Technical Assistance Consultant’s Report

Project Number: 44069

September 2012

Nepal: Capacity Building for Waste Management

Prepared by

Nirod Baran Mazumdar

International Organic Compost Expert

This consultant’s report does not necessarily reflect the views of ADB or the Government concerned, and
ADB and the Government cannot be held liable for its contents.
 Asian Development Bank

Capacity Building for

Waste Management

Organic Composting
(ADB TA 7597- NEP)

Contract No. 101048-S76255

Prepared by: Dr. N. B. Mazumdar,

International Organic Compost Expert (44069-012)

September 2012

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 Acknowledgement

The author is thankful to the Asian Development Bank for the opportunity of working
on this TA project in Nepal. Balanced fertilization of agricultural fields is crucial for
securing food production in any country. Composting is an important sector from this
angle because it acts as an essential supplement for chemical fertilizer for sustained
production.

During the course of this work, extensive discussions with a number of important
functionaries from ADB and the Government of Nepal were held. The prompt and
efficient steering of this project by Mr. Norio Saito, Senior Urban Development
Specialist has been very helpful. Support of the Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local
Development and the guidance of the Project Director, Mr. Chakrapani Sharma are
gratefully acknowledged.

Sectoral discussion with the Ministry of Agriculture, especially with Mr. Uttam Kumar
Bhattarai, Joint Secretary, Monitoring and Evaluation Division, Ministry of Agricultural
Development and his team have been very inspiring and useful. Professional
discussion with Dr. Tej Bahadur Subedi has been very valuable. The wealth of
information and insight provided by this Ministry is gratefully acknowledged.

The support and guidance of Solid Waste Management Technical Support Center,
especially Dr. Sumitra Amatya, ED regarding the situation in Nepal and Mr. Dipendra
Bahadur Oli for administrative support are gratefully acknowledged.

Discussion with the municipal functionaries from Kathmandu Metropolitan city,

Lalitpur Sub-metropolitan City, Kirtipur, Bhaktapur and others was very useful in
highlighting their problems, issues and perspectives regarding composting.

The guidance and support of Mr. P. U. Asnani, Team Leader of TA 7597 is gratefully
acknowledged. The logistic support provided by IPE for conducting the training
program on organic composting is gratefully acknowledged.

Discussions with a number of compost manufacturers, NGOs, Waste Management

Association and academicians have been very useful. Their support is gratefully
acknowledged.

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 Content
Chapter Item Page No.
No.

Executive Summary 6

1 Introduction 8

2 Present situation of waste composting in Nepal 11

2.1 Waste characteristics 12
2.2 Appropriate technology for processing organic waste in
Nepal 14
2.3 Composting in Nepal: efforts and examples 15
2.4 Demand for fertilizers 28
2.5 Agricultural and food security angle 29
2.6 Government initiatives 30
2.7 Marketing system for organic fertilizer in Nepal 32

3 Guidelines for composting for Nepal 33

3.1 Introduction 34
3.2 Composting guidelines in other countries 36
3.3 Terminology 39
3.4 Composting process 41
3.5 Aerobic windrow composting 44
3.6 Design of compost plants 49
3.7 Vermicomposting 75
3.8 Setting up and operating composting facility 80
3.9 Marketing 82
3.10 Quality control and quality assurance 84
3.11 Recommendations for Nepal 85

4 Compost quality standards for Nepal 86

4.1 Preamble 87
4.2 Objectives 87
4.3 Compost quality standards for other developing countries in
Asia 88
4.4 Existing standard for registration with the Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of Nepal 96
4.5 Raw material for composting in Nepal 98
4.6 Proposed quality standards for compost and vermicompost
for Nepal 99
4.7 Support structure for quality control and quality assurance 106

5 Conclusion and Recommendation 108

5.1 Recommendations 109
5.2 Recommended composting system for Nepal 110
5.3 Recommendations for marketing 112
5.4 Recommendations for KMC and surrounding VDCs 112
5.5 Transfer-cum-segregation station in each VDC: 4 116

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 demonstration facilities in the 1st year
5.6 Establishment of an integrated processing facility of 400-500 117
TPD at Sisdole for compost and RDF
6 Annexures 118
1 Evaluation of community level composting plants – 119
questionnaire
2 Evaluation of community level vermicomposting plants – 121
questionnaire
3 Filled up questionnaire for vermicompost plant 123

4 Scanned copy of ‘Organic and Biological Fertilizer

Regulation Procedure, 2068 (2011) and Organic Fertilizer 126
Grant Guidelines, 2068 (2011)’ – English translation

5 Scanned copy of ‘Organic and Biological Fertilizer

Regulation Procedure, 2068 (2011) and Organic Fertilizer
Grant Guidelines, 2068 (2011)’ – Nepali version 127

6 Experiences and lessons from other countries 128

7 Minutes of the training program on organic composting 130

List of tables
Table Name Page No.
No.

2.1 Composition of MSW in Kathmandu 12

2.2 Composition of household MSW in urban Nepal 13

2.3 Main constituents of commercial and institutional solid waste 13

in urban Nepal
2.4 Demand of organic compost in Nepal 29

3.3.1 Terminology for composting process 39

3.3.2 Equipment used for composting 40

3.6.1 Requirement of land for aerobic windrow composting 60

(50-500 TPD)
3.6.2 List of equipment for pre-sorting, screening and bagging, 61
capacity 100 TPD and above
3.6.3 List of equipment and vehicles for material handling 63

3.6.4 Additional land required for RDF 64

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 3.6.5.1 Cost of plant and machinery, capacity 25 TPD 67

3.6.5.2 Cost of plant and machinery, capacity 50 TPD 68

3.6.5.3 Cost of plant and machinery, capacity 100 TPD 69

3.6.5.4 Cost of plant and machinery, capacity 200 TPD 70

4.1 Standard specification for compost in some Asian countries 91

4.2 Vermicompost standard (India) 95

4.4.1 Organic compost standard for registration in the Ministry of 96

Agriculture
4.4.2 Compost analysis (N, P, K) 97

4.6.1 Standard parameters for aerobic compost 101

4.6.2 Standard parameters for vermicompost 103

List of drawings
Drawing Name Page No.
No.

3.1 Box composting, 2 TPD capacity 53

3.2 Windrow composting, 5 TPD capacity 55

3.3 Composting plus RDF plant, capacity 300 TPD and above 66

3.4 Vermicomposting plant, 2 TPD capacity 77

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 Executive Summary

An agrarian economy needs good practices of agricultural activities, which includes

good seeds, adequate supply of fertilizers and irrigation. In modern agricultural
practices, chemical fertilizers and organic fertilizers (compost) are both important
and regarded as complementary to each other. Further, in a country, which does not
have a single chemical fertilizer plant, precious foreign exchange is depleted in
importing fertilizers. Yet it is difficult to bridge the demand supply gap.

The Government of Nepal has taken a great initiative by making provision for
subsidy for organic compost to the tune of 5000 tons per year. This is a great
opportunity, which should be fully utilized to improve agricultural production and for
environmental upgrading of the cities. This would go a long way in providing long
term food security, because good quality compost is not only a fertilizer but more
importantly, provider of long term soil health. The other consequent benefit would be
reduced dependence on chemical fertilizer.

Three important interventions required are:

A. Setting up of good compost plants at three levels – household, small scale

(operated by NGOs, CBOs and entrepreneurs) and city level facilities under
the control of the respective municipal body. If need be, the large plants may
be set up under PPP.

B. Quality control and quality assurance for the compost produced.

C. 3R intervention in the waste management sector for increasing the

sustainability of compost industry including compost market.

Municipal solid waste can be a significant source of compost production, especially

when the organic portion is the major component. However, a strong quality
assurance system for composting of organic waste, especially when municipal solid
waste is involved, is important from the following points of view:

a) Safeguarding public health through appropriate technological interventions

(safeguarding food crops from contamination),

b) Minimizing any adverse impact on the environment and

c) Building up a strong and stable composting industry sector, which has the
confidence of the users, especially farmers.

This document has two main mandates:

1) Making of a guideline for composting of organic waste and

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 2) Evolving standard quality norms for organic compost.

This report has been structured into 6 chapters. After introducing the subject in the
1st chapter, the 2nd chapter describes the present situation of waste management in
Nepal with respect to composting.

As per mandate, a guideline has been made for composting and placed at the 3rd
chapter. While preparing the guideline, it was felt that in Nepal, actual experience is
available for household composting and decentralized composting at community
level. Technically these are fairly simple. Therefore in this report the planning and
design aspects of larger plants at city level have been discussed in greater detail
which are likely to be useful in future. For composting facilities of 300 tons per day
(TPD) capacity or more, composting plus RDF as a combine for mopping up
maximum resources and minimizing landfill space requirement has been suggested.
The guideline also deals with the factors for good composting activity, planning
issues, different types of composting plants developed in different countries.

While planning for large facilities, it is also important that for import of any
technology, adaptation and validation under field conditions is crucial.

The 4th chapter describes some of the composting standards in different developing
countries in Asia – Thailand, Bangladesh, Indonesia, India and Sri Lanka. This
chapter also deals with the existing standard for composting in Nepal and the
proposed compost quality standard. A set of quality standards has been proposed
for compost as well as vermicompost for Nepal for consideration of the Government.
It is also proposed that these standards be reviewed after every five years to keep in
tune with actual experience gained and feedback received.

The existing marketing mechanism for organic compost has been looked into and
ways have been suggested for different types of compost makers.

Recommendations have been clubbed together in Chapter 5 including specific

recommendations for facilities at Teku transfer station site.

The Annexures have been placed in Chapter 6.

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 Chapter 1

Introduction

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Composting is a natural process of stabilizing bio-degradable material by a host of
microbes – bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi etc. which may happen aerobically in the
presence of free oxygen (air) or anaerobically in its absence. It happens on its own
when billions of organism, which inhabit the upper layers of soil, break down dead
organic matter, stabilize the material and in the process release plant nutrients. The
process is crucial for our food chain.

Across the world, on-farm composting has been done traditionally. In rural areas,
there is tradition of composting in heaps or in trenches. In some communities, a
green crop is specifically grown for making green manure in the field itself by mowing
down the green plants in the rainy season and allowing it to get composted. Many
rural families keep a trench near their household to deposit their kitchen waste and
other green waste along with cattle manure. The pit is sealed when it is filled and left
to get composted till the next cropping season, when the composted material is dug
out and put in the field. Meanwhile, another trench is dug for continuing with the
system.

However, in this report, managed composting is discussed, where the whole

arrangement and process is controlled by the operator – from household level to
commercially operated facilities.

For creating enhanced capacity for processing / disposal of different categories of

urban, rural and agricultural waste, it is necessary to set up facilities of suitable size
with application of appropriate technology. The farm eco-system comprising the
soil’s biological and electrochemical processes, has to be kept in mind, so that the
benefits can be maximized. In fact the benefits of chemical fertilizer is enhanced
when organic compost is applied due to the beneficial effect on soil health and
increased capacity to retain plant nutrients and moisture. Humus, one of the main
constituents of compost, has numerous benefits for the soil.

The government of Nepal has issued the ‘Solid Waste Management Act, 2011’ with
the intention of streamlining solid waste management. For effective implementation
and inducing sustainability, ADB is helping with an ambitious Capacity Building
Program.

The state of Sikkim has set a very good example in this respect. Sikkim, which
started eco-friendly farming from a small area of land about a decade ago, has plans
to become a fully organic state by 2015. Structured organic farming started in Sikkim
in 2003 when the government set up the dedicated ‘Sikkim State Organic Board’ to
promote farm techniques that prohibit the use of manufactured synthetic fertilizers
and pesticides. Now their farming relies on green manure, compost, biological pest
control and crop rotation.

Over 8,000 hectares of land was covered under organic farming till 2009. The state
government has completely stopped lifting the quota of chemical fertilizers extended

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by the Government of India since 2006-07 and all sales points for chemical fertilizers
in public and private sector have been shut. Sikkim government provides certified
manufactured organic manure to farmers as an alternative to chemical fertilizers.

As a part of the larger capacity building program under the ADB TA, this report is
mandated to prepare (a) composting guidelines and (b) compost quality standard for
Nepal.

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 Chapter 2

Present Situation of
Organic Composting
in Nepal

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In this chapter, the situation in Nepal with respect to organic composting would be
discussed. Availability of organic waste is an important determinant. Organic waste
generated in the urban areas is an important source. This chapter would discuss the
following:

2.1 Characteristics of municipal solid waste

2.2 Appropriate technology for processing organic waste in Nepal

2.3 Composting in Nepal: efforts and examples

2.4 Demand for fertilizer in Nepal

2.5 Agricultural and food security angle

2.6 Government initiatives

2.7 Marketing system for organic fertilizer

2.1 Waste characteristics:

In spite of urbanization, major component of municipal solid waste across the towns
and cities in Nepal is organic. A typical composition from the Metropolitan City of
Kathmandu is mentioned below:

Table 2.1 Composition of municipal solid waste in Kathmandu

Sl. Component Percentage

No.
2005$ 2009$$

1 Organic material 70 63.22

2 Plastics 9 10.8

3 Paper 9 9.02

4 Glass 3 5.42

5 Metal 1 0.42

6 Textile 3 2.3

7 Rubber and leather 1 1.2

8 Construction material 2 4.5

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 9 Others 3 3.12

$
Source: KMC-JICA 2005 (presentation by Chief, Environment, KMC)
$$
Source: Presentation, CEO of KMC, February 2010

In a recent baseline study (carried out by ADB TA Team, 2012), the following figures
have come up (average of 58 municipal entities including Kathmandu Metropolitan
city and Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan city):

Table 2.2 Composition of household municipal solid waste in Urban Nepal

Sl. Component Percentage

No. 2012

1 Organic material 65.24

2 Plastics 11.19

3 Paper 9.29

4 Glass 2.83

5 Metal 1.53

6 Textile 2.06

7 Rubber and leather 1.02

8 Others 6.85

Table 2.3 Main constituents of commercial and

institutional solid waste in Urban Nepal

Sl. Component Percentage

No.

Commercial (including hotels) waste

1 Organic material 39.87

2 Plastics 22.16

3 Paper 21.60

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 Institutional waste

1 Organic material 19.54

2 Plastics 18.23

3 Paper 44.82

The same study has found the quantity of waste generation as follows:

 Household – 0.16 kg. / capita / day

 Shops – 1.4 kg / day / unit
 Hotels – 5.7 kg / day / unit
 Schools / colleges – 4.0 kg / day / unit
 Offices and others – 1.4 kg / day / unit

In case of large cities, such as, Kathmandu Metropolitan city, the waste generation
from household sector is almost equal to the combined generation from the
commercial, institutional and other sectors.

2.1.1 Possibility of harmful components in municipal solid waste:

An important deterrent for composting from municipal solid waste is the possibility of
presence of harmful components. It is agreed that possibility of mixing of bio-medical
waste, industrial waste and e-waste may be there if separate collection is not done.
In the case of Nepal, a separate regulation for bio-medical waste is being made
under this TA. However, efficient implementation would be the key for avoidance of
such prohibited waste from the composting stream.

2.2 Appropriate technology for processing

organic waste in Nepal

From the above data, it is seen that organic material is the major component in
Nepal across 58 municipalities. It is also seen that there have not been any
significant change in composition of the municipal solid waste in Kathmandu
between 2005 and 2009. It is evident that composting would be one of the most
eligible processing technologies for the household waste along with segregated
organic waste from hotels, restaurants and canteens.

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Photo: Household bin

There is emphasis on household composting

and segregation at source by the Government.
According to the ‘Solid Waste Management Act,
2011’ the mandate for management of solid
waste rests with the concerned local body but
the individual householders are required to
reduce waste by segregation at source and
processing the organic part within their own
premises.

2.3 Composting in Nepal: efforts and examples

Efforts have been made at different points of time for composting domestic as well
as agricultural waste along with cattle manure. About 20 years ago, a medium scale
compost plant was set up with German assistance (GTZ) with a capacity of about 50
TPD at Bhaktapur. However, mixed waste was composted and the product compost
was not popular, especially due to presence of glass pieces.

Recently, Bhaktapur Municipality has set up another compost plant in ward no. 17. It
does windrow composting of 0.5-1 TPD source segregated waste. Turning is done
manually. The compost is of good quality but the Municipality has decided to sell it to
the farmers at a price of Rs. 200 per ton as a helping gesture to the farmers.

