18cv732 - Module 3

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Air Pollution and Control

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Air Pollution and Control

MODULE 3
SAMPLING ANALYSIS AND CONTROL

INTRODUCTION
Sampling and measurement of Air pollutants, generality known as air quality monitoring, is an
integral component of any air pollution control programme through monitoring, the current trends
in air quality can be evaluated by comparing the data with the regulated standards. The
information so obtained is helpful in implementing control measures for reducing pollutant
concentrations to acceptable levels and in assessing the effect of air pollution control strategies.
Short-term sampling is preferred than long term sampling to establish the existence of high levels
of air pollutants.
There are two different situations in which the air quality measurement is undertaken one of these
is the Ambient Air Quality Measurement where the pollutant levels in the Ambient atmosphere
are measured.
The second type of measurement generally deals with the pollutants emitted from a Source such
as smoke tack and is known as stack sampling it provides information on the nature and quantities
of various pollutants that are emitted into the atmosphere.

CLASSIFICATION OF SAMPLING METHODS


The Sampling methods used for the study of air pollution can be classified under three different
headings.

1. Sampling of impunities of every nature (ranging from particulate matter to gases)


2. Sampling under Various environmental conditions.
(Ranging from samples taken from chimneys to samples taken in the open air)
3. Sampling methods varying according to the time factory (Ranging from intermittent. To
continues sampling)

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Note : The most important objective of any air sampling exercise in to obtain a genuine and
representative sample.

DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED IN SAMPLINGS


1. Collecting samples of true representative character
2. Errors arising from methods used for the collection and separation of the various
components of pollution.
3. Difficulty in preventing any Chong in the concentration of particulars matter in
suspension as a result of sampling operations.

PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS AND STAGES OF SAMPLING


Following principles should be followed to ensure correct sampling.

1. Statistical Stickiest: They are of utmost importance to establish the bask data eg size and
frequency of sampling. Statistical studies use the basic principle of probability i.e they do
not give absolute results but only indicate the percentage probability that a given since of
data will be accurate within certain limits.
2. Size of sample: The samples should be large enough to make analysis possible
3. Changes in the sample During And After Sampling
This is one of the fundamental cases of more there possibilities should always be borne in
mind by the investigator so that he can try to avoid such serious scores of error.
4. Continuous and intermittent sampling: An automatic recording apparatus is becoming
more and more popular. Intermittent sampling can also be made, but continuous recording
is always preferable many of the continuous recording instruments combine the operations
of sampling and analysis.
5. Sampling of Volatile constituents:
In this case to avoid the sources of error, it is better to carry out sampling with large
volumes of air.

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6. Sampling of Particulates: Here errors may be introduced doctor agglomeration or


breaking up of particulate matter in order to claimant the sources of error.
a) Sampling should be carried out under conditions which are as is kinetic as possible.
b) A gas stream should be sampled as for as possible in the same direction and at the
same speed itself, but never counter – current.
c) The collecting surface should be as close as possible to the source of the gas stream.
To avoid reducing the efficiency of sampling deposits and condensation should not be
allowed to form on the walls of sampling vessels.
7. Sampling of waste Gas: Here difficulties are encountered due to high temperature, lack
of uniformity in the composition of gas flow, and difference in speed due to disturbances.
Hence to avoid error, the gas stream should be sampled at several points and maximum
number of samples should be taken to get the average value.
8. Sampling in the open air
Here difficulties arise due to
a) High velocity of the pollutants dispersed in air
b) Consequent head to collect large number of samples.
c) Difficulty of sampling under is kinetic conditions.

BASIC CONSIDERATIONS OF AIR SAMPLING


1. The sample collected must be representative in terms of time and location.
2. The sample volume should be large enough to permit accurate analysis.
3. The sampling rate must be such as to provide maximum efficiency of collection.
4. The duration of sampling and frequency of sampling should reflect accurately the
occurrence of fluctuations in pollution levels.
5. The contaminants must not be modified or altered in to process of collections.

