 4 = 0
dx dx dx dx

d 2 y dy d2y dy dy 2 d2y
6 + 5( x 2 + ) + 5 2 + 8[ y + ( ) ] - 4 2 = 0
dx dx dx dx dx dx

d2y d2y d2y dy dy dy

5 x 2 + 5 2 - 4 2 = -6 - 5 - 8 y - 8( )2
dx dx dx dx dx dx
d2y d2y dy dy dy
5 x 2 + 2 = -6 - 5 - 8 y - 8( )2
dx dx dx dx dx
dy dy dy
-6 - 5 - 8 y - 8( )2
d y
2
dx dx dx
=
dx 2 5x + 1

But
dy dy dy dy dy -6 x dy -6 x -6(0)
5x + 5 + 8 y - 4 = -6 x Þ = = = = =0
dx dx dx dx dx 5 x + 5 + 8 y - 4 dx 5 x + 8 y + 1 5(0) + 8(1) + 1

6
d 2 y -6 - 5(0) - 8(1)(0) - 8(0) 2 = 0
=
dx 2 5(0) + 1
Exercise
x
1. Find y ' , y '' , y ''' where a) y = b) y = x 2 + 1 c) x 3 + y 3 = 1 d) x 2 + 6 xy + y 2 = 8 e)
1- x
x + y =1
2. Let 9 y = x 3 + 3x + 1 . Show that y ''' + xy '' - 2 y ' = 0
1
3. Let y = ( x ¹ 0 ) .Show that x 3 y '' + x 2 y ' - xy = 0
x

7
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

EQUATIONS OF TANGENTS AND NORMALS

Definition: A normal to a curve at a point is the straight line through the point at right angles to
the tangent at the point.
y=f(x)

normal

tangent

Finding the equations of tangents and normals.

Examples
1. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x 3 at the point (2,8).
Solution:
dy
y = x 3 ; \ gradient of y or = 3x2
dx
dy
When x=2; = 3 ´ 22 = 3 ´ 4 = 12
dx

Thus the gradient of the tangent at (2, 8) is 12.

Dy y - 8
But gradient = = = 12 ;
Dx x - 2
y - 8 = 12 ( x - 12 )
y - 8 = 12 x - 24
y = 12 x - 24 + 8
y = 12 x - 16 which is the equation of the tangent.
( )
2. Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = x 2 + x + 1 ( x - 3) at the point where it cuts
the x-axis.
Solution:
( )
y = x 2 + x + 1 ( x - 3) . At the x-axis y=0.
( )
When y=0, x + x + 1 ( x - 3) = 0 ; x - 3 = 0 ; x = 3 .
2

-b ± b2 - 4ac -1 ± 1 - 4
Or x + x + 1 = 0 ; x =
2
= ( No real roots).
2a 2
Hence x = 3 and therefore the curve cuts the x-axis at (3,0).
1
 æ dy ö
( )
\ gradient ç ÷ = ( 2 x + 1)( x - 3) + 1 x 2 + x + 1 = 2 x 2 - 6 x + x - 3 + x 2 + x + 1
è dx ø
dy dy
dx
= 3 x 2 - 4 x - 2 ; When x=3,
dx
( )
= 3 32 - 4 ( 3) - 2 = 27 - 12 - 2 = 13
1
The gradient of the tangent at (3,0) is 13, \ the gradient of the normal at (3,0) is - (since for
13
perpendicular lines with gradients m1 and m2, m1 ´ m2 = -1 )
Dy y - 0 1 3
= = - ; 13 y = - x + 3 ; y = - x + is the equation of the normal.
Dx x - 3 13 13 13

3. Find the slope (gradient)of the tangent to the curve x 2 + xy + y 2 = 7 at the point (1,2).
Solution:
dy dy dy dy -2 x - y
2x + y + x + 2 y = 0 ; ( x + 2 y ) = -2 x - y ; = .
dx dx dx dx x + 2y
dy -2 (1) - 2 -4
At x = 1, y = 2 , = = .
dx 1 + 2 ( 2 ) 5
4. Find the equation of the tangent and a normal to the curve x 2 + xy - y 2 = 1 at the point (2, 3).
Solution:
Equation of the tangent
dy dy dy dy -2 x - y -2 ( 2 ) - 3 7
2x + y + x - 2 y = 0 ; ( x - 2 y ) = -2 x - y ; = = = at the point
dx dx dx dx x - 2y 2 - 2 ( 3) 4
x=2, y=3 .
Equation of the normal
Recall: For perpendicular lines with gradients m1 and m2, m1 ´ m2 = -1
4
\ The gradient of the normal at the point (2, 3)is - .
7
Dy y - 3 4
= = - ; 7 ( y - 3) = -4 ( x - 2 ) ; 7 y - 21 = -4 x + 8 ; 7 y = -4 x + 8 + 21 ;
Dx x - 2 7
-4 x 29 1
y= + = [ 29 - 4 x ]
7 7 7
5. Find the normal to a curve 3 xy + 2 y 2 - x 3 = 0 at the point (1,2).
Solution:
dy dy dy dy 3x 2 - 3 y
3 y + 3x + 4 y - 3x 2 = 0 ; ( 3 x + 4 y ) = 3 x 2 - 3 y ; =
dx dx dx dx 3 x + 4 y

dy 3 - 6 -3 11
At x=1, y=2, = = ; \ Gradient of the normal to the curve at (1,2) is .
dx 3 + 8 11 3