There are several small compost plants which carry out their activity at community
level. These plants use source segregated municipal solid waste to the extent of
50%, whereas, the other half comprises cattle manure (often dried), leaf-litter, rice
husk etc. EM solution is used as inoculant to control odour and enhance the
composting process. These small plants do not have any arrangement for active
aeration, such as, turning or aeration. They depend upon passive aeration and
therefore they have to use structural material to make the composting mass
somewhat porous and to keep leachate under control. Some of them use
earthworms for vermicomposting, e.g., at Sitapaila, Kathmandu.

15 
 
There is emphasis on household composting and segregation at source by the
Government. According to the ‘Solid Waste Management Act, 2011’ the mandate for
management of solid waste rests with the concerned local body but the individual
householders are required to reduce waste by segregation at source and processing
the organic part within their own premises.

2.3.1 Examples of organic compost plants:

Some local compost and vermicompost plants were visited to get a sense of the
efforts made by the people, NGOs and small private companies.

2.3.1.1 Community composting at Chovar (Sainbu VDC):

This site is located at Chovar in Sainbu VDC area, a hilly area outside Kathmandu
Municipal Corporation. On an average about 100 tons waste is received at this plant
in a month. Waste is brought to the plant by a lorry once or twice a week.
Segregated waste from 3000 families is brought from ‘Ichangu Narayan’ VDC in
Kathmandu.

Total area of the plant is 0.0547 ha (one Ropani). The site is on rent (Rs.&& 10,000
per annum with 10% annual increase). ‘Box’ composting is practised at this site. The
boxes are constructed with split bamboo under a shed covered with plastic sheets.
50% structural material comprising leaf litter, dried horse manure and poultry litter
(including rice husk) is mixed with the
incoming waste. It was claimed that there
was no leachate formation, possibly due to
the mixing of 50% dry material.

There is an organic garden within the plant

site, which uses only this manure and does
not use any pesticides.

___________________________________________________________________
&&
Rs. – throughout this report means Nepali rupees

2.3.1.2 Compost Plant, Handigau

NEPCEMAC (Nepal Pollution control & Environment Management Center), an NGO,

is operating this compost plant at Handigau. They have three inter-linked activities

16 
 
here – compost plant, paper recycling and plant nursery. The facility is on a rented
land – 1650 m2 for Rs. 15,000 per month.

Composting activity:

Box type composting – 12 Nos., each of 1.5m

(width) X 3m (length) X 1.5m high. Some of
them have a vertical perforated pipe into the
pile for enhanced aeration.

On an average 300-500 kg of segregated

waste is received at the plant daily.

Leaf litter, old compost, rice husk and EM are

mixed with the fresh waste till the material is nearly touch-dry and does not give
out water on squeezing (in a fist).

Maturation time – 3 months

There was no bad odour but large number of insects were seen crawling below
the surface layer.

Paper recycling is done from waste paper received at the site. The two-room small
plant comprises arrangement to soak the paper in drums followed by a motor-driven
beater. The pulp is placed in a rectangular receptacle, from where fine mesh cloth
fitted onto frames picks up a thin layer of the pulp. These are allowed to dry in
vertically spaced out stacks. The dried paper is calendared and cut to size using
small machines. They mentioned that it was a Japanese process.

A plant nursery has been established, where plants are grown for participating in
greening programs. This is also important as a demonstration for compost use.

Observations:

The above mentioned systems show good community initiative along with NGO
support. However, the following issues need consideration:

1) The system actually depends on passive aeration, which is not dependable.

Many pockets, especially the core areas can be even anaerobic. At this scale
of operation, it may not be viable to keep records of temperature of the
composting mass. Measurement of oxygen would be even more difficult.

2) In the plant at Handigau, perforated pipes were kept vertically for improved
aeration. This is a welcome step but needs more pipes at regular intervals as
a routine.

17 
 
 3) Because of passive aeration, these plants need a lot of structural material
(leaf litter, dried cattle or horse manure, poultry droppings, rice husk etc.),
which impart porosity to some extent and also help absorb the leachate,
because these dry materials do not themselves produce leachate. In the
plants visited, about 50% of such structural material was being used.

4) Use of the structural material actually reduced the plant capacity to receive
fresh waste by 50%.

5) For safety of the compost product, it is necessary that if any human faeces,
animal manure or droppings are used, they need to be pre-composted
aerobically so that the mass remains in the range of 600C – 700C for 3 days
for destruction of pathogen. Alternatively, the product (compost) has to be
pasteurized / sanitized, which becomes more inconvenient.

6) Since the boxes are normally placed as a batch operation, regular waste
intake is difficult. Apart from physical issues of packing / arranging the layers
of waste, there would be the issue of manpower requirement. This may not be
viable if the system is too small.

7) Regular analysis of the product in a good (preferably authenticated)

laboratory, say once in a month is highly desirable.

8) Since the facility is normally installed without any support from the local body
(in terms of provision of land – free or on token lease rent, purchase of waste,
its carriage, loading-unloading), the concerned operator faces capital / cash
crunch, making essential items out of reach (e.g., impervious stable compost
pad with peripheral drainage, covered storage space for keeping the product
etc.).

9) Installation of paper recycling facility and a plant nursery is highly appreciated.

Such moves would provide better utilization of waste and better economic and
environmental sense.

2.3.1.3 Garbage transfer station, Handigau

The garbage transfer station is a supplementary activity, which gives an insight into
the overall waste management scenario.

Mixed waste is brought from the households to this transfer station by 3-wheeled
cycle carts. Each cart load is priced at Rs. 2000=00. At the transfer station, the
waste is unloaded onto a large container and segregated to take out saleable
material. Cardboard is sold for Rs. 5 / kg and mixed plastics plus metal for Rs. 18 /

18 
 
kg. After segregation the residual material is carted to Sisdole dumpsite / landfill in
the same large container, hauled by a hook-loader. This transfer is by the KMC.

An innovative circular changing room for the waste workers have been made with
bamboo thatch walls and plastic sheet roofing. Benches have been provided, which
are also made of slim bamboo pieces. Hooks have been made for hanging their
clothing.

Observations:

1) Without any extra cost to KMC, recyclable waste material is sorted out at
these centres through private business / NGO intervention, which is
appreciable.

2) The limitations include operation in the open – polluting the surroundings and
the environment and absence of a hard impervious floor and drainage.

3) The organic waste present in this mixed waste is lost to the landfill at Sisdol.

4) The waste workers do not have adequate protective gear for their personal
safety and health.

2.3.1.4 Animal waste composting at Central Zoo, Lalitpur:

In one corner of the zoo, a small compost plant has been established. It is a ‘box’
type plant, dimension – width 1.25 m X height 1.25 m X 4 m length. The box is made
of thatch, supported by long split bamboo pieces. There are 5 boxes. Mixed animal
dung, leaf litter and food waste etc. are mixed and stacked inside the box.

It was mentioned by the operator that leachate is not formed. Total time is 4 months
and one turning is done after 2 months. Reportedly temperature of 700 C is
achieved. The matured material is screened with two screens – 20X25 mm followed
by 10X12 mm. For retail sale, screen size of 5 X5 mm used. Possibly absence of
leachate is due to presence of substantial amount of absorbent fibres.

The material is sold at three rates – open, without bagging – Rs. 8 per kg, bulk with
bagging (20-25 kg per bag) – Rs. 12 per kg and retail (1, 5 kg bags) – Rs. 14 per kg.
The bags do not have a standard weight. During selling the bags are weighed and
the price calculated accordingly.

Observations: Same as for other compost plants as mentioned above.

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2.3.2 Examples of vermicomposting

2.3.2.1 Household vermicomposting:

Prof. A. S. Tamrakar is carrying out vermicomposting in her 3-storied house. Being a

Professor of Zoology, she has done research on earthworms. The organic waste
from four neighbouring households also is received. She also rears earth worms and
this also is a good source of income in addition to sale of vermicompost. Prof.
Tamrakar has set up a solar dryer for drying earthworms for making fish fodder,
which is a valuable item. Earthworms being used:

- Eisenia foetida
- Peryonix excavates
- Lampitto maurittii
- Eudrillus euginae
- Lumbricus rubellus

Marketing is being done through specialized shops selling agricultural material. The
shopkeeper buys from Prof. Tamrakar for Rs. 25 per kg and sells for Rs. 30-35. The
packets are 1, 2 and 5 kg, although 1 kg packets are in greater demand.

Observations:

1) Makes economic sense.

2) Suitable for households with adequate space for this added activity. For
smaller accommodations, more systematic arrangement needs to be worked
out.

3) Moisture content in the vermi-bins appeared to be on the higher side, may be

due to the on-going rainy season.

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 Photo: Imported vermi-bin Photo: Local vermi-bin

2.3.2.2 community / small entrepreneur operated plants

(a) Praramva Biotech, Sitapaila

Four young Biotech graduates have started this facility. They purchase vegetable
market waste from the Kalimati vegetable market. It is brought to the plant in trucks
and unloaded by paid labour. Dried cattle manure is purchased, mixed with the
vegetable waste and allowed to ferment for 2-3 weeks. During the first week this
heap is covered with a plastic sheet to contain odour. After 3 weeks, the semi-
digested material is fed into the vermi-beds. The beds are long rows, laid out with
plastic sheets in trough shape with bricks, bamboo etc. Time required is 45-60 days.

A prototype rotary screen has been fabricated with rims of cycle wheels, which they
intend to fit with a small motor after the present trial.

In a month about 15 ton vegetable waste and 10 ton cattle manure are received in
the plant, which translates into 0.5 ton per day of vegetable waste and total plant
capacity of about one ton per day.

21 
 
 Issues at Sitapaila plant (discussion with the entrepreneurs):

a) Difficult to get suitable site with good road access due to NIMBY attitude
b) Land has to be rented, no support from the City Authorities
c) The waste has to be purchased
d) Transport cost plus loading and unloading charges are to borne by the
operator
e) They thought that if the fresh waste is squeezed at the vegetable market and
the residue is given to them, then their capacity can be increased to even 5
TPD, which would be economically more viable and technically more
comfortable. This would, however, bring a number of other issues for the
market administration such as, technology, space, investment, disposal of the
liquid etc. The questionnaire filled by them is placed at annexure III.

Observations:

a. Here is an example of young biotechnology educated entrepreneurs, starting

a small first generation private company without any grants. They have taken
a small bank loan. Thus the project is on its own. If such examples could be
made robust and sustainable, with a little help from City Authorities, the model
would be replicable and very useful, especially for small towns and urban
periphery. In such cases, the City Authorities can off-load waste processing to
private sector operators / NGOs in the form of decentralized processing.

b. Composting of fresh cow dung and / or horse dung in aerobic windrow would
be desirable for sanitizing the material (residence for 3-4 days at 600C or
above) and at the same time retaining some nutrients compared to
purchasing the dried material. The fresh market waste may also have
microbial contamination by the time it is received at the plant and therefore it
would be desirable to compost this aerobically prior to vermicomposting.

c. 2-3 weeks of aerobic composting with one turning on the 7th / 8th day should
suffice. After a fortnight, the temperature of the heap would come down to the
ambient level and would be suitable for feeding to the earthworms.

d. Alternatively, the vermicompost can be sanitized / pasteurized before bagging

/ selling.

e. Minimum interventions required – (i) a hard impervious surface with peripheral

shallow drains for carrying any leachate / surface run-off during precipitation,
(ii) rectangular bins with height of 0.5-1.0 m and width of 1.0-1.5 m should be
built to substantially increase the volumetric capacity of the vermi-beds, (iii)
divide the existing space for making provision of unloading area, aerobic
composting, vermi-beds, screening and finally storage areas. The additional

22 
 
 activity of mushroom cultivation is already being done in an adjacent plot of
land.

f. The cost (in Nepali rupees):

Present intake capacity – 20 tons X 5 cycles = 100 tons per annum

Capital investment – Rs. 6, 65,000.00 (including cost of initial purchase of 110

kg earthworms for Rs. 2,75,000.00)

O&M per annum – Rs. 12, 31,000.00

Construction period – 3 months

From 850 kg (500 kg fresh market waste + 350 kg cow dung) – 280 kg
vermicompost produced (32.94% yield)

So, from 100 tons per annum – 32.94, say 33 tons of vermicompost is
produced in a year

Average production cost per ton – Rs. 13,120

Average sale cost per ton – Rs. 18,000

Simple margin – Rs. 4,880 per ton (without considering interest on capital,
depreciation etc.)

Profit – Rs. 4,880 X 32.94 = Rs. 1,60,747 per annum (Rs.13,395 per month,
which is quite small).

(b) Some other vermicomposting plants in Nepal:

Birat Biotech Industries, Biratnagar

Amrit Biotech Industries, Biratnagar

Nepal Jaibik Vermi Fertilizer Udhyog, Biratnagar

Baba Biotech, Mangalpur, Chitwan

Durga Bhawani Jaibik Vermi Compost Udhyog, Biratnagar

Bansun Super Agro Fertilizer, Jugedi, Chitwan

23 
 
2.3.3 Efforts by the City Authorities:

2.3.3.1 Kathmandu Metropolitan City (KMC)

KMC has taken a number of direct and some related steps to encourage segregation
at source and composting:

 Household composting supported by distribution of 5000 composting bins

(100 liter capacity) at concessional rate (Rs. 1500 charged for the bin costing
Rs. 1800); backed by awareness generation and motivation

 500 bins distributed so far during this year (2012), distribution of 20,000
source segregation buckets approved recently.

 Community composting practised at Ratopul for ward nos. 7 and 9, of 3000 lt

capacity.

 A compost plant of 50 TPD was established by GTZ about 20 years ago at

Teku transfer station site. The product was not popular mainly due to
presence of glass pieces in the compost; even free distribution did not work.

 A number of private companies are engaged in collection and transportation

(about Rs. 50 collected from the waste generating households)

 PRISM: Program for informal sector – Poverty Reduction of informal Workers

(about 15,000) in Solid Waste Management Sector.

 KMC has established a Community Mobilization Unit with their Environment

Management Department. They are running a program called ‘Improving
Kathmandu’s Environment through People’s Participation’. Through this
program KMC is encouraging children and local communities to reduce and
recycle, initiation of environmental projects and provide training and
assistance.

 Population – 1.1 million

 Waste generation – 475 TPD
 Number of wards – 35
 Households – about 200,000
 Staff – 1300 including 900 waste workers
 Annual budget for SWM – Rs. 350 million

24 
 
  Composting – 1-2% of the total waste
 Balance waste goes to Sisdole landfill
 Sisdole receives 600 TPD waste from Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Kirtipur, Thimi
Madhyapur and the VDCs
 Sisdole was converted to a semi-aerobic landfill on Fukuoka model but faced difficulties in
pumping and treatment of leachate due to severe shortage of power, so ultimately it has
become a dumpsite
 Severe space constraint at Sisdole
 Another site at Banchare Okharpauwa (82.14 hectare), road under construction

From the above information on compost plant and landfill, it is clear that the level of
sophistication and infrastructural constraints are important determinants in choice of
system for management of municipal solid waste. Unless necessary infrastructure is
planned and implemented, these projects can not operate successfully on a long
term basis.

2.3.3.2 Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan City

Segregation at source and decentralized composting emphasized. They are planning

to distribute 1000 composting bins plus one green and one red bin to each
household for encouraging the households to take care of their waste themselves.
The pilot project would be started in 2500 households. Lalitpur has about 50,000
households.

Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan City had prepared a long term phased program –

Strategies and Necessary Activities, which is phased into short term (2005/06-
2007/08), medium term (2008/09-2010/11) and long term (2011/12-2014/15) goals,
comprising door to door collection, improvement in transportation, processing, final
disposal in sanitary landfill, promotion of 3R and awareness amongst youth and
women etc.

They are also planning to set up a small composting plant of 3-5 TPD input garbage
capacity. They are also planning to set up one RDF plant of 30 TPD input capacity
with Korean assistance. The RDF would be used in vertical shaft brick kilns (which
have the requisite pollution control mechanism).

2.3.3.3 Kirtipur Municipality

 1500 households are practising home composting of source segregated

municipal solid waste using compost bins – about 1.5 TPD.

25 
 
  About 2000 households in 3 wards in the rural areas are practising traditional
trench type composting – amounting to about 1.5 TPD.