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TYPICAL AIR SAMPLING SYSTEM


A typical air sampling system consists of a sample collector a flow meter to measures the air flow
through the collector and a pump to draw the air sample through the system. The Fig. below
shows a typical arrangement of sampling equipment.

Sample collector Flow meter Pump

Flow meter Sample collector Pump

TYPICAL AIR SAMPLE SET UP

COLLECTION OF GASEOUS AIR POLLUTANTS :

Several methods are available for collection of gaseous. Air pollutants from ambient atmosphere.
The common ones are:

i) Grab sampling
ii) Absorption in Liquids

iii) Adsorption on a solid material


iv) Freeze out sampling

GRAB SAMPLING :

In this method the sample is collected by filling an evacuated flask or an inflatable bag, grab
samples may be taken using rigid wall containers made from glasses or stainless steel. These
containers are first evacuated and then filled by allowing air to enter.

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ABSORPTION IN LIQUIDS:

Absorption of gaseous pollutants into a Liquid Medium is probably the most commonly employed
method of collecting the samples. The efficiency of this process depends on.

i) Amount of surface contact between gas and liquid.


ii) Contact time
iii) Concentration of absorbing medium.
iv) Speed of reaction between the absorbent and gas.

Absorbents are being used to remove sculptor dioxide, by brogan sup hide, sulphur trioxide and
fluorides and oxides of Nitrogen.

The equipments using the principle of absorption for the removal of gaseous pollutant includes

i) Packed tower
ii) Plate tower
iii) Bubble cap plate cover
iv) Spray tower
v) Liquid jet scrubber absorbers.

A gas can be sampled by means of a suitable absorption reagent for this purpose, U-shaped
absorbers are used. These absorbers are filled with a certain measured amount of reagent and
fitted with a porous glass partition, so that the air or gas led into them passes through the reagent
solution in the form of fine dabbles thus ensuring intimate contact. Sampling by means of such
absorbers is usually calmed cut at an average rate of about 100-150 liters per hour of gas stream
the absorbers may be arrange in series of two more elements continuing the same reagent
solution to ensure more complete absorption of the impurity in question or in sense, or in series of
two or more elements containing two more different reagent solutions so as to absorb different
pollutants successively from the same column of gas or air sampled a typical sampling train is
shown in figure comprising an impinge, trap, manometer, flow meter, valve and pump.

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ADSORPTION ON SOLIDS

This Method is based on the tendency of gases to be absorbed on the surface of solid materials.
The sample air is passed through solid absorbent on whose surface the pollutants are retained and
concentrated. The most commonly used solid absorbents are granular porous solids such as
activated charcoal and silica gel with very large surface area.

After adsorption, the sample gases are taken for Analysis. This may be accomplished be heating
the adsorbent to Volatilize the trapped material by washing it with a liquid solvent. But because of
many problems this method is not much used for pollutant measurements.

FREEZE – OUT SAMPLING (CONDENSERS)

In Freeze out sampling a series of cold traps, which are maintained at progressively lower
temperature are used to draw the air sample and the pollutants are condensed within this traps.
The traps are brought to the laboratory and the samples are removed and analyzed by means of
gas chromatographic, infrared or Ultraviolet spectrophotometry, mass spectrometry, or by net
chemical means.

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COOLANTS USED FOR FREEZE OUT TRAPS

Coolant Temp Attained (0C)


Ice water 0
Ice Salt 21
Pry ice and 79
Acetone 147
Liquid oxygen 183
Liquid nitrogen 196

DURATION OF SAMPLING PERIOD

Two types of sampling are used in studies of air pollution short period or spot sampling and
continuous sampling for the evaluation of peak and average concentrations over definite time
intervals. Spot samples are collected over periods varying from less than 30 minutes to several
hours for specific defined purpose. The selection of sampling period depends upon the nature of
the compound under study and sensitivity, accuracy and precision of the analytical method to be
used for the measurement of pollutants. Spot sampling is useful for the random checking of
pollution at many points. Such samples have only limited valve because pollution levels fluctuate
widely depending on meteorological conditions, to geographical factures. And various factures
associated with source of pollutions. Spot sampling cannot give adequate data on the nature and
magnitude of an air pollution problem.