Dy y - 2 11 11x 5
= = ; 3 y - 6 = 11x - 11 ; 3 y = 11x - 5; y = -
Dx x - 1 3 3 3

2
6. Find the equations of the tangent and the normal to the curve x 2 + 2 xy - y 2 = 4 at the point
( 2, 4 ) .
Solution:

dy dy dy dy -2 x - 2 y -4 - 8 -12
2x + 2 y + 2x - 2y = 0; ( 2x - 2 y ) = -2 x - 2 y ; = = = = 3 at
dx dx dx dx 2 x - 2 y 4 -8 -4
( 2, 4 ) .

\ the gradient of the tangent line at ( 2, 4 ) is 3.

1
\ gradient of the normal to the curve is - .
3
Dy y - 4 1 1
= = - ; 3 y - 12 = - x + 2 ; 3 y = - x + 14 ; y = [14 - x ]
Dx x - 2 3 3
7. The parametric equations of a curve are x = t 2 - 4 and y = t 3 - 4t . Find the equation of the
tangent to the curve at the point (-3,3).
Solution:
dx dy dy dy dt 3t 2 - 4
= 2t , = 3t 2 - 4 ; = ´ = . But x = t 2 - 4, y = t 3 - 4t .
dt dt dx dt dx 2t

When x=-3, - 3 = t 2 - 4, t 2 = 1; t = ±1
When y=3, 3 = t 3 - 4t ; t 3 - 4t - 3 = 0; when t = -1, -1 + 4 - 3 = 0 and therefore (t+1) is a factor of
t 3 - 4t - 3 .
t2 - t - 3
( t + 1) t 33 - 42t - 3
t +t
0 - t 2 - 4t
- t2 - t
- 3t - 3
-3t - 3
0
1 ± 1 + 12 1 ± 13
( t + 1) ( t 2 - t - 3) = 0 ; t = -1 or t 2 - t - 3 = 0 ; t = =
2 2
dy 3 - 4 1
At t=-1,= = ;
dx 2(-1) 2
Dy y - 3 1 x 9
= = ; 2( y - 3) = x + 3 ; 2y-6=x+3; 2y=x+9; y= + ;
Dx x + 3 2 2 2

Exercise
1. Find the equation of a tangent and normal to the curve x 2 + y 2 - 6 xy + 3x - 2 y + 5 = 0 at a
point (3,0).

3
 t t3
2. Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve x = , y= at the point
1+ t 1+ t
æ1 1ö
ç 2, 2÷ .
è ø

SMALL CHANGES
Recall:
d f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
= f ' ( x ) = lim approaches the tangent line.
dx d x®o dx
d y dy dy
\ if d x is small, then we say that ; Þd y ; ×d x
¶x dx dx
This approximation can be used to estimate the value of a function close to a known value.i.e
y + d y can be approximated if y is known.
Examples
1. Use y = x to approximate the value of 1 × 1 .
Solution:
Known value 1 = 1.
From 1 × 1 = 1 + 0 × 1 , x = 1, d x = 0 × 1
dy 1 - 12 1
y = x; = x =
dx 2 2 x
dy 1 1
From d y ; ×d x ; ×d x ; ´ 0 ×1 ; 0 × 05 \d y ; 0 × 05 .
dx 2 x 2 1
\ 1 × 1 ; y + d y ; 1 + 0 × 05 ; 1 × 1 ; 1 × 05
2. Approximate ln1 × 1
Solution:
Known value = ln1 = 0
Let y = ln x; x = 1, d x = 0 ×1
dy 1 dy 1 1
= ; But d y ; × d x ; × d x ; ´ 0 ×1 ; 0 ×1
dx x dx x 1

\ ln (1 × 1) ; y + d y ; ln x + d y ; ln1 + d y ; 0 + 0 × 1 ; 0 × 1 \ ln1 × 1 ; 0 × 1 .
3. Approximate 101 .
Solution:
Known value=100
Let y = x , x = 100, d x = 1
dy 1 dy 1 1
= ; But d y ; ×d x ; ´1 ;
dx 2 x dx 2 100 20

4
 1 1
\ 101 ; y + d y ; x+ ; 100 + = 10 + 0 × 05 ; \ 101 = 10 × 05 .
20 20
4. By taking 10 = 0 × 0175 radians, approximate sin 290 .
Solution:
1
Known value sin 300 = ; Let y = sin x ; x = 300 ; d x = -1
2
dy dy
dx
= cos x ; d y ;
dx
( )
× d x ; cos x × -10