 The balance waste is being dumped.

 This municipality has 30 Ropani (1.64 hectare) land on the banks of river
Bagmati, where the waste is being dumped at present.

o Kirtipur is a small town with a population of 50,000.

o Waste generation is 13 TPD at present.

o Four NGOs engaged in waste collection (6-7 TPD). The households

have to pay to these NGOs for this service.

 The municipality wants to set up a compost plant of 7 TPD input capacity at

this site. Design and civil construction would be done by the municipality.
Then operation and maintenance would be tendered out and possibly would
go to a private company or an NGO.

 The municipality is thinking of levying a small charge to the collection agency

for upkeep of the composting facility.

 The expected price of compost in this area is Rs. 20-30 per kg.

 In fact 2 NGOs are doing composting in Kirtipur area with waste brought from
the Kalimati vegetable market (of Kathmandu).

2.3.3.4 Bhaktapur Municipality

 Complete management of municipal solid waste is by the municipality from

collection to composting and to final disposal in a low lying area.

 Sewer drains are there but the STP is not functioning at present. Possibly this
was due to over mechanisation, leading to failure of equipment. There are two
stabilizing ponds but this is not effective.

 There is an important lesson from the above example – over-mechanization

may lead to inadequate maintenance – ultimately leading to closure of the
facility (somewhat like KMC example mentioned above).

26 
 
  Source segregation – pilot projects in ward nos. 14 and 17 (250 households)
from the year 2007 and ward nos. 2 and 4 (250 households) from the year
2009. Red and green bins were given to the households for a token amount.

o Population of Bhaktapur was 72,000 (last census), present projected about 100,000.

o There are 16,000 households in 17 wards (12,394 households as per 2001 census).

o Waste generation is 30 TPD at present

o Rs. 50 million being spent per year for municipal solid waste including street sweeping.

 Bhaktapur had its first compost plant built by German assistance. This plant,
located at ward no. 11 composted mixed waste but the resultant compost had
contaminants such as glass pieces and was not popular (screening was done
with two sets of mesh – one inch square and half inch square). The plant was
built in a site of 11 Ropani (6017 m2).

 Bhaktapur Municipality has set up another compost plant in ward no. 17. The
plant has a fencing wall, shed with steel truss and corrugated GI sheets. It
does windrow composting of 0.5-1 TPD source segregated waste. Turning is
done manually.

 The compost is of good quality but the Municipality has decided to sell it to the
farmers at a price of Rs. 200 per ton.

 The municipality would like to have a better and bigger plant with appropriate
technology but low investment.

 On enquiring whether the municipality would like to take scientific care of the
total waste generated, the reply was in the affirmative and the municipality
would like to do it themselves.

 At the closed composting site they would like to set up a semi-mechanized

facility for segregation of mixed waste collected from households and
commercial properties.

27 
 
2.3.3.5 NGO efforts

They are making efforts for household level vermicomposting. They feel this would
provide solution for the problem of municipal solid waste.

Their focus is on educating and motivating the community and also the students with
practical examples and training. Research, especially on earthworms is of great
interest to them.

Their next step would be to focus on hospitals, schools and colleges, hotels and
housing societies.

About community level facility, they feel it may not be sustainable because
responsibility is not focussed. So who takes care of the facility? According to them
entrepreneurship would be more workable. The compost plant at Sitapaila, run by a
company set up by four Biotechnology graduates is a successful example.

NEPCEMAC (Nepal Pollution Control & Environment Management Center), an NGO

is involved with collection, segregation of recyclable material(paper, cartons, plastics,
glass bottle etc.) at ‘transfer stations’ and processing by composting and making of
handmade paper from waste paper. They are collecting from 4 wards in Kathmandu
and 9 wards in Lalitpur. NEPCEMAC is working in other towns – Bhaktapur,
Morang, Sunsari, Udayapur, Maharajganj and Handigaon (VDC) &&.

2.3.3.6 Solid Waste Management Association of Nepal:

There is an association of 20 private companies and 20 NGOs called ‘Solid Waste

Management Association of Nepal’. They are into multiple activities in waste
management, such as taking out recyclable material from mixed waste collected
from different wards and VDCs. Some of them are into composting of source-
segregated waste from domestic, hotel and market segments. They appear to have
a strong willingness to expand their activities to other towns and also move up to
much higher capacity plant.

2.4 Demand for fertilizer:

There is no chemical fertilizer factory in Nepal and the present combined demand for
urea, DAP and MoP is 785,000 tons per annum. There is considerable demand –
supply gap and this is one of the concerns for the Ministry of Agriculture.

There is good demand for organic compost because of two reasons:

28 
 
 – Supply deficit of chemical fertilizer and

– Increasing trend for organic farming, which has a better prospect of earning.

Therefore it would be logical to pursue organic composting to the maximum extent

possible. Composting of available municipal solid waste and also available
agricultural waste would yield maximum quantity of compost, which would help in
bridging the demand-supply gap to some extent. Additionally, this would have long
term beneficial effect on the farm lands.

2.4.1 Potential Customers – households, nurseries / seed companies, companies

selling compost, hotels and farmers. A study$$ of the demand in Kathmandu and
Kathmandu valley has calculated the following values:

Table 2.4: Demand of organic compost in Nepal

Sl. Market Segment Present demand Potential demand

No. (tons per annum) (tons per annum)

1 Households 1200 20,000

2 Nurseries 200 350

3 Sales companies 150 150

4 Hotels 80 80

5 Farmers (Kathmandu) 34,723 3,72,231

6 Farmers (Kathmandu valley) 3,52,458 6,99,123

7 Total (Kathmandu) 36,353 3,92,811

8 Total (Kathmandu valley) 3,54,088 7,19,703

$$
‘Marketing Compost in Nepal : Field Testing of Sandec’s Compost Marketing Handbook’, Andreas
Fromelt, Dubendorf, August 2007.

2.5 Agricultural and food security angle

Agriculture is the main activity of Nepal. However, agricultural practices in the terai,
mid-hill and upper hilly regions differ. Land holdings are small. Viability and
affordability are crucial issues, which need to be addressed urgently.

29 
 
Soil type across the country is an important determinant for appropriate planning of
crops, fertilization and irrigation. The Soil Science Division of Nepal Agricultural
Research Council is mapping the soil profile of the country. The Department of
Survey is undertaking a Land Resource Mapping Project.

Broadly, while moving from east to west, the soil in the central and the eastern part is
more acidic. The southern part near the Kosi Barrage, is alkaline due to salt
deposition resulting from evaporation. Similarly, the mid-western part is alkaline
(Rupandeli to Bardei). High mountains like Mustang, Dolpa etc. are alkaline due to
evaporation. These are important soil parameters for planning agricultural inputs.

The terai region is becoming poor in organic matter. Traditional use of bullocks have
been replaced by tractors and the straw is burnt. So the organic matter is not
returned to the soil. In the mid-hill areas, the farmers are managing soil carbon more
effectively by using forest litter.

Irrigation: 70-75% land is rain-fed whereas 20-25% is irrigated (flood irrigation). Drip
irrigation has just been started. Terai area is irrigated using deep as well as shallow
tube wells.

Normally two crops are grown in a year. The main crops are – rice (~ 50%), maize
and wheat. Rice is grown in the south, maize in the mid-hills and wheat in south and
the plains. For the two crop rotation, maize-millet, maize-wheat, maize-potato is in
practice. Citrus fruits are grown in the mid-hills, banana and papaya in the south and
mango and litchi in the area near the Indian border.

In the above context, organic composting becomes a crucial factor because

deficiency of irrigation can be mitigated to some extent with enhanced moisture
retention capacity. Similarly better nutrient retention would be of great help in better
productivity. Therefore composting needs to be practised widely at different scales
so that all the organic material can be utilized for providing enhanced food security.

2.6 Government Initiatives:

The Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development, Government of Nepal is

keen to see streamlining of municipal solid waste management. A slew of measures
have been contemplated and multi-level planning is underway through the
involvement of the Solid Waste Management Technical Support Centre (SWMTSC).

There is a lot of emphasis on segregation at source because mixed waste can be

hazardous. Proper motivation necessary to implement segregation at source is a
focus area of attention.

Introduction of service charge is felt necessary for imparting sustainability to the

system.

30 
 
Transportation cost is high, therefore location of compost plant is very important so
as to reduce transport cost. For this reason, efforts at household level and
community level are of paramount importance. Community level organizations are
actually active in composting in some urban areas, such as Lalitpur. These are
called TLO (Tole Lane Organization). However, preparations must be made for all
the three levels of activity – household, community as well as city level. Therefore,
concept designs for all these levels are important, so that the desired model could be
picked up depending upon the situation.

2.6.1 Subsidy

The Government of Nepal decided to reintroduce subsidy on mineral as well as

organic fertilizers in 2009 to boost agricultural production and to ensure smooth
supply of mineral fertilizers. In view of the shortage of chemical fertilizer and the
increasing demand for chemical as well as organic fertilizer, the Ministry of
Agriculture has introduced a plan for subsidizing organic compost (aerobic windrow
compost as well as vermicompost). In the fiscal year 2011-12, the government
distributed about 5000 metric tons of domestically produced organic fertilizer
comprising approximately 4,200 tons of vermicompost and 800 tons of aerobic
compost. The subsidy was of the order of 50% of the cost of procurement from
compost manufacturers. In the current fiscal also, there is provision for similar
quantity or more.

Quality assurance is perceived to be a challenge and a risk for this scheme. To

facilitate subsidy to only good quality compost, a guideline has been made, and a
standard has been evolved. At present there is only one guideline for registration of
the organic compost for subsidy – ‘Organic and Biological Fertilizer Regulation
Procedure, 2068 (2011) and Organic Fertilizer Grant Guideline, 2068 (2011)’. There
are no separate guidelines for kitchen waste / household waste or animal manure
based compost.

Further, the Ministry is trying to establish a mechanism for certification of organic

manure with cooperation of NABL (India). On the other hand, in the case of imported
fertilizer material, the importer / supplier has to provide certification from international
accreditation bodies.

There is concern about implementation of the above mentioned regulation / guideline

because in some of the items, a range has been given, whereas only one figure
would have been more appropriate from compliance point of view (discussion at the
Soil Management Directorate, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture &
Cooperatives). Quality difference between aerobic compost and vermicompost was
again a concern for compliance, where the respective manufacturers wanted to have
different values. Certain analytical protocols also need to be addressed for bringing
in uniformity. Soil type and irrigation are also important issues for satisfactory growth
of the agricultural sector.

31 
 
2.7 Marketing system for organic fertilizer in Nepal

Agriculture Inputs Corporation (AIC) was established in 1965 as a public sector

enterprise to procure and distribute high quality agricultural inputs (fertilizers, seeds,
agro-chemicals and implements) at a reasonable price across Nepal. In 2002 the
government converted AIC into Agriculture Inputs Company Ltd. (AICL).

AICL has been entrusted with the procurement and distribution of subsidized
fertilizers across Nepal, including domestically produced organic fertilizer. So far they
are the biggest entity for procurement and marketing of organic fertilizer in Nepal.

2.7.1 Mechanism of administering subsidy

Agricultural Inputs Company Ltd. is a government owned company, which has to

follow Government norms and fiscal regulations. They submit their annual business
plan to the Government. The quantity and extent of subsidy is finalized including
percentage of subsidy. Last fiscal year, it was set at 50% as mentioned above. AICL
invites tenders from eligible compost manufacturers (last year only those
manufacturers were eligible, who produced minimum quantity of 500 tons of quality
compost). The compost is procured at the tendered rate and sold to the farmers at
the subsidized rate.

2.7.2 Quality check

There is a central soil testing laboratory and five regional laboratories, where the
compost is be tested. These laboratories are in the east, central, west, mid-west and
far west. Fertilizer Inspectors have been deployed to keep a check on quality of
compost.

2.7.3 Other marketing channels

Agricultural Cooperatives (farmers’ association) also purchase organic compost and

provide other inputs such as seeds, loan etc. Small producers also depend upon
personal contacts and networking.

There are shops who sell compost and vermicompost. They purchase directly from
the compost / vermicompost producers. Some compost producers have their
dedicated distributers, who take care of their marketing.

32 
 
 Chapter 3

Guidelines for
Composting in Nepal

33 
 
At present composting is happening at two levels in Nepal – (i) household and (ii)
community based or small decentralized facilities run by private entrepreneurs. Both
aerobic as well as vermicompost are being produced. City level aerobic compost
plants have been tried at different places and at different points of time but somehow
they have not been successful because of a combination of circumstances.

While thinking about guidelines, the first question which comes to our mind is – why
guidelines are required? Guidelines are useful for structured planning of a system
like composting, which has wide variation in application, raw materials and size and
has multiple stakeholders. The guideline provides relevant information to interested
groups from an individual person to groups, NGOs, government agencies and
private companies. The system / technology is de-mystified so that planning,
operation and maintenance become more efficient. A guideline is expected to
address the future scenario also so that a long term planning perspective can be
taken by the Government.

This guideline has been structured on the following lines:

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Composting guidelines in other countries

3.3 Terminology for composting

3.4 Composting process

3.5 Aerobic windrow composting: the most popular system

3.6 Design of composting plants for different sizes

3.7 Vermicomposting

3.8 Setting up and operating compost plants

3.9 Marketing

3.10 Quality assurance and quality control

3.11 Recommendations for Nepal

3.1. Introduction:

3.1.1 What is composting and what are its benefits and challenges?

Composting is a natural process of decomposition of bio-degradable organic matter

by a host of microbes, which are present in the soil and the environment. Animal
manure, crop residues, kitchen and garden waste and municipal solid waste are

34 
 
suitable for composting, either alone or as mixture of these materials. Therefore
these materials are also called ‘compostable’ materials.

Compost (organic manure) is a rich source of humus, which helps in improving soil
texture and moisture retention apart from plant nutrients present in it. Consequently
the soil is better able to fight stress situations such as draught, diseases and toxicity.

It is a versatile process, which can be used for processing different types of

biodegradable material. Composting can be done at home, by the community or a
locality, at the level of a VDC or a city or on farm by the farmer.

The planning, designing and financing of the facility would depend on the ground
situation, the scale of application, operator and the market.

Benefits of composting:

I. Holds plant nutrients, especially nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur, thereby

reducing leaching of nutrients (which also leads to pollution of underground
water, especially nitrate pollution).

II. Binds soil particles, thus stabilizing loose soils against erosion.

III. Increases friability of dense and heavy soils.

IV. The improved porosity facilitates movement of air and water.

For an agrarian country like Nepal, it would mean long term benefits:

a. Increased sustainable crop production

b. Improvement of long term soil fertility for better production leading to better
livelihood of farmers

c. Alleviation of rural poverty and

d. Reduction in foreign exchange drain on import of chemical fertilizers.

Challenges:

i. Making quality products by recycling waste material is a big challenge.

ii. A standard operating procedure (SOP) has to be worked out and followed to
comply with given quality standards.

iii. Financial viability of resource recovery / recycling activity is a big issue.

35 
 
 iv. Marketing of compost, especially for small operators.

3.2 Composting Guidelines in other countries

Composting guidelines, manuals and handbooks have been prepared in different

countries and by various international agencies. Some of these are dedicated
documents whereas many of these are broadly for waste management, which also
have reference to composting. In some countries guidelines have been made for
implementation of 3R principles, especially in Bangladesh. In industrialized
countries, composting standards and guidelines have been made where the
guidelines supplement the rationale and implementation of the standards. There are
also a couple of dedicated books on composting, which provide a wealth of
information for prospective operators as well as policy makers. Some examples are:

 Harold B. Gotaas, ‘Composting: Sanitary Disposal and Reclamation of

Organic Waste’, WHO, Geneva, 1956,
 Commission of the European Communities, ‘Composting and compost quality
assurance criteria’ (Edited by D V Jackson, J M Merillot and P L Hermite),
Brussels, 1992.
 US-EPA, ‘Composting Yard Trimmings and Municipal Solid Waste’, 1994.
 W F Brinton, ‘Compost Quality Standards & Guidelines’, Woods End
Research Laboratory, prepared for New York State Association of Recyclers,
2000.
 Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, ‘Guidelines for compost
Quality’, 2005.
 A C. Gaur, ‘Handbook of Organic Farming & Biofertilizers’, (2006), India.