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LOCATION OF SAMPLING SITES

Sampling sites must be carefully selected so as to be preventatives of the areas under study, for
the study of health effects, the sited must be located so that the collected samples represent air
that is actually breathed by the exposed population groups. Since the concentration of pollutants
arks with altitude, results obtained on the roofs of tall buildings may differ substantially from
conditions at the ground or breathing level. The necessary number of sampling stations, and their
location, depend on several factors including the objectives of the programme, the size of the
study area, the proximity of the sources of pollution, topographical factors and the weather. A
representative number of sampling stations for a given area may be established by means of a
preliminary survey, whose objectives should be.

1. To gather information of the nature and magnitude of the emission from Principal sources
of pollution.

2. To review the available climatologically and meteorological data.

3. To gather data on the concentration of pollutants in areas of severe and slight pollution.

COLLECTION OF PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS (SAMPLING METHODS)

Particulate pollutants are classified generally into dust that settles in air and dust that remains
suspended. The particles of size greater than 1m diameter can be collected using sedimentation
techniques while for the second category containing particles of smaller size more sophisticated
techniques like filtration, impingement and electrostatic and thermal precipitation are used.

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SEDIMENTATION [DUST FALL JAR]

GRILL FRAME

DUST FALL JAR

STAND

Sedimentation is one of the simplest techniques for the collection of particulate matter. This
method is adopted in general for particles whose diameter exceed about 10.
The container is usually more than as high as its diameter at the base. A typical dust fall container
is constructed of plastic and is 20-32 cm high and 10-15cm in diameter at the base with a slight
inward taper off the walls from top to bottom. After an exposure period, usually a month, the
soluble and insoluble matter is determined and the total solids collected are expressed in terms of
weight per unit area per 30 days. It is common to employ at least one dust fall container for every
2600 hectares. General considerations in site selections are
1) The site should be free from overhead obstructions and away from interference such as an
incinerator or Chimney.

2) The mouth of the dust full collector should be lesser than 2mm and in more than 10mm
above ground level with a standard height of 6m as recommended elevation.

3) When sampling in urban areas, the dust fall collector should be placed no less than 10
meter from the stack and no closer to a vertical wall than the distance that provides a
30angle from the sampler to the top of the wall or roof.

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FILTRATION:
Particulates having a diameter of less than 10 tend to remain entertained in an air stream such
particulates are referred to as suspended particulates.
The most commonly used methods of particulate sampling employ the principle of filtration,
where by particles are quantitatively removed from an air stream flowing through a dense material
containing sub-micrometer pore sizes. Any material that passes through such a Filter is
considered, rather arbitrarily, to be non-particulate.
Particle collection is achieved by a combination of five distinct processes, namely direct
interception, internal deposition, diffusion deposition, electrical attraction and gravitational
attraction. Only in the first of these processes must the particle be larger than filter pores. The
other four all involve migration of a particle which would otherwise pass through a fitter pore,
from a stream line to the fitter surface under the action of inertia, diffusion, gravitational or
electrostatic forces.

IMPINGEMENT METHODS:
Separation of particulates from an air stream by abrupt collision against a flat surface forms the
basis of these methods. The apparatus employed may be either a wet or dry type. We impinge
collect particles by causing them to impinge a surface referred to as impact. Collect particles by
impaction on a dry surface. The efficiency or collection by impingement or impurities is high for
particles whose diameter is 1 are greater for collection of submicron particles. The impinger
should be operated at high velocities.