( )
; cos30 ´ -10 ; But -10 = -0 × 0175 radians,
0

3 3
dy = ( -0 × 0175) ; - ( 0 × 0175)
2 2
1
\ sin 290 ; y + d y ; sin x + d y ; sin 30 + d y ; - 0 × 015 ; 0 × 4848
2
5. Approximate 3 65 .
Solution:
Known value = 3 64 = 4
Let y = 3 x , x = 64; d x = 1
1 2
dy 1 - 3 1 dy 1 1 1 1
y = x3 ; = x = 2 ; ¶y ; ´ d x ; 2 ´1 ; ´1 = = ;
dx 3
( ) ´
2
dx 3
3 64 16 3 48
3x 3 3x 3
1
\ 3 65 = y + d y ; 3 64 + d y ; 4 + ; 4 × 021
48
6. The side of a square is 5cm. Find the increase in the area of the square when the side expands
by 0.01cm.
Solution:
Let the area of the square be Acm 2 when the side is x cm.
Then A = x 2 .
dA
Now, d A ; dx x = 5; d x = 0 × 01
dx
dA
A = x2 ; = 2 x \ d A ; 2 x ( 0 × 01) ; 2 ´ 5 ( 0 × 01) ; 0 × 1
dx
\ the increase in the area is ; 0 × 1

7. Find approximation for 9 × 01

Solution:
Known value = 9 = 3
Let y = x , x = 9; d x = 0 × 01
1
dy 1 - 2 1 dy 1 1 1 1
= x = ; dy; ×d x ; ´ 0 × 01 ; ´ 0 × 01 ; ´ 0 × 01 =
dx 2 2 x dx 2 x 2 9 6 600

5
 1 1
\ 9 × 01 = y + d y ; x +d y ; 9 + ; 3+ ; 3 × 00167
600 600

dy dy
8. Given that sin 600 = 0 × 86605, cos 600 = 0 × 50000 ,and 10 = 0 × 001745 radians, Use » to
¶x dx
calculate the value of sin 60 × 1 correct to 5.d.p.
0

Solution:
y = sin x , x = 600 ; d x = 0 ×10
dy dy
= cos x ; d y ; × d x ; cos x ( 0 ×1) ; cos 600 (0 × 0001745) ; ( 0 × 5 )( 0 × 0001745 )
0

dx dx
( )
; 0 × 00008725 \ sin 60 ×10 ; y + d y ; sin x + d y ; sin 600 + ( 0 × 5 )( 0 × 0001745 )
; 0 × 86605 + ( 0 × 5 )( 0 × 0001745 ) = 0 × 86613725
MIXED EXERCISE
ATTEMPT ALL QUESTIONS
3
1. (a)Use the linear approximation formula to approximate ( 626 ) 4 .
dy
(b)Find
dx
( )
if (i) y = tan -1 x 2 + 1 (ii) y = sin -1 x

dy d2y
(c)Find and , given xy + x - 2 y - 1 = 0 .
dx 2 dx2
dy d2y
2.(a)If x = cos t and y = 1 - sin 2 t , find and .
dx dx2
dy
(b)Use logarithmic differentiation to evaluate if
dx

(i) y =
sin x cos x tan 3 x
(ii) y =
( )
x 2 + 1 cot x
x 3 - cot x
(c)Find the equation of a tangent and normal to the curve x 2 + y 2 - 6 xy + 3x - 2 y + 5 = 0 at the
point (3, 0).
3.(a)Differentiate f ( x ) = cot x from first principles.
dy
(b)Find if (i) y = 4 x (ii) y = ln ( cot x - cos ecx ) (iii) y = x sin -1 ( 3 x ) - 1 - 9 x 2 (iv)
dx
1
æ 1 + sin x ö 2
y = ln ç ÷
è 1 - sin x ø

6
RATES OF CHANGE
dy dy dt
The identity = ´ is useful in solving certain rate of change problems.
dx dt dx
dy dx
=rate of change of y w.r.t. time t; =rate of change of x w.r.t time t.
dt dt
Examples:
1. A spherical balloon is blown up so that its volume increases at a constant rate of 2cm3 per
second. Find the rate of increase of a radius when the volume of the balloon is 50cm 3
Solution:
4 dv
Volume of a sphere = p r 3 ; = +2 . Volume= 50cm 3
3 dt
dr dr dr dv
We are required to find ; = ´
dt dt dv dt

4 dv 4
v = p r3 ; = 3r 2 ´ p = 4p r 2 ;
3 dr 3

dr dr dv 1 1
= ´ = ´2 = ;
dt dv dt 4p r 2
2p r 2

4 4 3 1 3 7
But what is r when v= 50cm 3 ; v = p r 3 ; 50 = p r 3 ; r 3 = 50 ´ ´ ; r = 3 50 ´ ´
3 3 4 p 4 22
dr 1 1
= 2 × 29 \ = = = 0 × 03cm | s
dt 2p r 2p ( 2 × 29 )
2 2

2. A ladder 20m long leans against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder slides away from
the building horizontally at a rate of 2m|s, how fast is the ladder sliding down the building
when the top of the ladder is 12m above the ground?
Solution:
y 20m