However, the subject is mostly dealt with in separate chapter in books on sanitation
and environment management, e.g.,

 Frank Flintoff, ‘Management of Solid Wastes in developing Countries’ WHO,

Regional Office for South-East Asia, 1976.

Composting guidelines in some Asian countries would be discussed here.

3.2.1 Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka has issued a document entitled ‘Technical Guidelines on Solid Waste
Management in Sri Lanka’, which was prepared by the Hazardous Waste
Management Unit, Pollution Control Division, Central Environment Authority. The
objective was to provide necessary information for proper handling of waste from its
point of collection to final disposal in an environmentally friendly manner.

36 
 
This guideline briefly deals with general guideline, waste collection, transfer stations,
MRF (material recovery facility), incineration facility, composting facility, anaerobic
digestion (biogas production) and landfill facility.

The general guideline emphasizes source segregation, recycling and resource

recovery for reducing landfilling. Biological processing of biodegradable material,
which are not contaminated, e.g., composting, anaerobic digestion have been
recommended.

The chapter on composting facility (pages 16-19) outlines the general requirements
and design requirements to be submitted to the Central Environment Authority (CEA)
for any person wishing to operate a composting facility:

 topographic map of the site,

 land use within one km of the site,
 layout plan, design details
 origin of waste,
 composting method,
 raw materials,
 capacity,
 list of equipment, specifications of each machinery and equipment
 compliance with Sri Lanka Standard 1246: 2003,
 measures for controlling dust, litter, odour etc.

Further, the guideline goes on to list the important design considerations like particle
size, C/N ratio, moisture content, pH control, direction for mixing/turning,
temperature, pathogen control through adequate heating of the windrows etc., which
the operator needs to keep in consideration.

Finally, the technical guideline recommends site safety and security measures. The
Sri Lankan standards for compost from municipal solid waste and agricultural waste
are annexed in the guideline.

In a nutshell, the Technical Guidelines on Solid Waste Management in Sri Lanka is a

generalized document for overall waste management and more in the line of rules for
municipal solid waste management.

3.2.2 Bangladesh

So far Bangladesh has launched a strategy for 3R, entitled ‘National 3R Strategy for
Waste Management’, December 2010 and an action plan ‘3R Action Plan’, May 2012
under Urban Public and Environmental Health Sector Development Project
(UPEHSDP), Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Cooperatives.

37 
 
Both these documents encourage composting at different levels – slum, schools,
medium and large scale commercial plants. But there is no guideline in either of
these documents.

3.2.3 India

In India two documents have been made by the Government of India, which have
guidelines for composting, mainly for municipal solid waste management:

a. Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management, Ministry of Urban

development, Government of India, 2000
b. Report of the Inter-Ministerial Task Force on Integrated Plant Nutrient
Management using City Compost, Government of India, 2005

The manual has a dedicated chapter on composting, which discusses about the
basics of composting and the history of composting in India, especially the
mechanical compost plants. The process has been discussed in brief. Environmental
control has been recommended by using impermeable surface for composting
(meaning composting pad or platform), leachate collection and treatment, daily
removal of process rejects, limiting the height of temporary stock and a bypass
arrangement for diverting waste to a landfill in case of sudden or routine stoppage of
work for maintenance or repair.

The report of the Inter-Ministerial Task Force on Integrated Plant Nutrient

Management using City Compost has detailed assessment and recommendation on
policy issues related to this subject. But it has a detailed technical section where
designs of compost plants of various sizes (50-500 TPD) have been given.

‘Handbook of Organic Farming & Biofertilizers’, A. C. Gaur (2006) has substantial

information on composting and vermicomposting of organic waste in small scale and
R&D application.

Although the report of the Inter-Ministerial Task Force was done with a different
objective, its technical section has enough material to provide guidance in setting up
compost plants of medium to large size.

However, amongst the documents mentioned above, ‘Composting: Sanitary Disposal

and Reclamation of Organic Waste’ by Harold B. Gotaas (WHO, 1956) has gone into
the maximum details in general and the Inter-Ministerial Task Force Report (Govt. of
India, 2005) greatest detail in design of compost plants in the range of 50-500 TPD
input capacity.

38 
 
3.3 Terminology
Terminology for the composting process and for the equipment used is given below.

3.3.1 Terminology for composting process

Term Definition / Explanation

Aerated A system / material, where free oxygen has been made

available either with a mechanical device or natural
draught of air.

Aerobic A system / material where free oxygen is available so that

aerobic reactions can proceed.

Compost pad / Hard impermeable surface, preferably concrete, on which

platform composting is done.

Inoculant Microbial concoction or natural material containing

microbes, e.g., stabilized sewage sludge, cattle manure,
commercially available proprietary material to boost
composting, e.g., EM solution.

Leachate The dark, thick liquid resulting from natural degradation of

biodegradable material; usually seen at the bottom of
compost windrows, vermicompost pits, bottom of landfill
etc.

Stacking Arranging raw material in piles or heaps

Static pile A composting pile which is not turned for aeration.

Instead, air is passed through the windrows by using
perforated pipes and air blowers.

Turning The material in a pile or windrow is moved in a manner

that the material in the core area comes out on the
surface so that the whole windrow gets exposed to air by
turn.

Vector An organism or insect which often carries diseases or

parasites from one animal or plant to another, e.g., fly,
mosquito etc.

Vermicast The excrement from earthworms, which is also called

vermicompost

Vermicompost Cast / excrement of earth worms

39 
 
 Windrow Long trapezoidal heaps or piles. Long composting heaps
are referred to as ‘windrow’. The base is wider and the
top is narrower.

3.3.2 Equipment used for composting

Term Definition / Explanation

Air density separator A device to separate sand, grit and other heavy particles
(ADS) from compost, by using floatation from a fluid bed
condition. Compost is sucked up and heavy particles fall
behind.

Conveyor belt A wide belt made of rubber, textile, nylon or more

commonly composite material, which moves on wide
rollers. In compost industry chain drive is popular as the
belt moves in a guided manner, directed by the chain
sprockets.
Conveyor belts are used for material movement in
different stages.

Magnetic band Magnets fixed on a moving belt or band which moves

close to a surface (e.g., a belt conveyor) and continuously
picks up ferrous material and sheds them systematically
into a hopper or another conveyor belt.

Permanent magnet Larger piece of magnet, hung close to a conveyor, so that

it picks up nails and other pieces of ferrous material. The
‘catch’ is removed from time to time.

Rotary screen A round screen which moves either on its axis or

preferably moved from outside, so that the material inside
goes through ‘cascading’ action. The feeding side is kept
slightly higher than the discharge side.

Trommel An improved version of rotary screen, which is driven

from outside, preferably using hydraulic power packs to
keep the movement smooth, especially while starting
after a power cut. The screen is covered from outside to
control dust.

Vibro-screen A screening arrangement, in which flat screens vibrate in

a horizontal plane; less expensive than trommel but less
efficient

40 
 
3.4 Composting process

In nature, any dead biodegradable material undergoes a natural process of

stabilization by a host of microbes – bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi etc. which may
happen aerobically in the presence of free oxygen (air) or anaerobically in its
absence. In fact billions of organism, which inhabit the upper layers of soil, break
down dead organic matter, stabilize the material and in the process release plant
nutrients. The process is crucial for our food chain. This process is called
composting.

It happens spontaneously in nature. This guideline, however, discusses managed

composting activity, wherein composting is done deliberately for producing a
humus rich plant food, which may be used as biofertilizer alone or with
chemical fertilizer as supplement.

Many composting processes and technology models have been evolved in different
countries. However, as of now, composting technologies can be broadly categorized
into:

(a) Aerobic windrow composting (in the presence of air / oxygen)

(b) Anaerobic trench composting (in the absence of air) and
(c) Vermicomposting (using earthworms)

Aerobic windrow composting is by far the most popular method across the world.
The technology is simple and very flexible, meaning that the system can be designed
based on the conditions at ground.

Anaerobic trench composting is less popular now compared to the past, primarily
because more time is required compared to aerobic composting, because of which
more land is blocked. Secondly destruction of pathogen is less efficient since there is
no temperature rise during the composting process. However, in small scale it is still
practised in some rural areas, where there is little constraint of land. In the history of
development of composting, trench composting had a place, which is briefly
mentioned at 3.4.1.

Vermicomposting is becoming more and more popular with passage of time. Users
are becoming aware of the better quality and added benefits of using vermicompost
compared to compost. It can be practiced in small to medium scale. There is growing
interest and research on the subject across the world.

In this guideline, aerobic composting would be discussed in detail because this is the
most popular composting system as it is applicable for different sizes and climates,
thus it is size neutral and flexible. Vermicomposting would also be discussed
because of its usefulness for Nepal.

41 
 
3.4.1 Composting systems in small to medium scale

In the small scale segment, numerous developments have taken place in different
countries:

a. Trench / pit composting

b. Variants of trench / pit composting – Bangalore / Indore / Coimbatore method
from India, Chinese
c. Perforated bin / barrel composting (Bangladesh, Nepal)
d. Box composting (India, Sri Lanka, Nepal)
e. Cage composting (Sri Lanka)
f. Heap method (this is a smaller edition of the aerobic windrow composting
started in 1934 in Indore, India)

There is limited or no movement of the composting material between initial feeding

and final removal of the mature compost except in the cases of (b) and (f) mentioned
above. Therefore requirement of labour and machinery is minimal in those cases.

In the case of trench / pit composting, 1m deep pits are dug (width and length
according to requirement and land available). Normally co-composting with animal
manure or night soil is in practice. The material to be composted is placed in the pit
with alternate layer of animal manure or night soil. About 6-8 months is required for
proper stabilization and production of finished compost. In the Chinese rural
composting system, the material in the pit is turned thrice – first turning after one
month, small quantity of superphosphate is mixed, the second turning is done after
another month and the third after a fortnight. This is followed by 3 months of
composting.

An interesting variation of the trench composting was practiced at Coimbatore

(Coimbatore method, India), in which about a month of anaerobic composting is
followed by three months of aerobic composting. About 0.9m deep and 1.8m wide
pit is filled with alternate layers of animal manure and farm waste, with spraying of
water if necessary. These layers are built up to about 0.6m above ground and the
top is plastered with mud. The heap undergoes anaerobic decomposition and gets
significantly reduced in size in about 4 weeks. The mud plaster is removed and the
mass is turned. Aerobic composting happens during the balance period.

Bin composting is becoming popular for households and also for small scale
application. It is being used in Nepal and Bangladesh and in a number of European
countries. The shape, size, material of construction etc. are different in different
places.

In case of box composting, passive aeration is used, which requires porosity.

Tough material, which are not easily degraded, are used as structural material, such
as, chopped wood or bamboo pieces, husk, leaf litter, dried cattle manure, dried

42 
 
bedding material from livestock farms etc. These dry materials also help in soaking
up the leachate generated. The pile should not be more than 2m high or 4m wide so
that aeration happens to some extent.

In the ‘Indore’ heap method, alternate layers of carbonaceous material (straw,

stalks, dry leaves, dry grass etc.) and nitrogenous material (green waste from the
garden or greens from horticultural activity) are stacked to make pile size of 2m width
and 1.5m height. The top is about 0.5m narrower than the base to make the pile
stable. Sometimes the pile is covered with a layer of straw or soil to retain the heat
evolved during composting. The material is turned on the 6th and 12th week to
enhance aerobic action.

In the present day context, the ‘heap’ method, the bin / barrel method and the ‘box’
method are applicable for small scale composting in Nepal.

3.4.2 Composting system in large scale

Large scale compost plants are normally aerobic windrow composting type. Some
facilities have been built up as aerated static pile system. These have been
discussed separately later in this chapter.

3.4.3 Advanced composting technologies

More advanced composting technologies have been developed in several

industrialized countries, such as USA, Japan and others. Some examples are –

a. Autothermal Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion (ATAD) / Enhanced Autogenous

Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion (EATAD),
b. Gore-Cover Composting system,
c. Rotary and Stationary In-vessel Composting System and
d. Rapid composting (ERS, Biomax etc.).

Biomax process takes 72 hours and ERS system takes only 2 hours for composting,
which should be followed by some maturation period. These are mostly patented
technologies with high degree of engineering perfection but relatively expensive. But
one advantage of high rate composting system is comparatively less requirement of
land and substantial saving on civil construction.

43 
 
3.5. Aerobic windrow composting

This is the most popular composting system as it is applicable for different sizes and
climates, thus it is size neutral and flexible. The technology is simple and very
flexible, meaning that the system can be designed based on the conditions at
ground.

During aerobic decomposition, heat is generated, increasing the pile temperature to

60-700C, which helps in destruction of pathogens. Increase in temperature results in
rapid breakdown so that composting time decreases.

Photo: Windrows (compost piles)

Two variants of aerobic

composting have been
developed, which are more
advanced but with better
control over the process:

(a) In-vessel composting –

horizontal and vertical
configuration and (b) Aerated
static pile method

One basic limitation is the

propensity of odour in hot
humid environment. Proper
management can control this to a great extent but these plants must be sited away
from residential areas (details mentioned later).

Aerobic windrow composting can also be combined with vermicomposting for city
level operations because vermicompost has good demand in Nepal and it
commands a better price.

44 
 
 Photo: Vibro-screen

Photo: Trommels with hydraulic power packs

3.5.1 Typical Process Flow-sheet for Aerobic Composting $$

Municipal solid waste (mixed) @@

Weigh bridge

                                                   Inspection                        Rejection of
un-acceptable waste

   Removal of bulky / large contraries

(e.g., tyres, large pieces of plastics / FRP sheets,
gunny bags, baskets, mats, cartons etc. if present)

Segregation and sorting by hand picking on conveyor belt &&

Further segregation on a rotating trommel

(having openings of 75-100 mm)
 
 

Sorted waste (substrate) Rejects to be removed**

                               

                        

Inoculum spray Windrow formation over compost pad

(stacked in the form of trapezoidal heaps)

45
  

Weekly turnings for 3 weeks

with front-end loader-cum back hoe
Loss of moisture and gases (~35%) in 3 weeks

Semi-stabilized composted material

Monsoon shed (2 weeks)

Loss of moisture and gases (~20%) in 2 weeks
Stabilized composted material

        Screening Process

(1) Coarse segregation

                                    Rejects** ~25% Rotary sieve / trommel

with openings of 35 mm dia

                        Rejects** 20% Rotary sieve / trommel

having openings of 16 mm dia
      

Curing area cum intermediate storage – minimum 3 weeks

(process of stabilization continued)
 

       

                        Rejects** 20% (2) Refinement of cured compost

(using Trommel with 4 mm screen, Magnet, ADS ##)

           

    Packing and storage of compost

@@
In case segregated waste can be guaranteed, the initial steps of removal of contraries
(undesirable items / material) can be excluded and the municipal solid waste can be directly
brought to the compost platform (yellow arrow onwards). This would lead to significant saving in
capital as well as operational cost. But if mixed waste is received in such dedicated type of plant,
quality would be adversely affected.

46 
 
&&
Especially for removal of glass bottles, battery cells, metallic pieces to the extent possible

** Rejects – rejects which are not recyclable (and not picked up by rag pickers / scrap dealers) is sent
to the landfill daily
##
Magnet for removal of ferrous metal, ADS means Air Density Separator for removal of sand, grits
etc.
$$ 
Mass balance has not been given because in most of the cases in Nepal, fresh waste is mixed with
dried cattle manure, rice husk, poultry droppings, dried leaf litter etc.

The yield of compost and quantity of process reject depends on the composition of
the incoming waste and efficiency of processing. The quality of compost depends on
the composition, efficiency of segregation and screening of the compost.

In a modern system it is possible to produce quality compost even from mixed

waste provided street sweepings are not allowed to get mixed and bio-medical
waste as well as any other hazardous industrial and e-waste are collected
separately and not allowed in the compost facility premises. This appears to
be very difficult to achieve but is achievable with strict implementation of
rules. Regulation for bio-medical waste is being framed in Nepal.

In modern plants, the dry recyclable items (paper, rags, cardboard, plastics
excluding chlorinated plastics etc.) are converted into refuse derived fuel (RDF). With
the advent of CDM, alternative fuel (green fuel) has become popular as a means of
earning CER revenue. With this, RDF is becoming more and more popular.
However, one important condition of using RDF is an efficient emission control
system, which can safeguard against any escape of harmful chemicals like dioxin
and furan.