The GREEN BURG –SMITH type impinger an example of wet collectors activities 90 to 99%
efficiency for particle of the size equal to or greater than 1m.
Dry impingers operate on the principle of impaction on a dry surface for particle collection. These
impingers are not as efficient as wet devices for collecting smaller particles. (L2)

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ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION
Air sampling can be done on the basis of the principle of electrostatic precipitation. Several types
of portable, commercial precipitators are available in the market. During their operation a
negative charge is imported to a wire placed axially inside a cylinder which is positively charged
when the particle laden air stream passes through the cylinder, the particles acquire a negative
change from a corona discharge occurring on the central wire. The particles migrate towards the
inner surface of the cylinder and are conceived for subsequent chemical or microscopic analysis.

THERMAL PRECIPITATION
Thermal precipitators operate on the principle that small particles, under the influence of a strong
temperature gradient between two surfaces, have a tendency to move towards the lower
temperature and get deposited on the colder of these two surfaces. These temperature gradients
are normally of the order of 2000C per centimeter. To maintain such high gradients the gas
velocity through the sampling device must be maintained low.
The collection efficiencies of the thermal precipitators are gutte high for small particles and are
virtually 100% for particles in the size range from 10m down to 0.01m. The particles are
collected on a grid or a thin microscope cover glass for later analysis.

CENTRIFUGAL METHODS
Most centrifugal sampling devices are constructed on the principle of the cyclone. The dust laden
gas moving at high velocity is directed tangentially into a cylindrical chamber, in which it forms a
confined vortex. The centrifugal force tends to drive the suspended particles to the wall of the
cyclone body, from which they drop into a dust collection chamber. An axial outlet B provided
for the clean gas.
The advantages of this sampling device include procurement of a dry chemically pure. Sample,
the single most important disadvantage is the limit of this method to the particle sizes greater than
5.

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Air Pollution and Control

SAMPLING SUSPENDED PARTICULATES BY HIGH VOLUME FILTRATION


[HIGH VOLUMN SAMPLER]
In this method, a known volume of air is sucked by a high speed blower through a fine fitter and
the increase in weight due to the made of fibrous or granular material provides a dense porous
medium, through which an air stream must change direction in a random Fashion, allowing the
entertained particles to impact on the fitter material. A typical glass fibre fitter used, in the air
samplers has an efficiency of over 99% for particles of size 0.3m and it is moderately effective
for trapping particles of as small size as small as 0.05m.

The sampling time B generally 24 hours and during this time over 2000m3 of air is sucked
through the fitter. The analysis is gravimetric and the particulate levels is generally expressed in
terms of g/m3 of air. Based on typical results of such a sampling, the following example would
illustrate the calculation.
Air flow through clean fitter = 1.7 M3/mm
Air flow through the fitter at the end of the test = 1.4m3/min
Average Air flow = 1.55m3/min = 2232m3 in 24hrs.
Weight of the clear fitter – 5000 gm
Weight of the fitter after after exposure = 5.3348gm
Weight of the particulate lost = 0.348gm = 0.348x106g
Suspended particulate = 0.398x106 g / 2232 m3
=155.91g/m3

PROCEDURE FOR THE COLLECTION OF SUSPENDED PARTICULATES


1) APPARATUS
a) High volume sampler with flow meter and elapsed time meter.
b) Barometer capable of recording atmospheric pressure to nearest millimeter of
mercury.
c) Desiccator (50% humidity) to condition the fitter.

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d) Thermometer to record ambient temperatures.


e) Glass fibre fitters having a collection efficiency of atleast 99% for particles of 0.3
diameter.

2) PROCEDURE :
a) Check the fibre glass filter for pin holes, particles or other imperfections. Fitters
with visible imperfections should not be used.
b) Number the fitter and equilibrate the fitter in the desiccators for 24 hours and
weigh to the nearest milligram.
c) Record tare weight and filter identification number (do not bend or fold the Filter
before collection of the sample)
d) Open the shelter of the high volume sampler, loosen the wing nuts and remove the
face plate from the fitter holder.
e) Install a numbered, pre-weighed, glass fibre filter in position (rough side up).
Replace the face plate without disturbing the filter and fasten securely. A very light
application of talcum powder may be used on the rubber face plate gasket to
prevent the filter from sticking.
f) Close the roof of the shelter.
g) Set the on off timer to start sampling for the prescribed the (24h) recording the
starting time.
h) After five minutes note down the flow rate.
i) At the end of the sampling period, record the length of the sampling period and
flow rate.
j) Remove the face plate and carefully remove the exposed filter without tearing or
touching the collected surface.
k) Fold the filter that only surfaces with collected particulars are in contact and place
in the special folder.