2m|s x

dy dy dx
= ´ ; Let y be the distance from the ground to the top of the ladder.
dt dx dt
dx dy dy 2x
Given = +2 ; x 2 + y 2 = 400 ; 2 x + 2 y = 0; =- =- x .
dt dx dx 2y y
When y=12, x 2 = 400 - 144 ; x 2 = 256 ; x = 16 .
When x=16 , and y=12

1
 dy 16 dy dy dx
= - = -4 ; \ = ´ = -4 ´2;= -8
dx 12 3 dt dx dt 3 3

Or
20 2 - 122 = 400 - 144 = 256 = 16
dy dx dy dy x -x
= ?; = 2 ; y 2 + x 2 = 20 ; 2 y + 2 x = 0 ; =- =
dt dt dx dx y 20 x 2
4

dy dy dx -x -2 x -2 (16 ) -8
= × ; = ×2 ; = = =
dt dx dt 20 - x
2 2
20 - x 2 12 3
3
3. A container in the shape of a right circular cone of height 10cm and base radius 1cm is
catching the drips from a tap leaking at a rate of 0 × 1cm 2 | s .Find the rate at which the surface
area of water is increasing when the water is half-way up the cone.
Solution:

dv dv dh 1 1 10p
= × ; v = p r 2 h ; v = p (1) (10 ) =
2

dt dh dt 3 3 3
dv dA
= 0 × 1cm3 | s . We need to find when h=5.
dt dt

dA dA dx
= ×
dt dx dt

dv dr dv
× =
dr dt dt
x
Circumference = ´ 2p r = 1
3600
x 22 360 ´ 7 63
0
´ 2 ´ ´ 10 = 1 ; 440 x = 360 ´ 7 ; x = = ;
360 7 440 11
dA dA dh
= ×
dt dh dt
63/11
\A= ´ p h2
360
dA 63/11 22 63 22 1 h dA dA dh h
= ´ ´ 2h = ´ = ´ 2h = ; \ = × =
dh 360 7 11 ´ 360 7 20 10 dt dh dt 10

2
 p h2
The surface area of water, A = p r 2 =
100
dA
and we wish to find when h=5 (half-way)
dt
dA dA dh 2p h dh
= ´ = ´ K(1)
dt dh dt 100 dt
2
1 1 æ hö
The volume of water, V = p r 2 h = p ç ÷ h
3 3 è 10 ø
p h3
V=
300
dx 3
= p h2
dh 300
dv dv dh
But = ´
dt dh dt
dv 3 dh
= p h2 ´
dt 300 dt
dv
But we are given that = 0 ×1
dt
3 dh
0 ×1 = p h2 ´
300 dt
dh 0 × 1 ´ 300 10
= = 2 K( 2 )
dt 3p h 2 ph
From 1 and 2
dA dA dh 2p h 10 1
= ´ = ´ 2 =
dt dh dt 100 p h 5h
dA 1
= where h=5
dt 5h
dA 1
= = 0 × 04
dt 25h
Therefore when the water is half-way, the rate of change of the surface area is equal to
0 × 04cm 2 / s .
4. An inverted right circular cone of vertical angle 1200 is collecting water from a tap at a steady
rate of 18p cm3 / min . Find
(a)The depth of the water after 12min
(b)The rate of increase of the depth at this instant
Solution:
dv
(a)1min = 18p ; 12 min = 12 ´ 18p = 216p = V = 18p
dt

3
 r 1 1
( )
2
rrr tan1200 = ; r = h tan1200 ;\V = p r 2 h = p h tan1200 h
h 3 3
1 1
h = p h3 tan 2 1200 = ´ 3p h3 ; V = p h3
3 3

1200
\ p h3 = 216p ; h3 = 216 ; h = 6

dh dv dv dh dv dv
=? = ´ ; But = 18p ; v = p h3 ; = 3h 2p ;
dt dt dh dt dt dh

dv dv dh
= ´
dt dh dt
dh dh 18p dh 18 dh 18 1
18p = (3h 2p ) ´ ; = 2 ; = 2 ; At h = 6 , = = .
dt dt 3h p dt 3h dt 3 ´ 36 6

4
KINEMATICS
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
The velocity (v) is instantaneous rate of change of position. The velocity of a moving particle can
be positive or a negative, depending on whether the particle is moving in the
positive or negative direction along a line of motion.
Suppose a particle moves along a horizontal straight line, with its location at time t given by its
position function s = f ( t ) . Think of the time interval from t to t + Dt . The particle moves from
position f ( t ) to position f ( t + Dt ) during this interval. Then v is given by
f ( t + Dt ) - f ( t ) ds
v = lim = = f ' (t )
Dt ® 0 Dt dt

Example: An object moving in a straight line has its displacement s meters from an origin 0 at
time t seconds given by s = t ( t - 3) .
2