3.5.2 Factors affecting aerobic composting and ways to compost efficiently

Composting is a biological process, for which the following parameters are crucial:

I. Aeration

Aeration is the key for creating aerobic condition in the composting mass. The
requirement is more in the initial stages. Due to the oxidation of the biodegradable
matter, it gets gradually stabilized by a host of aerobic micro-organisms. At the same
time heat is generated in the first two weeks, so that pathogens are either inactivated
or destroyed.

Aeration is achieved by turning or forced aeration by perforated pipes. In the case of

passive aeration (especially, in box composting), structural material is used to make
the pile porous. In some practices, vertical perforated pipes are put in the windrow /
pile. In some rural practices, bamboo poles are placed vertically while the piles /

47 
 
heaps are constructed. After one week the bamboo poles are carefully removed
leaving the vertical holes, which provide additional aeration.

II. Moisture

Moisture is required for supporting the metabolic activity of the micro-organisms

involved in the composting process. Moisture content of 50-60% is required in the
beginning. As the process moves forward, there is moisture loss, so that sprinkling of
water is required up to the 4th week. After that the pile becomes gradually dry. The
finished compost has a moisture content of 15-25%.

III. Temperature

Biological reactions occur at three distinct ranges – psychrophilic (less than 150C),
mesophilic (15-450C) and thermophilic (45-750C). Mesophilic is the most common
range, where external heating is not required. However, during the first weeks, the
temperature of the pile rises to 55-700C, which kills the pathogens. After the 3rd
week, the pile cools gradually.

IV. Nutrients

Micro-organisms need primary / macro-nutrients, such as, carbon (C), nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and a number of secondary micro-nutrients. There
are optimal proportions of the macro-nutrients, especially, carbon and nitrogen. The
optimal C:N ratio of the raw material is 25:1 – 30:1. When the material is stabilized
into compost, the ratio reduces to 20:1 or less.

V. pH

The pH value should be as close to 7 (neutral) as possible. However, the buffering

effect takes care of minor fluctuations in pH.

VI. Absence of toxic materials

Care should be taken to keep toxic material out of the composting mass, e.g., bio-
medical waste, e-waste, pesticides, disinfectants and other chemicals, so that the
microbes do not face the toxic material and the compost is safe.

48 
 
3.6 Design of compost plants

Consideration of design of compost plant calls for looking at the various applicable
sizes in Nepal – at present as well as in future. It is assumed that the substrate (raw
material) would constitute various forms of solid waste generated in urban and peri-
urban areas, such as, horticultural waste, organic waste from hotels, waste from fruit,
vegetable, fish, meat and poultry markets, municipal solid waste, cattle manure etc.

As indicated by different stakeholders, composting is desirable at three different

levels in Nepal – household level, community level and city level. The size of
operation is a crucial decision, which has to be deliberated upon by the different
stakeholders.

 At the household level, the system has to cater to the composting needs of
the family in question.
 For community based plants, the stakeholders have to decide upon land / site
for the plant, management and sharing of responsibility, funding, sharing or
plough-back of any profits and extent of involvement of the members.
 At city level, the city authority has to decide whether the city would like to
design, construct, operate and maintain the plant themselves or they want to
go for PPP?

3.6.1 Household level

The government of Nepal is distributing small composting bins for households, which
are appropriate for Nepal. The family has to follow the instructions provided to them
through extension activities carried out by government and municipal agencies and
NGOs.

3.6.2 Size of community and city level compost plants

Community / small private enterprise / NGO operated compost plant, as per present
situation may be in the range of 0.5-5.0 TPD input.

City level plants may have a huge variation in size – 5 TPD in case of small towns to
500TPD in case of Kathmandu Metropolitan City.

For simplicity, the compost plants may be categorized according to input waste
intake capacity into the following:

(a) Small plants up to 10 TPD

(b) Medium size plants 10-50 TPD
(c) Large plants above 50 TPD

49 
 
At present there is no compost plant in Nepal even in the ‘medium’ size scale but it is
expected that in future this sector would firm up and grow to contribute meaningfully
towards agricultural production in Nepal.

Therefore design and equipment issues of large plants have been discussed in
this chapter. The suggested designs are for a long term consideration, say 20
years for civil construction and 10 years for plant and equipment (before
requirement of major repair and replacement).

3.6.3 Compost plants upto 10 TPD:

These plants are in a different league altogether compared to the larger plants
described later in this chapter. They are designed and operated as manual to semi-
mechanical facilities, depending upon the specific size and material used.

The community compost plants in Nepal are mostly set up on rented private land.
They purchase and transport the waste to their plant. Due to this reason, they are
unable to invest for building impervious composting platforms, which are essential for
good environmental practice (cleanliness and percolation of leachate in the ground).

However compost plants dealing with an average of 5 TPD or more, should have a
proper composting platform with impervious surface and drainage facility. A shed
would be preferable.

In the range of 5-10 TPD capacity (raw material), the following would be
necessary:

a. Tractor (25 HP or above) – one (in case of successful operation, a standby

can be procured in the 2nd year)

b. Tipping trailer for the tractor (for carriage of material)

c. Front-end loader attachment with 300 litre bucket (can easily turn the
windrows within this size range)

d. Arrangement for electrical power and water

e. Arrangement for water spray

f. A small rotary screen, preferably with a half cover on the top side (4.5m long,
1.25m dia) and externally driven (without a central shaft, which hampers
‘cascading’ action) with screen size of 4mm.

g. Since only one rotary screen is planned, the fraction of (+) 4mm needs to be
inspected to check if there is significant portion of larger lumps of organic
matter. In case such organic material is present in abundance, the reject

50 
 
 material should be further composted for about 3 weeks before screening
again.

3.6.4 Design of Community level composting facility

As per the present situation, community level composting operation can be in the
capacity range of 0.5-5 TPD. These can be in the following mode:

(a) ‘Box’ – design of a typical 2 TPD capacity batch mode compost plant

Process flow:

This system depends upon passive aeration. Therefore it is necessary to add some
tough material for maintaining air passage and controlling moisture. Examples are –
pieces of wood, bamboo, dried grass, rice, wheat or maize stalk, rice husk, dried
cattle manure, ‘rejects’ from screening compost etc. About 30% is normally
adequate.

Compost plants with an average capacity of up to 2 tons waste per day may be
designed as modular box composting facilities. It would be desirable to have the
following included:

I. A hard surface, preferably concrete (PCC) otherwise, impermeable to the

extent possible, along with drainage. At present some operators use thick
plastic sheets as liner material.

II. The boxes should preferably be constructed with bricks and mortar, keeping
small openings in a honeycomb structure. With good construction, they are
expected to last for more than 20 years. Due to the long durability, the capital
investment would get spread.

III. The masonry structure also allows the waste to be turned occasionally if
required.

IV. However, in case of constraint of capital, these can be made with bamboo,
thatches etc. But the durability would get reduced to 2-3 years.

V. A shed on the top, preferably on prefab trusses, otherwise at least during the
rainy season some plastic cover should be arranged. Actually, such plastic
covers are in use in some of the compost plants.

VI. Usually leachate is absorbed in the system by the dry and tough structural
material. Therefore leachate treatment facility has not been suggested. A
saucer drain has been provided for carrying any wash water or rain water.

51 
 
Calculation:

Each box can have an effective volume capacity of 5-8 m3 (2-4 tons). The cross
section should not be more than 2.5 m2 otherwise the passive aeration would be
inadequate. Depending upon the area available, a battery of boxes can be built,
keeping a circulation space of 1.5 m between the rows of boxes.

Design calculation and drawing for 2 TPD is given below.

2 ton + 30% structural material = 2.6 ton = 5.2 m3 (average density 0.5)

Size of box = 1.5 m (height) X 1.5 m (width) X 3 m (length) = 6.75 m3

Effective volume = 1.25 m ht X 1.5 w X 3 m l = 5.625 m3

Thus one box would hold one day’s waste + 30% structural material.

For composting time of 2 months, 60 boxes would be required.

10 boxes in one row X 6 rows can be planned with 1.5 m circulation space between
rows and 2 m circulation space in the peripheral area around the boxes.

Size of platform accommodating 60 boxes = 34 m X 21 m = 714 m2.

Unloading area for raw material = 30 m2

Storage for structural material = 30 m2

Screening area = 30 m2. The screen would have 4mm openings. It may be a flat
screen in a metal frame kept at 450 angle or preferably a rotary screen (4.5m long,
1.5m diameter).

Storage for compost = 90 m2

Office = 30 m2

A shed would be built over the total area to make it all weather facility. The shed
would be 6m high in the middle and 5m on the sides. The shed would be open from
all sides.

Total area including internal drains and roads and 4m wide green belt = 45.7 X 51.2
= 2339 m2, say 2400 m2.

Equipment: Flat screen 4mm fixed at 450 angle or preferably a rotary screen 4mm.

Capital investment: Rs. 4.4 million with flat screen or 5.0 million with rotary screen.

52 
 
 Drawing 3.1: Box composting, 2 TPD capacity

53 
 
 (b) Heap / windrow composting

This system is suitable for larger capacity compared to the box type composting
system. Design calculation and drawing for 5 TPD is mentioned below.

Process:

It is assumed that the material received is source-segregated. The raw material is

unloaded on the unloading platform, inspected for any items to be removed and then
arranged in a windrow at the designated space. The windrow would be turned once
every week and shifted to the next heap.

Manual turning for this much of material would be very tedious and the operator may
develop a tendency to skip weekly turning. A small 300 liter bucket attached to a 25
HP tractor would do a good job. This equipment can help in windrow formation also.
After 3 weeks, the material would be shifted inside the shed.

After 2 weeks (i.e., total 5 weeks), the composted material would be screened with a
trommel having 16mm screen. The screened material would be ‘cured’ (left to
mature) for 3 weeks. Then the material would be passed through a vibro-screen
having 4mm screen. The screened material would be bagged and stored. In case the
compost is to be stored for more than 2 months, it is better not to bag the finished
compost. Without bagging, the material can be easily stored for 6 months.

Design calculation:

5 ton = 10 m3 volume of waste per day (assuming average density = 0.5), which
means 70 m3 per week. The composting material would require 5 weeks with once a
week turning. For economising on construction cost, 3 weeks would be in the open
followed by 2 weeks under an open shed (for avoiding getting soaked due to any
rainfall and excess dryness during summer).

The composting platform has to be impermeable and hard enough to withstand

regular turning operation. Depending upon the strength of the underlying soil, the
platform should be RCC or PCC (capable of withstanding 5 ton moving load).

A suitable size of the windrow for 5 TPD capacity would be 4m wide at the base, 2m
wide at the top and height of 2m, cross section = 6 m2. Length of the windrow is
calculated as under:

Length of windrow = 70 m3 ÷ 6 m2 = 11.66, say 12m

Since volume of the material would reduce continuously, keeping the same length,
width of the windrows would be 4m in the 1st week, 3.5m in the 2nd and 3m in the 3rd.
The circulation space between two successive windrows would be 3m for facilitating
movement of tractor based windrow turner. However this space can be reduced with
skilled drivers.

54 
 
Curing area – At this stage about 30% of the original volume would remain.

10 m3 X 30% = 3 m3 per day X 15 days = 45 m3

For average 1m height of the material, area required = 45 m2

Storage space – Because of seasonal nature of compost application, 90 days’

storage should be provided.

Expected production – 15% of 5 TPD = 0.75 TPD = 0.93 m3 per day X 90 days =
83.7 m3.

Assuming average 1.5m high storage, area required = 42 m2. Including passage and
circulation space, 100 m2 has been provided.

The drawing is placed below.

Area required = 55.4 X 52.6 = 2914.04 m2, say 3000 m2

Drawing 3.2: Windrow composting 5 TPD

55 
 
Equipment: Trommel 16mm opening (one), Vibro-screen 4mm (one), Tractor with
front end bucket of 300 liter (one).

Capital investment: Rs. 7.8 million

3.6.5 Large compost plants: City level composting

These compost plants would best be aerobic windrow system. Since large plants (50
tons and above) require meticulous planning and a number of inter-linked
components and equipment, these are first introduced below.

3.6.5.1. Components of a typical modern composting facility

a. Material intake
b. Yard management
c. Primary screening of the stabilized compost
d. Curing of the screened compost
e. Refinement of the cured material
f. Packing and bagging for storage

a. Material Intake

Incoming vehicles get weighed with load on a weigh-bridge followed by a second

weighing after unloading. The data is recorded for reference of the plant, especially
for CDM revenue, as well as compliance with concession agreement (in case PPP).

b. ‘Yard’ Management

The fresh waste is stacked in the form of

trapezoidal heaps called ‘windrows’ (3-6
meter wide at the base, 1.5-3 meter high
and variable length, normally for
accommodating one day’s input
garbage. Large undesirable material
(bulky items) is manually removed. In
case the windrows look dry, water is
sprayed occasionally to maintain the
required moisture level. Some operators use a sanitizer / inoculum to reduce odour
and repel vectors. Microbial activity starts almost immediately because the waste
material is already infested with different types of microbes. Temperature within the
heap rises (normally, 55-650 C) which destroys pathogen. The Windrows are

56 
 
periodically turned (normally once a week) using appropriate equipment (such as,
front-end loader-cum-backhoe arm) to provide proper aeration. The composting
heap is stabilized in 5-6 weeks, when it is shifted to the screening plant for removal
of the inert and non-composted material. In some plants the semi-stabilized material
is shifted inside a ‘rain shed’ so that there is better control on moisture.

Regular monitoring of the windrows for moisture, aeration and temperature is

necessary for effective process control (indicator of effective aeration). The
frequency of turning should be adjusted accordingly (more frequent in rainy season).

Photo: Rain shed Photo: Primary screening

c. ‘Screening’ of the stabilized compost

Stabilized material, either from the open compost pad or the ‘monsoon shed’ is fed to
the ‘screening’ or 'coarse segregation section' using appropriate material handling
equipment, such as, a ‘Skid Steer Loader’ for intermediate screening. For achieving
maximum screening efficiency, trommels having openings of 35 mm followed by a
second one of 16 mm or 14 mm have been found to be effective. Screened material
coming out of this section is uniform in texture.

Photo: Curing of semi-finished compost (for 3 weeks)

d. ‘Curing’ of the screened composted material

Normally the minimum curing period is 15 days. But this area may be strategically
used for control of inventory. Some operators prefer to hold the material in this

57 
 
section till they get order for dispatch. This aspect needs to be kept in view while
designing the plant. Some additives, such as, as rock phosphate may be added at
this stage to improve the quality of the final product.

e. ‘Refinement’ of the cured material

The refinement section has acquired a lot of Importance due to increasing

expectation of the market for better quality compost (free from glass pieces, nails,
twigs etc.)

Therefore, a refinement section is incorporated in the contemporary plants, with a

rotary screen with 4 mm or 4mm / 6mm openings, gravity separator (for removal of
relatively high density material such as, sand and grit, glass, metallic pieces etc. and
liquid add-mixer (for moisture control and dispensing nutrient additives).

f. Packing and Storage System

The refined material is then passed through the ‘packing spout’, where it is normally
packed in 50 kg bags and then weighed. Bags are then stitched using a portable
sewing machine and finally stacked in the finished product store manually using
wheelbarrow or by using Pellet Trucks. Automated machines for packing, weighing
and stitching are now used in large plants.

58
On an average about 12-20% yield of final product (refined compost) is obtained
from mixed municipal solid waste, depending upon the characteristics of the
material, the design and efficiency of operation of the plant.

3.6.5.2 Composting plus RDF – the new trend for large facilities:

It would be logical to minimize the quantity of the process rejects which has to be
sent to the landfill – so that transportation cost and landfill space as well landfilling
cost can be minimized. Depending on the efficiency of segregation at source (city
wide actual achievement) and availability of recycling industries catering to
recyclable waste material, one can plan to produce RDF along with compost.

About a dozen new projects in India for large scale composting have planned to
incorporate RDF as a by-product along with compost. Two factors are driving this
combination effort – additional revenue generation from sale of RDF and substantial
reduction in process residues, which means less land required for landfilling and less
cost for transporting rejects. The market for RDF is growing with demand from
cement plants, electrical power producers and other industries with requirement of
heat and adequate emission control for the emission coming out of the chimney.