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STACK SAMPLING
Stack sampling or source sampling may be defined as a method of collecting reprehensive
samples of pollutant laden air/gases at the place of origin of pollutants to determine the total
amount of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere from a given source in a given time.

OBJECTIVES OF STACK SAMPLING


1) To determine the quantity and quality of pollutant emitted by the source.
2) To measure the efficiency of the control equipment by conducting a survey before and
after installation.
3) To determine the effect on the emission due to changes in raw materials and processes.
4) To compare the efficiency of different control equipments for a given condition.
5) To acquire data from an innocuous individual source so an to determine the cumulative
effective of many such sources.
6) To compare with emission standards in order to assess the need for local control.

PLANNING THE STUDY :


The success of stack sampling depends on proper initial planning prior to the conduction of a
survey the planning includes.
1) Familiarity of the process and operations to determine the time of cyclic operations, peak
loading that might cause venations in the characteristics.
2) Methods of sampling
3) Methods of analysis of samples.
4) Sampling time because certain industries undergo cyclic changes.
5) Amount of samples required.
6) Sampling frequency.

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REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE
It is mainly reported that the sample collected must truly represent the conditions prevailing
inside the stack. The important consideration for accurate representative sample collection
include.
1) Accurate measurement of pressure, moisture, humidity and gas composition.
2) The Selection of suitable locations for sampling.
3) Determinations of the traverse points required for a velocity and temperature profile
across the cross section of the stack and sampling for particulate matter.
4) The measurement of the rate of flow of gas or air through the stack.
5) Selection of a suitable sampling fresh.
6) Accurate isokinetic sampling rate especially for particulate sampling.
7) Accurate measurement of weight and volume of samples collected.

SELECTION OF SAMPLING LOCATION :


The sampling point should be as far as possible from any disturbing influence, such as elbows,
ends, transaction places, baffles or other obstructions.

SIZE SAMPLING POINT : Usually, there will not be any opening in the stack. Hence for
collection of samples, an opening has to be made to an extent of accommodating the probes. The
size of sampling point may be made in the range of 7-10 in diameter.

TRAVERSE POINTS : For the sample to become representative, it should be collection at


various points across the stack. This is essential as there will be changes in velocity and
temperature across selection of the stack.

TRAVERSE POINTS
Cross selection area of stack sqm No. of points
0.2 4
0.2 to 2.5 12
2.5 and above 20
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ISOKINETIC CONDITIONS
The efficiency of the sampling depends on the conditions at which sampling was carried out. The
sample collected must be representative likes composite waste water collection. This can be
achieved by ISO KINETIC SAMPLING, ISOKINETIC CONDITIONS exist when the velocity in
the stack (Vs) equals the velocity at the top of the probe nozzle (Yn) at the sample point. This B
especially than 3 as it presents a problem in that, the inertial effects on the particles can result in
erroneous samples.
When the velocity of the gas within the sampling nozzle is less than the gas velocity in the duct,
portions of the gas stream approaching at a higher velocity are deflected. This results in the
deflection of the light particles to follow the deflected gas stream and they do not enter the probe.
The heavier particles by virtue of their inertia, continue into the probe with the result that a non-
representative high concentration of course particles is collected and the sample weight is in error
on higher side. Conversely, when the velocity in the probe is higher than that of the gas stream
being sampled, a convergent air stream will develop at the nozzle face, with an excessive amount
of lighter particles entering the probe. This results in high concentration of lighter particles and
hence the sample weight is on lower side.

a) Flow rate less than isokinetic Rate


b) Flow rate greater than isokinetic rate

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