Determine a)The time when the object is at the origin

b)The time when the object is at rest
2
æ ds ö
c)The distance moved between t=0 and t=2. Use s = 1 + ç ÷ .
è dt ø
Solution:

a) The object will be at the origin when s=0

( ) (
0 = t ( t - 3) ; 0 = t t 2 - 6t + 9 ; t 3 - 6t 2 + 9t = 0 ; t t 2 - 6t + 9 = 0 ;
2
)
( t - 3)
2
t = 0 or t 2 - 6t + 9 = 0 ; =0 t =3sec.
ds
b) v = = ( t - 3) + 2 (1)( t - 3) t
2 '

dt
ds 2
v= = t - 6t + 9 + 2t 2 - 6t = 3t 2 - 12t + 9 ; v = ( t - 3 )( 3t - 3)
dt
For max or min v = 0 ; ( t - 3)( 3t - 3) = 0 ; t=3 or t=1
The object is thus instantaneously at rest at t=1 and t=3 seconds.
(c)By second derivative
d 2v d 2v
= 6t - 12 ; t =3 = 18 - 12 = 6 > 0 minimum point.
dt 2 dt 2

d 2v
t =1 = 6 - 12 < 0 maximum point
dt 2

When t=3, s=0 when t=0, s=0

When t=1,s=4 when s=0,t=3
When t=1, s=4(distance)

1
Between t=0, and t=1, the velocity is positive and the object moves from position s=0 to
s = 1(1 - 3) = 4 .
2

Between t=1 and t=3, the velocity is negative and the object moves from position s=4 to
position s=0.
Therefore the distance moved by the object between t=0 and t=2 will be given by 4(the positive
difference between values of s at time t=1,t=2 respectively).
when t = 1, s = 4
\ total distance is (4+2)=6metres.
when t = 2, s = 2
dv
Acceleration (a) at a time t is given by a = .
dt
Hence to determine the acceleration at time t differentiate v with respect to t.
Examples:
1. A particle is moving in a straight line and has its displacement s metres from the origin after t
seconds given by s = e - 3t sin t . Determine its displacement, velocity and acceleration
p
when t = and also the smallest positive value t for which the particle is at rest (i.e. v=0).
2
Solution:
s = e- 3t
sin t ; v =
ds
dt
= cos te - 3t
(
+ - 3 e- ) 3t
sin t

a=
dv
dt
( )(
= - 3e - 3t cos t + ( - sin t ) e - 3t + - 3 - 3 e - 3t sin t + cos t - 3 e - ) ( ) 3t

= - 3e - 3t cos t - sin te - 3t + 3e- 3t sin t + cos t - 3 e - 3t ( )

a = -2 3e - cos t + 2e - 3t sin t
3t

p p p
p ds p - 3 p - 3 p - 3
\ at t = , v= t = = - 3e 2
sin +e 2
cos = - 3e 2
2 dt 2 2 2
p p p
dv p - 3 - 3 - 3
a= t= = 2e 2
- 2 3e 2
× 0 = 2e 2
dt 2
p p
p - 3 p - 3
The displacement at t = is given by s = e - 3t
sin t ; s = e 2
sin ; s=e 2
metres.
2 2
- 3t - 3t
When the particle at rest v=0; \ v = - 3e sin t + e cos t = 0
v = e- 3t
(- )
3 sin t + cos t = 0 ; e - 3t
> 0 for all t
- 3 sin t + cos t = 0 ; - 3 sin t = - cos t
sin t 1 1 æ 1 ö
= ; tan t = ; t = tan -1 ç ÷ = 30 , 210 ; \ the smallest is t = 30 .
0 0 0

cos t 3 3 è 3ø
2. A distance time graph is represented by the equation s = 2t 3 - 2t 2 - 3t .
Evaluate (a)The velocity at time t
(b)The acceleration at time t

2
 2 + 22
(c)Show that the minimum distance over attained occurs went t =
6
Solution:
ds
(a) v = = 6t 2 - 4t - 3
dt
dv
(b) a = = 12t - 4
dt
(c) for minimum and maximum distance v=0
4 ± 16 + 72 4 ± 88 4 ± 2 22 2 ± 22
v = 6t 2 - 4t - 3 = 0 ; t = = = ; t=
12 12 12 6
2 + 22 2 - 22
\t = or t =
r 6
Using the second derivation test
dv dv 2 - 22 æ 2 - 22 ö
a= = 12t - 4 ; t= = 12 çç ÷÷ - 4 = -9 × 4 < 0 maximum
dt dt 6 è 6 ø
dv 2 + 22 æ 2 + 22 ö
t= = 12 çç ÷÷ - 4 = 9 × 4 > 0 minimum
dt 6 è 6 ø
Exercise
1. A particle moves along a straight line in such a way that after t seconds, its velocity is vms-1 ,
1
where v = t 2 - t + 2 . Find the acceleration the particle(a) after 2 seconds(b) after seconds.
2
2.The distance s metres that a particle has gone in t seconds is given by s = 5t + 15t - t 3 .Find the
2

velocity and
acceleration after (a)3seconds (b)6seconds .When is the acceleration zero?
3. After t seconds a particle has gone s metres where s = t 3 - 6t 2 + 9t + 5 .
(a) After how many seconds is its velocity zero?
(b) When is its acceleration zero?
(c)Find its velocity and acceleration (i)initially (ii)after 4seconds