In this case the design is modified as follows:

 The material is passed through an elaborate pre-sorting section (simplified

MRF – material recovery facility) where the emphasis is on sorting out dry
combustible materials in the best possible manner. A series of trommels and
manual sorting belts are used for this purpose.
 The combustible materials (paper, plastics, rags, baskets etc.) are then air-
dried and shredded followed by drying by hot air (from a hot air generator)
 The dry shredded material is then passed through an air-classifier to remove
dust, sand and other fine inert material.
 The material, sorted, shredded and dried has enhanced calorific value.

The design of a compost plant basically depends on characteristics of the material

and quantum of material to be handled daily. The main design elements are – (A)
land and civil construction, (B) equipment for pre-sorting, screening and bagging and
(C) equipment for handling and management of the composting material.

59 
 
(A) Typical requirement of land for different sizes are placed in the table below:
Table 3.6.1: Requirement of land and various constructed areas
for aerobic windrow composting (in m2)

Sl. Waste received per day (tons)

No. Item
50 100 300 500@

1 Unloading / tipping area (covered) 150 300 700 2000

(2 lines)

2 Pre-processing area (covered) 200 400 800 2000

(2 lines)

3 Composting platform (open 3,000 6,000 15,000 20,000

windrow area)

4 Composting platform (rain shed) 1,000 2,000 5,500 8,500

5 Curing area (well covered) 200 400 1,000 1,500

6 Equipment for coarse segregation 150 300 450 1200

and refinement (2 lines)

7 Storage space for finished 300 500 1000 1500

compost

8 Leachate treatment facility (SBR) 100 100 200 200

9 Office, laboratory, toilets and other 100 150 300 400

amenities

10 Green buffer area 1,000 2,000 6,000 8,000

11 Parking for yard management 400 500 600 800

equipment, vehicle wash

12 Parking for cars 100 150 200 300

13 Internal roads and drains, weigh 5,000 7,000 10,000 20,000

bridge facility

14 Genset, switch room, tool room 200 200 300 300

etc.

15 Guard room, reception 100 100 150 200

60 
 
 Total 12,000 20,100 42,400 66,900
~ 1.2 ha ~ 2.0 ha ~ 4.25 ~ 6.7 ha
ha
~ 22 ~ 37 ~ 78 ~ 122
Ropani Ropani Ropani Ropani

@
For 400 TPD and above, 2 parallel lines are installed to achieve the capacity and also, to give more
stability to the system (in case of any problem with one line, the other line can function and 50% of
the activity can be carried on)

(B) List of equipment for different sizes:

Table 3.6.2: List of equipment for pre-sorting, screening and bagging –

capacity 100 TPD and above

Sl.
No. Item / Equipment Nos. Purpose / Role

Unloading section

1 In case of pit – overhead crane 01 set To lift the waste from the pit and
and grab (orange peel type) feed into the pre-sorting chain

Pre-sorting section

1 Feeding hopper and conveyor (1- 02 For uniform feeding of the

1.2m width, 3-ply, 10mm thick), sets material into pre-sorting trommel
trough shaped

2 7m long, 2m dia trommel, first 2m 02 12mm pores would remove

with 12mm perforation and next sets sand, silt etc. 100mm size would
5m with 100mm perforation (for separate out organic waste
300 TPD upwards; for smaller (normally smaller size) from dry
capacity, the trommel may be 5m recyclable items.
long). For stable performance of
the trommel, hydraulic power Normally each trommel is
pack is preferable to electrical provided with a separate
motor. hydraulic power pack

3 Conveyor for (+)100mm material, 02 +100mm material is taken to

trough shaped sets RDF section as shown in
drawing

61 
 
 4 Conveyor for (–)100mm material, 02 To carry the (–)100mm material
trough shaped sets to the sorting conveyors

5 Sorting conveyor, 1.2m wide, flat, 02 To take out undesirable material

horizontal sets like glass, battery cells, metal
pieces etc. by hand sorting

6 Feeding conveyor for the sorted 02 To convey the sorted organic

organic material to composting sets material to the composting
yard, trough shaped platform. The material is dumped
at central points and distributed
to windrows by a front end
loader

Primary screening

1 Feeding hopper and conveyor (1- 02 To feed the stabilized material

1.2m width, 3-ply, 10mm thick), sets from the rain shed to the primary
trough shaped screening trommel (35mm)

2 Trommel with 35mm perforations, 02 For primary screening of the

7m long, 2m dia sets stabilized material

3 Conveyor for carrying the 02 For carrying the screened

screened material forward sets material (-35mm) to the next
trommel (16mm)

4 Conveyor for carrying the reject 02 For carrying the reject material
material sets (+35mm) to the RDF section
before secondary shredder

5 Trommel with 16mm perforations, 02 For further screening of the

7m long, 2m dia sets (-)35mm material

6 Conveyor for carrying the 02 For carrying the screened

screened material forward sets material (-16mm) to the
distribution conveyor for curing

7 Conveyor for carrying the reject 02 For carrying the reject material
material sets (+16mm) to the windrow area for
use as a cover material over the
fresh windrows

8 Distribution conveyor to curing 02 To take (-)16mm material to the

section sets curing area

Refinement section

1 Drag chain feeder, strong 02 For feeding material uniformly

62 
 
 permanent magnet before entry sets into the trommel with 4mm
into trommel openings, magnet pulls out
ferrous metal, especially, nails

2 Trommel with 4mm perforations 02 For screening out small sized

sets contraries, such as, pieces of
glass, grit, metal pieces, twigs
etc.

3 Conveyor for taking out the 02 The (+)4mm material is taken out
rejects (+)4mm sets and used as cover material for
fresh windrows

4 Bucket elevator 02 For taking (-)4mm material up

sets into the ADS (air density
separator), also called de-stoner

5 Gravity separator with aspirator 02 For removal of fine, high density

(ADS / de-stoner) sets impurities, such as, sand, grits,
tiny pieces of glass etc. from
compost

Weighing, packing and storage

1 Add-mixer for mixing additives 02 For adjusting moisture, nutrient

like nutrient, inoculant etc. sets etc.

2 Chute for bag filling 02 For filling finished compost into

sets bags

(C) Equipment for material handling

Table 3.6.3: List of equipment and vehicles for material handling

Sl. Waste received per day (tons)

No. Item
50 100 300 500

1 Loader cum back-hoe for turning 01 02 01 02

windrows every week (medium
sized) $$

2 Loader cum back-hoe for turning - - 02 03

windrows every week (large sized)

3 Tractor based small loader (for 01 01 02 02

‘curing’ and ‘refinement’ sections)

63 
 
 4 Tractor with tipper trolley 01 02 02 02

5 Truck with tipper (large chassis) for - - 01 02

carriage of reject material to the
landfill

6 Water tank mounted on tractor 01 01 01 02

chassis with spraying arrangement

7 Pallet truck for stacking and - - 01 02

moving bags and other material

8 Electrically operated large sprayer - - 01 02

(for inoculant, water etc.)

9 Small sprayer 01 01 - -

10 Misc. utilities, e.g., wheel barrow, sets sets Sets Sets

rakes, spade etc.

Additional land and equipment required in case RDF is also prepared along
with composting (300 TPD and above)

Table 3.6.4: Additional land required for RDF

Sl. Item Waste received per day (tons)

No.
300 500

1 Additional processing area (single line) 800 1000

2 Storage space for RDF 1,000 1,500

Total 1,800 2,500

~3.3 Ropani ~4.6 Ropani

Table 3.6.5: Additional equipment required

Sl. Item Waste received per day

No. (tons)

300 500

64 
 
1 Primary shredder (10 TPH capacity) 01 01

2 Secondary shredder (10 TPH capacity) 01 01

3 Sorting conveyor, 1.2m wide, flat, horizontal 01 01

4 Dryer (if necessary) 01 01

5 ADS (Air Density Separator) 01 01

6 Baling machine 01 01

 
Photo: Sorting Conveyor Photo: Air Density Separator or de-stoner

65
 Drawing 3.3: Composting plus RDF plant – 300 TPD and above input capacity

66 
 
Note on the above layout design:

For unloading the waste, normally a slightly raised unloading platform is

convenient. Large bulky items can be easily removed. Cleaning of the platform
and removal of leachate is easy. But in case the material has to be stored for
more than 6 hours on the unloading platform and the vehicles come in quick
succession, it is more desirable to have a pit, which can contain about one day’s
waste haul. The side walls of the pit should be slightly tapered, i.e., the surface
area at the bottom is smaller than at the top. The corners of the walls should be
well rounded to reduce dead space and the bottom has to be slightly inclined with
a leachate collection drain at the lowest end.

3.6.5.3 Cost of plant and machinery

Since equipment for large composting plants are not being manufactured in Nepal,
the first couple of plants and machinery would have to be imported. In the tables
below estimated budgetary cost of equipment from reputed Indian manufacturers is
given for capacities ranging from 25-200 TPD. However items like taxes and duties
for importing, transportation (including loading and unloading), erection and
commissioning etc. would be added to these costs.

Table 3.6.5.1: Cost of plant and machinery, capacity 25 TPD input of

mixed municipal solid waste

Sl. Equipment Qty. Remarks

No.

Coarse segregation / preparatory section: 3 TPH intake

1 Feeder conveyor 1 no.

2 Trommel 35 mm ** 1 no.

3 Process conveyor-35 1 no.

4 Rejects conveyor-35 1 no.

5 Trommel 16 mm 1 no.

6 Process conveyor-16 1 no.

7 Rejects conveyor-16 1 no.

8 Hydraulic power pack 1 no.  15 HP, fitted with

pushbutton control
panel

67 
 
 Refinement Section: 1 TPH intake (TPH – tons per hour)

1 Feeder conveyor 1 no. 3 HP

2 Vibro-screen 1 no. 3 HP

3 ADS or De-stoner 1 no. 3 HP

4 Electrical control panel 1 no. 3 HP

Estimated price Indian Rs. 5.0 million && (Nepali Rs. 8.0 million)

Note:

Important: All prices are as on August, 2012, which may vary over a period of time.

** For reducing cost (with minor loss in efficiency), only 16mm trommel may be used.
The material >16mm should be put back on the windrows as a cover material,
which would give it further time for composting. From time to time part of the
>16mm material should be sent to the landfill. For higher capacities (100 TPD and
above), both 35mm and 16mm trommels are required.
&&
Taxes and duties to import into Nepal, transportation from India, erection and
commissioning charges would be extra over this basic ex-factory price.

Table 3.6.5.2: Cost of plant and machinery, capacity 50 TPD input of

mixed municipal solid waste

Sl. Equipment Qty. Remarks

No.

Coarse segregation / preparatory section: 5 TPH intake

1 Feeder conveyor 1 no.

2 Trommel 35 mm 1 no.

3 Process conveyor-35 1 no.

4 Rejects conveyor-35 1 no.

5 Trommel 16 mm 1 no.

6 Process conveyor-16 1 no.

68 
 
 7 Rejects conveyor-16 1 no.
20 HP, fitted with
8 Hydraulic power pack 1 no.  pushbutton control
panel

Refinement Section: 2.5 TPH intake (TPH – tons per hour)

1 Feeder conveyor 1 no. 3 HP

2 Elevator 1 no. 3 HP

2 Vibro-screen 2 nos. 3 HP each 

3 ADS or De-stoner 2 nos. 3 HP each 

4 Electrical control panel 1 no. 3 HP

Estimated price Indian Rs. 9.0 million && (Nepali Rs. 14.4 million)

Important: All prices are as on August, 2012, which may vary over a period of time.
&&
Taxes and duties to import into Nepal, transportation from India, erection and
commissioning charges would be extra over this basic ex-factory price.

Table 3.6.5.3: Cost of plant and machinery, capacity 100 TPD input of
mixed municipal solid waste

Sl. Equipment Qty. Remarks

No.

Coarse segregation / preparatory section: 10 TPH intake

1 Feeder conveyor 1 no.

2 Trommel 35 mm 1 no.

3 Process conveyor-35 1 no.

4 Rejects conveyor-35 1 no.

5 Trommel 16 mm 1 no.

6 Process conveyor-16 1 no.

7 Rejects conveyor-16 1 no.

40 HP, fitted with
8 Dual hydraulic power pack 1 no.  pushbutton control
panel

69 
 
 Curing section post coarse segregation

1 Conveyor to curing section 1 no.

2 Multi-port distributor conveyor 1 no. 20 m long

10 HP, with push
3 Hydraulic power pack 1 no. button control panel

Refinement Section: 4 TPH intake (TPH – tons per hour)

1 Feeder conveyor 1 no.

2 Trommel 4mm 1 no.  

3 Process conveyor 1 no.

4 Rejects conveyor 1 no.

5 ADS or De-stoner 1 no. 13 HP

6 Hydraulic power pack 1 no. 20 HP, fitted with

push button control
panel

7 Electrical control panel 1 no.

8 Compost transfer conveyor 1 no.

9 Packing spout 1 no.

Estimated price Indian Rs. 17.0 million && (Nepali Rs. 27.2 million)

Important: All prices are as on August, 2012, which may vary over a period of time.
&&
Taxes and duties to import into Nepal, transportation from India, erection and
commissioning charges would be extra over this basic ex-factory price.

Table 3.6.5.4: Cost of plant and machinery, capacity 200 TPD input of
mixed municipal solid waste

Sl. Equipment Qty. Remarks

No.

Pre-sorting section: 20 TPH intake

70 
 
 1 Feeder conveyor 1 no.

2 Trommel 120 mm 1 no.

3 Process conveyor, 120mm 1 no.

4 Transfer conveyor, 120mm 1 no.

5 Sorting conveyor 1 no.

6 Hydraulic power pack 1 no. 20 HP, fitted with

push button control

Coarse segregation / preparatory section: 10 TPH intake

1 Feeder conveyor 1 no.

2 Trommel 35 mm 1 no.

3 Process conveyor-35 1 no.

4 Rejects conveyor-35 1 no.

5 Trommel 16 mm 1 no.

6 Process conveyor-16 1 no.

7 Rejects conveyor-16 1 no.

40 HP, fitted with
8 Dual hydraulic power pack 1 no.  pushbutton control
panel

Curing section post coarse segregation

1 Conveyor to curing section 1 no.

2 Multi-port distributor conveyor 1 no. 20 m long

3 Hydraulic power pack 1 no. 10 HP, with push

button control panel

Refinement Section: 5 TPH intake (TPH – tons per hour)

1 Feeder conveyor 1 no.

2 Trommel 4mm 1 no.  

3 Process conveyor 1 no.

71 
 
 4 Rejects conveyor 1 no.

5 ADS or De-stoner 1 no. 13 HP

6 Hydraulic power pack 1 no. 20 HP, with push

button control panel

7 Electrical control panel 1 no.

8 Compost transfer conveyor 1 no.

9 Packing spout 1 no.

Estimated price Indian Rs. 27.0 million && (Nepali Rs. 43.2 million)

Important: All prices are as on August, 2012, which may vary over a period of time.
&&
Taxes and duties to import into Nepal, transportation from India, erection and
commissioning charges would be extra over this basic ex-factory price.

3.6.5.4. Aerated Static Pile Composting System

In this form of composting the composting mass in the form of windrows or in bins is
aerated with the help of blowers. Unlike in the aerobic windrow composting system,
the mass remains at the same spot and it is not turned. Since aeration is direct,
control over the process is more efficient. Different levels of precision and
sophistication has been achieved in this technology.

In simple systems at smaller scale, flexible pipes are left under the composting piles
and air is blown through them. The air gets distributed and brings about aerobic
fermentation like in the turned piles.
Photo: Aerated static pile in box
composting (Waste concern, Dhaka)

In the earlier times, perforated pipes were

embedded in the composting platform and the
material stacked over the pipes. Air was blown
through the perforations, which also helped in
keeping the passage clean. However, with wet
waste, especially during rainy season, the pipes
got clogged.

In the present day plants, channels covered with

perforated sheets are used for dual purpose –

72 
 
collection of leachate as well as for blowing air. The compost plant in Dhaka
(Bangladesh) is of this design. The plant is successfully operational since November
2008. Structural material to the extent of 30% is mixed with the waste to avoid
compaction of waste, which would hinder passage of air.