In summary, the motion of a particle p along a straight line is completely described by the
equations s = f ( t ) , where t >0 is the time and s is the distance of p from a fixed point 0 in its
path.
ds
The velocity of p at time t is v = .
dt
dv d 2 s
If v=0, p is instantaneously at rest. Acceleration of p at time t is a = =
dt dt 2

3
APPLICATIONS OF MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES
Examples:
1.The figure below represents a rectangular sheet of metal measuring 8cm by 5cm.Equal squares
of side xcm are removed from each corner, and the edges are then turned up to make an open box
of volume vcm3 .Show that v = 40 x - 26 x 2 + 4 x 3 .Hence find the maximum possible volume and
the corresponding value for x.

x x

x x
x x 5cm
x x

8cm

Solution:Dimensions of the cube are:-

Length= ( 8 - 2 x ) cm ; Width= ( 5 - 2 x ) cm ; height= xcm
\ v = l ´ w ´ h = ( 8 - 2 x )( 5 - 2 x ) xcm3
= 40 x - 26 x 2 + 4 x 3
Finding maximum possible volume
dv
For maximum or minimum volume, = 0 Þ 40 - 52 x + 12 x 2 = 0
dx
Þ 3 x 2 - 13x + 10 = 0
10
Þ x = 1 or x =
3
d 2v
When, x = 1, = -52 + 24 x
dx 2
= -52 + 24 = -28 < 0
\ Volume is maximum, and the value of the maximum volume is
v = 40 (1) - 26 (1) + 4 (1) = 18cm3
2 3

10 d 2 y
When x = , = -52 + 24 x
3 dx 2
æ 10 ö
= -52 + 24 ç ÷ = -52 + 80
è 3ø
= 28 > 0
\ Volume is minimum
The value of this minimum volume(ALTHOUGH NOT ASKED) is
2 3
æ 10 ö æ 10 ö æ 10 ö
40 ç ÷ - 26 ç ÷ + 4 ç ÷ ; 7.41cm3
è 3ø è 3ø è 3ø
1
REQUIRED ANSWER:the maximum volume is 18cm3 when x = 1
(2)Two opposite ends of a closed rectangular tank are squares of sides xcm and the total area of
the sheet of metal forming the tank is sm2 .
1
(
(a)Show that the volume of the tank is x 5 - 2 x 2 m3 .
4
)
(b)If the value of s = 2400 ,find the value of x for which the volume is a maximum.
Solution: x
x

x
x

(a)Surface area = 2 x 2 + 4 ( xh ) = s
2 x 2 + 4xh = s
1 æ s - 2 x2 ö
h= ç ÷
4è x ø
1 æ s - 2 x2 ö
v = l ´ w´ h = x´ x´ ç ÷
4è x ø

=
1
4
(
x s - 2 x2 )
(b) v =
1
4
(
x 2400 - 2 x 2 )
1
v = 600 x - x 3
2
For maximum volume or minimum value,
2
dv 3x
= 600 - = 0 ; x 2 = 400; x = ±20
dx 2
1
When x = 20 , v = 600 ( 20 ) - ( 20 ) = 8000cm3
3

2
1
When x = -20 , v = 600 ( -20 ) - ( -20 )
3

2
= -12000 + 4000
= -8000
d 2 v -6 x
Check if maximum or minimum = = -3 x
dx 2 2

2
 d 2v
When x = 20, = -3 ( 20 ) = -60 < 0
dx 2
\ v is maximum
d 2v
When x = -20, 2 = -3 ( -20 ) = 60 > 0
dx
\ v is minimum(not required)
Required answer:
The volume is a maximum when x = 20 , and its value is 8000cm 3 .
(3)The length of a rectangular block is twice the width and the total surface area is
4
( )
108cm 3 .Show that if the width of the block is xcm ,the volume is x 27 - x 2 cm 2 .
3
Find the dimensions of the block when its volume is a maximum.
Solution:

2x
108 - 4 x 2 æ s = 4 xh + 2 xh + 4 x 2 ö
h= - ç since ÷
6x è 108 = 4 xh + 2 xh + 4 x 2 ø
æ 108 - 4 x 2 ö
v = l ´ w´ h = ç ÷ ( 2 x )( x ) cm
3

è 6x ø
=
1
3
( )
x 108 - 4 x 2 cm3

v=
4
3
(
x 27 - x 2 cm3 )
For maximum volume or minimum volume,
dv
= 0;
dx
4
v = 36 x - x 3
3
dv 4
= 36 - × 3x 2 ; 36 - 4 x 2 = 0
dx 3

3
 x = ±3
d 2v
Check if maximum or minimum = -8 x
dx 2
d 2v
When x = 3, = -8 ( 3) = -24 < 0
dx 2
Þ v is maximum
d 2v
When x = -3, 2 = -8 ( -3) = 24 > 0
dx
Þ v is minimum
\ maximum volume occurs when x = 3 ,and in this case l = 6, w = 3, h = 4
Curve sketching
The determination of maximum, minimum points and points of inflection is important in
sketching a curve.
Example:
Sketch the curve of y = 4 x 3 - 3 x 4 .
Solution:
Step 1:Find the point where the curve meets the x-axis as follows:
At the x-intercept, y = 0 Þ
4 x3 - 3x 4 = 0 Þ x3 ( 4 - 3x ) = 0
4
Þ x = 0 or x =
3
Get the coordinates of these points
When x = 0 , y = 4 ( 0 ) - 3 ( 0 ) = 0
3 4

3 4
4 æ 4ö æ 4ö
When x = , y = 4 ç ÷ - 3ç ÷ = 0
3 è 3ø è 3ø
4
\ The curve meets the x-axis at the points (0, 0) and ( , 0 ).
3
Step 2:Find the point where the curve meets the y-axis as follows:
At the y-axis, x = 0 Þ y = 4 ( 0 ) - 3 ( 0 ) = 0
3 3

\ the y-intercept is (0, 0)

Step 3:Find the stationary/Turning points
dy
Stationary/Turning points occur when =0
dx
dy
Now, = 0 Þ 12 x 2 - 12 x 3 = 0 Þ 12 x 2 (1 - x ) = 0
dx
Þ x = 0 or x = 1
When x = 0, y = 0 and when x = 1, y = 1
\ Turning points are at ( 0, 0 ) and (1,1)
Step 4:Determine the nature of the turning point
Using the second derivative test,

4
 d2y
= 24 x - 36 x 2 ; when x = 0,
dx 2

d2y
= 0 Þ ( 0, 0 ) is a point of inflection
dx 2
d2y
At x = 1, 2 = 24 (1) - 3 (1) = -12 < 0 Þ
dx
(1,1) is a maximum point.
Confirm these results using the first derivative test
Sketching
y

1 2 3 x

y = 4 x3 - 3x 4

Exercise
1.Sketch the following curves
(1) y = 3x 2 - x 3 (2) y = x3 - 2 x 2 + x (3) y = ( x + 1)( x - 1)( 2 - x )

Asymptotes
Asymptote: An asymptote is a straight line which the curve being studied approachs.
Alternatively, an asymptote is a straight line to which the curve y = f ( x ) approaches closer and
closer as one moves along it. The asymptotes are vertical, horizontal and slant/oblique
asymptotes.
1. Vertical asymptotes
These correspond to the zeroes of the denominator of a fraction.
Examples
x2 + 2x - 3
(a) Find vertical asymptotes of y = 2 ;
x - 5x - 6
Solution: The denominator is x 2 - 5 x - 6 ; Zero of denominator x 2 - 5 x - 6 = 0 .

5
 ( x - 6 )( x + 1) = 0 ; x=6 or x=-1
So x cannot be 6 or -1 because in this case the denominator will be zero and dividing by
zero will give an undefined value.
Therefore x=6 and x=-1 are the vertical asymptotes.
x+2
(b) Find vertical asymptotes of y = 2
x + 2x - 8
Solution: The denominator is x + 2 x - 8 = 0 . Zero of denominator x 2 + 2 x - 8 = 0
2

( x + 4 )( x - 2 ) = 0 ; x = -4, x = 2
2. Horizontal asymptotes
The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote for y = f ( x ) if lim f ( x ) = b or lim f ( x ) = b
x ®+¥ x ®-¥
Examples
x2 + 2x - 3
(a) Find Horizontal asymptotes of y =
x2 - 5 x - 6

Solution:
2 3
1+ -
x + 2x - 3
2
x x2
lim 2 = lim = 1 ; \ y = 1 is the horizontal asymptote.
x ®±¥ x - 5 x - 6 x ®±¥ 5 6
1- -
x x2
x+2
(b) Find Horizontal asymptotes of y =
x -1
Solution:
2
1+
x+2 x = 1 \ y = 1 is the horizontal asymptote.
lim = lim
x ®¥ x - 1 x ®¥ 1
1-
x
Or make x the subject of the formula; ( x - 1) y = x + 2 ; xy - y = x + 2 ; xy - x = y + 2 ;
x ( y - 1) = y + 2
y+2
x= and equate y - 1 = 0; y = 1 which is the asymptote.
y -1
2x
(c).Find vertical and horizontal asymptotes, if any, of y = and sketch the curve.
x +1
Solution:
Vertical asymptote: x + 1 = 0; x = -1 is the vertical asymptote
2x 2
Horizontal asymptote: lim = lim = 2; \ y = 2 is the horizontal asymptote
x ®±¥ x + 1 x®0 1
1+
x

x-intercept, y=0, x=0; y-intercept, x=0, y=0

Turning points

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dy 2 ( x + 1) - 2 x dx ( x + 1)
2