Photo: Aerated static pile composting (Waste Concern, Dhaka)

In the more sophisticated aerated static pile plants, large bins are used wherein
waste is stacked to heights of 2.5-3 metres. Patented pipe designs are used for
efficient delivery of air. Temperature and oxygen levels are continuously monitored.
The bins are covered with semi-permeable sheets (such as ‘Gore Cover’) and the
spent air within is filtered using bio-filters. Considerable space is saved in this
system.

In this technology, turning equipment is not required and considerable saving in

diesel is possible. However, electricity is required for running the blower. But the
blowers are not required to be operated continuously. About 3-4 hours in 24 hours
done intermittently is sufficient. There is better control on odour. Also, heat
insulation is much better.

With the high cost of diesel and paucity of land, this technology should be useful for
Nepal provided about 6 hours of electricity or a genset can be made available.

3.6.5.5. Compost plants for hilly / mountainous regions

Aerobic composting with proper aeration works even in sub-zero temperature range,
wherein the leachate gets frozen but when the windrow is broken for turning or
screening, lot of steam is seen, indicating warm thermal environment inside the
windrow. However, the time of composting would increase upto 100% with
increasing cold.

The following points need to be taken care of:

73 
 
 a. Control on moisture, the composting mass should not be soggy.
b. Aeration should be adequate, by thorough turning.
c. Part of the windrow platform should be covered towards the end of the
composting cycle to save the semi-compost from rain, frost etc.

The aerated static pile with forced aeration would be a better choice for plants of at
least 5 TPD intake capacity, provided electrical power can be organized for 3-4
hours in a day.

74 
 
3.7 Vermicomposting

3.7.1 What is vermicomposting?

Vermicomposting is composting with the help of earthworms. Earthworms are

voracious eaters, consuming organic material equivalent to their body weight in
conducive environment. As they breed and their number grows fast, the total
capacity of the vermicomposting plant increases proportionally. Their system
manages the microbes, especially the actinomycetes, which are very important for
natural degradation of material. They live in natural habitats, such as agricultural
fields, parks and grass land etc. and are often evident from vermicast on fields
(photograph below).

Some of the worms are more efficient for this specific job of devouring organic
material and transform them into vermicast (vermicompost):

- Eisenia foetida
- Peryonix excavates
- Lampitto maurittii
- Eudrillus euginae
- Lumbricus rubellus

Photo: Vermicast in a field in Kathmandu

3.7.2 Advantages

Biodegradable waste can be converted into vermicompost, which has better

nutritional properties compared to compost and also commands a better price. It can
be easily practiced at household level. The capital investment can be kept low by
procuring a relatively small number of worms and letting them grow in number over a
period of time.

3.7.3 Process of vermicomposting

Vermicomposting can be done in bins (vermi-bin) of different sizes, pits (lined or

unlined) or in heaps. The bin / box / pit / surface of heap is first lined with old gunny
bag, banana leaf, composted cattle manure etc. A mixture of soil and composted
cattle manure is placed to make a comfortable bed, taking care that no sharp
materials are present. The worms are introduced and allowed to get acclimatized for
2-3 days. Then the organic waste material is gradually introduced. As the earth

75 
 
worms get acclimatized and grow in number, their capacity increases dramatically.

For applications above 500 kg per day, it would be desirable to have permanent
masonry bins with a depth of 1m or less and width of 2m or less because majority of
the earthworm composting activity is handled manually for the precaution of not
injuring the earthworms by mechanical devices. If the depth or width is more than
2m, handling becomes very difficult. After about 8 weeks, harvesting is started by
carefully gathering the casts in cone form, wait for some time, giving the worms
enough time to move deeper – away from light. Vermicast (vermicompost) is
removed and screened if necessary.

In case more than 100 kg per day waste material is used for vermicomposting, it is
more practicable to pre-compost the organic material in windrows or heaps for 2-3
weeks and use the composted material for vermicomposting (as mentioned in the
example below for 2 TPD capacity).

In case of larger applications (50 TPD or above), it may be desirable to have a

combination of aerobic composting and vermicomposting, so that the operation is
more manageable. A schematic for the same is mentioned later in this chapter.

3.7.4 Design of typical vermicomposting plant of 2 TPD capacity

Process:

Pre-sorted organic material is unloaded into a platform, then stacked in windrow form
and allowed to be composted for 3 weeks with weekly turning. After 3 weeks, the
material is screened with a rotary screen with 16mm openings. Alternatively, vibro-
screen can be used with the same opening. Vermi-beds are prepared in the
meanwhile as mentioned above. The semi-composted (pre-composted) material is
fed into the vermi-beds.

Design calculation:

2 TPD = 4 m3 per day, 28 m3 per week.

The material is arranged in windrows of 3m wide base, 1.5m width at the top and
height of 1.5m; cross section of the windrows = 3.375 m2.

Length of windrows = 28 m3 ÷ 3.375 m2 = approx. 9 meter.

4 m3 3 m3 after 3 weeks 2 m3 after screening.
So pre-composted material to be put in vermi-bins = 2 m3 per day.

A suitable bin size is assumed as having 8m length, 1.5m width and 1m height. Of
the 1m height, about 20cm would be occupied with bedding material and earth worm
and top 30cm would be empty. Thus effective depth = 50cm / 0.5m.

76 
 
Effective volume of the vermi-bin = 8 X 1.5 X 0.5 = 6 m3.
This means one bin would be able to accommodate pre-composted material of 3
days.
For 45 days’ time required for vermi-composting of the pre-composted material, 15
bins would be required. These have been planned in 5 rows of three bins in each
row.
The bins should preferably be built with brick and mortar, to make it a stable
structure. Small holes should be provided at the bottom to act as drain for leachate.

The drawing is placed below. Add 10m peripheral space for road (along with drain)
and green belt. Total area = 44m X 64m = 2816 m2.

Equipment: Tractor with front end loader (one), Rotary screen, 16 mm opening (one).

Capital investment – Rs. 4.4 million

Drawing 3.4: Vermicompost plant 2 TPD capacity

77 
 
3.7.5 Combined aerobic windrow composting and vermi-composting
 

Aerobic windrow composting can also be combined with vermicomposting for city
level operations because vermicompost has good demand in Nepal and it
commands a better price.

Compared to aerobic compost, vermicompost has higher nutrient content and

aesthetic appeal. Application of fresh vermi-compost having cocoons leads to their
growing into earthworms in compatible soil environment. These grow up and keep
working in the soil, so that after some years, the requirement of fertilizer may be
reduced. In case compatible climate (particularly ambient temperature) is available at
the location, and there is good market prospect for vermi-compost, a combined cycle
(aerobic windrow composting and vermi-composting) can be planned with specific
production targets for both types. After sorting, the mixed waste can be composted
for 3 weeks. The partially stabilized composting mass is cooled back to ambient
temperature. A part of this mass is withdrawn into vermi-beds (as per design)
whereas the balance is shifted to the rain shed for further aerobic composting.

Mixed municipal solid waste (MSW)

Sorting

Sorted MSW

Composting in windrows for 3 weeks

___________________________

Vermi-beds Shift to rain shed

         6‐7 weeks               Further processing for compost

As indicated earlier (5 weeks)

Harvesting of
vermicast
(vermicompost) Compost

Harvesting of vermicompost is done by ‘coning’ under day light and gently removing the
vermicompost from the top. The earth worms collect at the bottom and are put back in the vermi-
beds. Vermicompost is left in the open to become touch-dry. Then it is screened and packed.

3.7.6 Factors influencing vermicomposting

is also a flexible technology provided certain minimum care is taken of the

earthworms. The following table lists the more important ones:

i. Selection of right kind of earthworm species.

78 
 
 ii. Avoidance of direct sunlight, shed of tree or preferably a built shed of
prefabricated design or palm fronds over bamboo structure.

iii. Moisture – extremely important. The worms die if moisture is not sufficient.

iv. Temperature – the temperature should be around 350C. Above 400C, the
worms may not survive. In this context also, shed over the vermi-bins and
adequate moisture have important roles.

v. Saving the worms from predators like ants, snakes, birds etc. Therefore
masonry bins are preferable.

79 
 
3.8 Setting up and operating composting facility

For setting up and operating any composting or vermicomposting facility, it is

necessary to do proper siting, proper planning and designing followed by good
construction. After commissioning, standard operating procedure must be followed
for producing quality compost, compliant with the regulation.

3.8.1 Siting of the composting plants: environmental and habitat issues

Careful selection of the site for composting is crucial – not only from the point of
smooth operation of the facility but also for avoiding objections from the surrounding
population. During discussion with the community level compost plants, it was
revealed that getting a suitable land on rent for setting up a compost facility is very
difficult, often driving them to fringe areas, where road access is pathetic, getting
power and water is an issue and the workers have to travel long distances to reach
the plant.

Therefore the following points need to be kept in consideration for selection of site
for community / entrepreneur level small facilities:

(a) No habitation (residential) within 100 meters from the selected site

(b) Good road access to facilitate transport of waste in mid-size tipper trucks /
dumper placers etc.

(c) Proper drainage of the area, no water logging

(d) Availability of natural / municipal / public drains, so that during rainy season,
there is no stagnation of run-off, which would lead to vector breeding.

For city level large facilities, the following points must be considered in
addition to the above:

(a) For facilities processing 100 tons per day or more, the minimum distance
should be 500 meters from habitation.

(b) The access road should be suitable for large tipper trucks / refuse compactors
/ dumper placers on larger chassis.

(c) Hydro-geological study to ensure structural safety of the civil structure and
avoidance of ground water pollution.

80 
 
 (d) Wind-rose study to indicate major direction of airflow, so that design of the
compost plant can be done in a way, which would minimize adverse effects of
any odour inconveniencing surrounding population.

(e) EIA study to ensure overall environmental issues and public convenience.

There should not be any regular airport – either civil or military, within 10 km of the
identified site so as to avoid any likely incidence of bird-hit menace to the aircrafts. In
case this is unavoidable due to non-availability of suitable site beyond 10 km, the
composting facility should be covered, so that birds are not attracted.

3.8.2 Steps involved in composting (common to different systems)

a. Select the composting system (bin / box / heap / windrow) according to the
quality and quantity of material to be composted, size of the facility and area
available.
b. Check the material for any non-biodegradable material such as plastics,
undesirable items like bottles, batteries etc. Remove them.

c. Shred if size is more than 5cm (2”) in length and 2.5cm (1”) in diameter.

d. In case more than one biodegradable material is involved, mix them for better
results.

e. In case of system with passive aeration (box / bin system), include some
structural material, which provides a porous matrix (wood chips, bamboo
chips, straw, leaf litter, coconut husk etc.).

f. In the beginning, mix with old compost or cattle manure or commercially

available inoculant (e.g., EM solution) to initiate and stimulate the process. If
these are not mixed then the initial stage of composting takes more time.

g. Place in the chosen system as per (a) above.

h. Fresh feeding (addition of new raw material) is done either daily or in batch
mode, as per planning.

i. Turning is done in case of heap / windrows, preferably once in a week.

j. In case of aerobic systems (heap / windrow), daily measurement of

temperature is advisable as it gives indication of progress of the composting
process.

81 
 
 k. After the due time (normally 2-3 months) the material is inspected for
consistency, moisture and odour and then removed, allowed to be dried in the
open for 2-3 days as required (free-flowing) and then screened and bagged.
Screening through 4-5mm screen is advisable so that any remaining
undesirable material would be removed from the final product.

3.8.3 Operation and maintenance: issues and precautions

In addition to what has been mentioned in the process-flow and the lists of
equipment, it is crucial to follow the below mentioned points for efficient and
environment friendly operation:

 Cleanliness of the whole premises is important.

 Proper drainage of the compost platform and the surrounding area are
important for keeping vector breeding under control.

 Leachate should be recirculated for better results but any excess leachate
must be collected and treated in a proper leachate treatment plant. Earlier
methods of making a leachate pond and let it get naturally oxidised, is not
very efficient. It is better to go for a packaged plant based on sequencing
batch reaction (SBR) or other modern technologies.

 Regular turning is necessary for not only better stabilization but also
controlling odour and maintaining the necessary oxygen level (important for
CDM). Normally once a week is adequate but during rainy season the interval
may be reduced to 5 days.

 Regular cleaning and servicing of all the equipment, especially the trommels
are essential for their uninterrupted operation, lower maintenance and
replacement cost and longer life.

3.9 Marketing

In the modern times, whatever be the merchandise, marketing efforts are required
for steady sale. Fortunately in this case, there is a favourable demand supply gap for
marketing of compost in Nepal. Supply of chemical fertilizer is in deficit. Production
of compost is meagre as there is no large compost plant. The small capacity of
household composting and community level composting cannot generate enough
compost for filling the gap. So whatever is produced, is expected to be easily sold,

82 
 
provided users are aware about the address of the producers, are assured of quality
and the price is affordable.

The following steps would step up production of quality compost and create better
market prospects:

o Appropriate policy to support composting at three levels – household,

community and city level.

o Quality control norms – notification and strict implementation of quality

standards to create confidence amongst buyers. Quality assurance system
seems to have played an important role in ensuring positive impact on
marketing of compost in some countries. Producers would be interested in
QCQA when they get an edge in marketing with quality products.

o Registration of the compost producers with Agriculture Inputs Company Ltd.

(AICL).

o The associations and other bodies of compost producers (such as, Solid
Waste Management Association of Nepal) should encourage their members
to follow quality standards and further try to put in place a mechanism for
voluntary quality assurance program.

o These associations should organise awareness camps for farmers in

collaboration with NGOs working in the area.

o Segregation at source and appropriate arrangement for separate collection of

segregated streams.

o Setting up large city level compost plant at every city under the local body /
municipality, to produce sizeable quantity of compost, which can cover at
least a small part of the demand.

o Awareness generation amongst the end users about the benefit of using
compost and vermicompost through extensive agricultural extension activity.
Extensive testing of soils in the farms followed by advice about fertilizer and
compost / vermicompost application would also encourage the farmers.

o Availability of good quality compost, which can win the confidence of the
farmer community, is crucial.

83 
 
3.10 Quality control and quality assurance (QCQA)

The importance of quality control and quality assurance stem from the fact that the
potential users would be more convinced of the value of the compost material they
intend to purchase when they are assured of its quality, in other words when they are
aware of a quality control and quality assurance system in place. Quality control is
all the more required because compost is a recycled product from waste materials.
Chances of contamination can be there.

The issues are:

o Compost producers need a quality assurance system with continuous internal

(voluntary) and external (regulatory) control to standardize the production of
compost that meets the necessary standards.

o In this way compost would be regarded and sold as a useful and harmless
product.

o Regular monitoring of process parameters, temperature, moisture,

homogenisation, oxygen, regular turning / aeration etc. would give indication
of good compost processing.

o Continuous tracking of batches enables traceability of products back to input

supply, ensuring that checks on input materials becomes possible in case of
sub-standard products being produced or worse, reaching the market.

o This exercise inculcates a sense of seriousness of the QAQC issue amongst

the workers and supervisors in a processing facility.

84 
 
3.11 Recommendations for Nepal

Organic compost has a very important role in a country where there is no production
facility for chemical fertilizers. For all round development of the sector, the following
steps need to be taken:

 To develop a sound policy for building a strong support structure for the
composting sector.

 Notification of regulation for organic compost and vermicompost.

 Working out a strong implementation mechanism for the regulations including

involvement of all the stakeholders and awareness creation.

 To promote segregation of waste at source followed by dedicated collection

and transportation for the different fractions.

 Develop the composting segment at different levels – household, community

level and city level.

 Old composting facilities, which are either not functioning properly or closed
altogether, need to be assessed for the causes of the failure. This should be
followed by attempts to revive them, with modifications in design if called for.
This would partially save the investment made during setting up of the old
plant. This would also give valuable input about the experiences of failure.

 Efforts should be made to set up infrastructure for supporting large

composting facilities in metropolitan areas, especially, Kathmandu. One
composite facility for composting plus RDF (refuse derived fuel) / SRF (solid
residual fuel) may be planned for the whole of Kathmandu valley, which would
be able to process waste from different sources in the area.

85 
 
 Chapter 4

Compost Quality Standard

for

Nepal

86 
 
 4.1 Preamble
Given the predominantly agrarian nature of Nepal’s economy, its concern for food
security and absence of any chemical fertilizer factory, availability of organic
compost is of great importance. However, a strong quality control and quality
assurance system for composting of organic waste is important for the following
reasons:

a) Safeguarding public health through appropriate technological interventions

(safeguarding food crops from contamination, especially heavy metals),

b) Minimizing any adverse impact on the environment and

c) Building up a strong and stable composting industry sector, which has the
confidence of the users, especially farmers.