= = 0 ; ( x + 1) = 0 ; x = -1; y = ¥
2
= ;
dx ( x + 1) dy
2
2
4

-2 -1 1

3.Oblique or slant asymptote

h( x)
If y = where the degree of h ( x ) minus the degree of g ( x ) equals to one, then y = f ( x ) has
g ( x)
a
an oblique asymptote of the form y = mx + c where y = f ( x ) = mx + c +
g ( x)
Example
x2 - 4
(a) Find all the asymptotes, if any,of y = and sketch the curve.
x -1
Solution: Vertical asymptote: x - 1 = 0; x = 1
4
1- 2
x2 - 4 x = ¥ ; No limit hence no horizontal asymptote.
Horizontal asymptote: lim = lim
x ®±¥ x - 1 x ® ±0 1 1
- 2
x x
Oblique asymptote: We find by long division
x +1
x2 - 4 -3
x -1 x - 4
2
y= = ( x + 1) + ; \ y = x +1
x2 - x x -1 x -1
x-4
x -1
-3

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\ y = x + 1 is the oblique asymptote
Turning points:

y= ; =
(
x 2 - 4 dy ( x - 1) 2 x - x - 4
2
)=0; =
2 x 2 - 2 x - x2 + 4
=0;
dy x 2 - 2 x + 4
= = 0;
x - 1 dx ( x - 1) ( x - 1) dx ( x - 1)
2 2 2

y ' = x2 - 2 x + 4 = 0

+2 ± 4 - 16
x= no real roots so no turning points.
2
x-intercept, y=0; x ± 2 ; y-intercept, x=0, y=4
4 y=x+1
3

1
-2 -1 1 2 3

X=1

(b) Determine the vertical, horizontal and oblique asymptotes if any of the function
x 2 + 3x + 6
y = f ( x) = .Hence or otherwise sketch the graph.
x-4

Solution:
Vertical asymptote: x-4=0 , x=4

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 3 6
1+ +
x + 3x + 6
2
x x 2 = ¥ (undefined), therefore there is no
Horizontal asymptote: lim =
x ®±¥ x-4 1 4
-
x x2
horizontal asymptote.
x+7
34
Oblique asymptote x - 4 x + 3 x + 6 ; y = ( x + 7 ) +
2
; y=x+7 is the oblique asymptote
x2 - 4 x x-4
7x + 6
7 x - 28
34

Turning points: =
(
dy ( 2 x + 3)( x - 4 ) - x + 3x + 6
2

=0; =
)
x 2 - 8 x - 18
= 0 ; x 2 - 8 x - 18 = 0 .
dx ( x - 4) ( x - 4)
2 2

8 ± 6 + +72
x= ; x = 9 × 8; x = -1× 8
2
Or
x 2 + 3x + 6 dy ( 2 x + 3x )( x - 4 ) - ( x + 3 x + 6 )
2

y= ; = = 0;
x-4 dx ( x - 4)
2

2 x 2 - 8 x + 3x 2 - 12 x - x 2 - 3 x - 6 = 0
4 x 2 - 23 x - 6 = 0 ; 4 x 2 - 24 x + x - 6 = 0 ; 4 x ( x - 6 ) + 1( x - 6 ) = 0 ;
-1 -5
x= ,x = 6| y = , y = 30
4 4

y y=x+7
8
6
4
2

-8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 x
-2
-4

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In finding the asymptotes, observe the following:
1. To get vertical asymptotes, set the determinant equal to zero and solve for the zeros (if any).
2.Compare the degrees of the numerator and the denominator.
If the degrees are the same, then you have a horizontal asymptote.
If the degree of the denominator is greater than that of the numerator, then you have a
horizontal asymptote at y=0
If the numerators degree is greater (by a margin 1), then you have a slant or oblique asymptote
which you will find by long division.

SUMMARY OF CURVE SKETCHING

1. Determine the y and x intercepts
2. Determine the asymptotes of the graph if any.
3. Determine the turning points and distinguish them (i.e. check maximum, minimum and point
of inflection).
4. Hence sketch the points.

Note:
A curve will have vertical asymptotes if, when its equation is written in the form
( )
ay n + ( bx + c ) y n-1 + dx 2 + ex + f y n- 2 + KU n ( x) = 0K (1)
Where U n ( x ) is a polynomial in x of degree n.
The coefficient of the highest power of y is a non-constant function of x having one or more
(real) linear factors.
To each such factor, there corresponds a vertical asymptote.
A curve will have horizontal asymptotes if, when its equation is written in the
( )
form ax n + ( by + c ) x n -1 + dy 2 + ey + f x n - 2 + = 0 , the coefficient of the highest power of x is a
non-constant function of y having one or more(real)linear factors. To such factors, there
corresponds a horizontal asymptote.

To obtain the equations of the oblique asymptotes

1. Replace y by mx + b in the equation of the curve and arrange the result in the form
a0 x n + a1 x n -1 + a2 x n - 2 + K + an -1 x + an = 0 .(3)
2. Solve simultaneously the equations a0 = 0 and a1 = 0 for m and b.
For each pair of solutions m and b, write the equation of an asymptote y = mx + b .
3. If a1 = 0 , irrespective of the value of b, the equations a0 = 0 and a2 = 0 are to be used in (3).
Exercise: Find the equations of the asymptotes of y 2 (1 + x ) = x 2 (1 - x ) .

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