Development of quality standards is an evolving process and often the development

happens in stages spread over years. Before working out compost standards for
Nepal, it would be desirable to look at the standards of other developing countries in
the region and the sequence of their development.

4.2 Objectives

(a) To work out a realistic set of quality standards for Nepal taking into account
the notified standard for registration with the Ministry of Agriculture and the
development of similar standards in other developing countries in Asia.

(b) Quality standards for both aerobic compost and vermicompost would be
pertinent for Nepal because both are being produced.

(c) To take a balanced approach. The quality standards should be adequate for
safeguarding human and animal food chain but at the same time should not
be too stringent to limit implementation.

(d) To develop a support system for facilitating and strengthening quality control
and quality assurance system in Nepal.

87 
 
4.3 Compost quality standards of other developing countries in
Asia

In the following pages, compost standards of different developing countries have

been sited. Some of them have a long history of evolution and are therefore
somewhat more elaborate. India is currently having its 3rd regulation for compost
quality. Sri Lanka has added the biological and micro-biological parameters, which
are very relevant for manual application related problems as well, because the
farmers generally do not use protective gear. Others are still in the process of
developing and lack similar details and specificities.

4.3.1 Sri Lanka:

Title: Standard Specifications for Compost from Municipal Solid Waste and
Agricultural Waste (SLS 1246: 2003)

4.3.2 Thailand:

Title: Organic Composting Standards, 2005

The Organic Compost Standard was issued by the Department of Agriculture in

June, 2005. In the standards for Thailand, the screen size (12.5 x 12.5 mm) is on the
larger side and may not be able to remove small sized contraries. The permitted
moisture content is also quite high, which may affect keeping properties. Also the
percentage of various nutrients would actually be less on dry weight basis.

4.3.3 Bangladesh:

Title: Compost (Organic Fertilizer) Standard, 2008 of Bangladesh (under Fertilizer

act 2006).

Organic carbon and nitrogen have been provided as a wide range, which dilutes the
standards.

4.3.4 India:

Title: Fertilizer (Control) Third Amendment Order, 2009

In India, the evolution of compost quality specifications has been a gradual process.
These were first mentioned in the ‘Municipal Solid Waste (Management and
Handling) Rules, 2000’, in which some of the parameters were somewhat flexible but
strong emphasis was put on controlling presence of heavy metals in the compost. In
the next phase, the specifications were made more stringent in the ‘Fertilizer
(Control) Amendment Order, 2006’.

88 
 
However, some of the operators of compost plants felt that the specifications,
especially minimum percentage of organic carbon was too high, more so because
mixed municipal solid waste was predominantly collected and made available to the
processing plants. In the 3rd amendment (mentioned in the comparative table below),
organic carbon was lowered from 16% to 12%, phosphates and potash were lowered
marginally, whereas nitrogen was increased from 0.5% to 0.8%.

4.3.4.1 Tolerance Limit for organic compost (India):

The sum total of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium nutrients should not be less
than 1.5 % in the case of city compost.

4.3.4.2 Indian experience on quality assurance issues:

 Difficult to achieve the prescribed standards when mixed municipal solid

waste is delivered to the compost plants.

 Efforts to implement segregation at source followed by separate collection has

had very limited success so far.

 The final yield goes down due to more elaborate processing regime for
achieving FCO quality from mixed waste, whereas the amount of process
reject goes up.

 Inspite of the above constraints, large plants operated by sincere operators

are able to produce quality compost, compliant with the regulations.

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), the National Environmental

Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) and the Indian Agricultural Research
Institute (IARI) conducted a study entitled ‘Characterization of MSW Compost and its
Application in Agriculture’, 2006 involving 7 compost plants across India. The study
also involved application of compost and sewage sludge in agriculture. Since
presence and effect of heavy metals was of prime concern, they analysed the
samples for heavy metal content and also verified the TCLP (Toxicity Characteristic
Leaching Procedure). Interestingly, the TCLP values of heavy metals were much
less than the analytical values of compost analysis. For example for Bangalore, the
analytical value of lead was 247.92 mg/kg (TCLP 4.77 mg/kg) and for Ahmedabad
125.95 mg/kg (TCLP 3.42 mg/kg). The other parameters were more in order with
some exceptions.

From the above findings it would appear that compost quality standard needs to be
further looked into on the basis of a scientific database comprising compost quality
from many more plants, soil profile, impact of compost on different types of soil,
TCLP studies and impact on human health. Since creation of such database and

89 
 
other studies and deliberations would take years, it would be prudent to take a
conscious decision to apply the notified standards in the intervening time.

90 
 
 Table 4.1: Standard specifications for compost in some Asian countries
Compost Quality Standards

Sl. Characteristics Sri Lanka (2003) Thailand (2005) Bangladesh (2008) India (2009)
No.

(A) Physical requirements

1 Colour Brown/grey to dark black – Dark grey to black Dark brown to black

2 Keeping properties Not less than 12 months – – –

at room temperature

3 Moisture (% by weight) Should not be >25% (dry  35% Maximum 15% 15-25
basis)

4 Odour Should not have any – Absence of foul Absence of foul

unpleasant odour odour odour

5 Particle size Should not leave residue  12.5x12.5 mm Physical condition – Minimum 90%
>2%, when passed non-granular form material should pass
through 4mm standard through 4.0 mm IS
sieve sieve

6 Sand / inert content Should not be >10%  2% Maximum 1% –

7 Plastics, glass, metal –  0.01% – –

Bulk density – – – <1

91 
 
 (B) Nutrient Requirement

1 pH 6.5-8.5 5.5-8.5 6.0-8.5 6.5-7.5

2 Electrical conductivity (as – 5 – 4

dsm-1), not more than

3 Completion of digestion – ≥ 80% – –

4 Organic carbon % 20 Organic matter 10-25 Minimum 12

by mass, minimum 30% 
 
5 Nitrogen (N) % 1.0 1.0% 0.5-4.0 0.8
by mass, minimum

6 Phosphorus (as P2O5) % 0.5 0.5% 0.5-1.5 0.4

by mass, minimum

7 Potassium (as K2O) % 1.0 0.5% 1.0-3.0 0.4

by mass, minimum

8 Magnesium % 0.5 – – –
by mass, minimum

9 Calcium % 0.7 – – –
by mass, minimum

10 Sulphur % – – 0.1-0.5 –
by mass, minimum

92 
 
 11 C: N ratio 10-25  20:1 Maximum 20:1 < 20:1

(C) Biological Requirements

1 Number of viable weed Should not contain more – – –

seeds than 16 viable weed
seeds per square
meter@@

(D) Microbiological Requirement

1 Faecal coliform Per gram – free – – –

2 Salmonella Per 25 gram – free – – –

3 Pathogens – – – Nil

(E) Heavy Metals

1 Arsenic (ppm) maximum – 50 – 10

2 Cadmium (ppm) maximum 10 5 5 5

3 Chromium (ppm) maximum 1000 300 50 50

4 Copper (ppm) maximum 400 500 0.05% 300

93 
 
 5 Lead (ppm) maximum 250 500 30 100

6 Mercury (ppm) maximum 02 02 – 0.15

7 Nickel (ppm) maximum 100 – 30 50

8 Zinc (ppm) maximum 1000 – 0.1% 1000

 
@@
One litre compost in a propagation tray of 20X20X5 cm size maintained at 80-90% moisture content level for 4 weeks. 

94 
 
Standard for vermicompost (India):

India has notified a quality standard for vermicompost (2006, 2009) also, which is
rather rare.

Table 4.2: Vermicompost standard (FCO, 2009, India)

Sl. Criteria Value

No.

1 Moisture per cent by weight 15.0-25.0

2 Colour Dark brown to black

3 Odour Absence of foul odour

4 Particle size Minimum 90% material

should pass through 4.0
mm IS sieve
5 Bulk density 0.7-0.9

6 Total organic carbon, per cent by weight, 18.0

minimum
7 Total Nitrogen (as N), per cent by weight, 1.0
minimum
8 Total phosphates (as P2O5), per cent by weight, 0.8
minimum
9 Total Potash (as K2O), per cent by weight, 0.8
minimum
10 Heavy metal content (as mg/kg) by weight,
Maximum:

Cadmium (as Cd)

Chromium (as Cr) 5.00
Nickel (as Ni) 50.00
Lead (as Pb) 50.00
100.00

Tolerance Limit for vermicompost:

The sum total of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium nutrients should not be less
than 2.5 % in the case of vermi-compost.

95 
 
4.4 Existing standard for registration with the Ministry of
Agriculture (Nepal)
The Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Nepal has issued Organic and Biological
Fertilizer Regulation Procedure, 2068 (2011) and Organic Fertilizer Grant Guideline,
2068 (2011), which contains organic compost standard.

Table 4.4.1: Organic compost Standard for Registration in the Ministry$$

Sl. Criteria Value

No.

1 Minimum Nitrogen (oven dry basis) N % 1.5

2 Minimum Phosphorus (oven dry basis) P2O5 % 0.5

3 Minimum Potash (oven dry basis) K2O % 1.5

4 Moisture (oven dry basis) % 20-30

5 Organic Carbon (oven dry basis) % 10-20

6 Carbon: Nitrogen Ratio (C: N) Maximum 20: 1

7 pH 6.5-7.5

8 Colour Dark Brown

9 Odour Free from other

smell, humic smell

10 Pathogens Nil

11 Mesh size (mm) 12.5 X 12.5

12 Heavy Metals:

Arsenic (As) mg/kg Maximum 10

Cadmium (Cd) mg/kg 5-10
Chromium (Cr) mg/kg Maximum 50
Lead (Pb) mg/kg Maximum 100
Mercury (Hg) mg/kg Maximum 02

$$
Organic and biological Waste Control Manual, 2068 and Organic compost Subsidy
Guideline, 2068 (2011 AD)

96 
 
During discussions with different stakeholders, it emerged that a broad-based
standard for organic compost is required to do justice to the massive effort of the
Government for expanding composting activity in Nepal. Also there is a need for a
standard for vermicompost. Analyses of available compost and vermicompost
samples would also be required for this purpose.

4.4.1. Analytical results:

Results of analyses of macro-nutrients (N, P, K) of aerobic as well as vermicompost

samples from different parts of Nepal (Central Laboratory, Soil Management Directorate,
Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperative, Government of Nepal):

Table 4.4.2: Compost analysis (N, P, K)

Total Total
Compost Sample&& Nitrogen Phosphorus K as
as N % as P2O5 % K2 O %

Vermicompost

Sample No. 1 1.95 2.32 1.65

Sample No. 2 1.58 1.81 1.57

Sample No. 3 1.50 2.25 1.86

Sample No. 4 1.49** 0.70 1.54

Sample No. 5 0.72** 0.47** 0.89**

Sample No. 6 1.60 0.69 1.53

Aerobic compost

Sample No. 1 0.22** 0.47** 0.29**

Sample No. 2 0.86** 0.50 0.95**

Sample No. 3 0.51** 0.35** 0.81**

Sample No. 4 0.86** 0.50 0.95**

Sample No. 5 0.43** 0.48** 0.29**

&&
The vermicompost samples were from Nepalganj, Birganj, Dhangarhi, Birat Nagar
and the aerobic compost samples were from Bhaktapur, Kathmandu, Nuwa Kot
and Kirtipur.

97 
 
** Values not in compliance with the existing standard

It is seen that 33% of the vermicompost samples failed, whereas the results were
bleak from compliance point of view in the case of aerobic compost. Although the
number of samples is very small, a trend can be seen. During discussion, it emerged
that on an average, a little over 50% samples fail the notified standard, especially in
the case of aerobic composting.

4.5 Raw materials for composting in Nepal

Selection of raw materials for composting is a very pertinent issue, which would have
direct impact on the quality of compost. Picking up only dedicated waste, such as,
from fruit and vegetable markets, should largely ensure that bio-medical waste and
industrial waste are kept out of the composting stream. However, presence of
pesticides can not be entirely ruled out as it would depend on their use in the farm on
the vegetable or fruit plants. Presence of e-waste is also likely to be negligible.

Composting activity in Nepal at present comprises small scale facilities run by

NGOs, small private companies and households. A mix of different materials, such
as, segregated kitchen waste, waste from vegetable and fruit markets, waste from
hotels etc. is composted along with leaf litter, animal manure, poultry litter, rice husk
etc. Vermicomposting is also being practised in Nepal at household as well as small
scale community based or private company operated plants. There are no large
scale operational compost plants in Nepal at present.

Ideally inputs (substrate) for organic composting should be sourced from the
following:

i. Source segregated organic waste, such as, kitchen waste, garden /

horticultural waste, segregated waste from vegetable and fruit markets etc.

ii. Agricultural and dairy waste.

One specific material of interest is municipal solid waste, which is increasing in

quantity everywhere. Thus they not only provide a significant quantity of bio-
degradable material for conversion into useful compost, but also provide substantial
reduction in the quantity of material diverted into the landfills. In this case quality
standard for compost is more relevant because of variation (different food habits,
economic strata, collection mechanism etc.) in the quality of MSW coming to or
delivered to the plant. However, a sound quality control and assurance system would
have to be put in place.

98 
 
Appropriate steps should be taken for segregation at source, separate collection of
dust and debris from street sweeping, bio-medical waste, industrial waste, e-waste,
construction and demolition debris etc. so that less contaminated organic waste can
be sent for composting stream. Such efforts would definitely pay dividends in the
long run and therefore should be implemented with appropriate planning.

It may be suggested that large composting plants having proper in-plant segregation
facility be considered under large municipal corporations through PPP if felt
necessary. Small to medium composting plants can source dedicated waste. At the
same time emphasis be put on segregation at source followed by separate collection
and transportation. At present the Government is already putting a lot of importance
to this aspect.

Another source which may be considered is waste from food processing industry,
which is not contaminated (to be used only after adequate laboratory analyses).

4.6 Proposed quality standards for compost and vermicompost

for Nepal
(Draft for consideration of the Government of Nepal)

4.6.1. Title:

This document may be called “Compost Quality Standards for Nepal”

Note: The final name would be absolutely the prerogative of the Government of Nepal. The proposed
standard would finally be as per approval of the Government. One suggested title from the Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of Nepal – “Organic Fertilizer (Compost) Standard”.

4.6.2. Definitions:

Sl. Word Definition

No.
Consent given by the authorized Government Body or
1 Authorization designated representative thereof to carry out the defined job
described therein

Agricultural Waste material generated from agricultural activity or agro-

2 waste industry residues, e.g., straw, husk, tree pruning etc.

Substance (s) which is (are) amenable to fermentation /

3 Bio- degradation / stabilization by microbial agents (bacteria,
degradable fungi, actinomycetes etc.).

99 
 
 A managed process in which organic material (bio-
4 Composting degradable) is stabilized through microbial bio-oxidation. The
thermophilic phase within the aerobic composting process is
necessary for pasteurization of the material.

‘Class A’ – compost which is compliant with the compost

5 Compost $$ quality regulation, can be used for food crops
category
‘Class B’ – compost not compliant with the regulation, can
not be used for food crops but can be used for non-food
application, such as, landfill cover, landscaping etc.
$$
Essentially, this is one category (Class ‘A’). The Ministry of
Agriculture had suggested only one category for better
chance of implementation. ‘Class B’ denotes non-compliant
compost which would not be eligible for subsidy.

Vermicompost does not normally face such problems.

Waste generated in the domestic, commercial (markets,

6 Municipal solid hotels, restaurants etc.) and institutional segments (office
waste complexes, schools, colleges, hospitals excluding bio-
medical waste), common areas (parks, public spaces etc.),
animal manure and street sweepings – in solid or semi-solid
form.

Compost made from raw materials, which may include

7 Organic materials of biological origin (plant, animal) such as food
compost waste, horticultural waste, fruit / vegetable / meat / fish
market waste, chemically unprocessed minerals etc. (such
as, rock phosphate),

The process of authentication of the facility run by an

8 Registration operator (NGO, CBO, private company), which would ensure
standard operating procedure and produce material in
compliance with applicable quality standards. This would be
done in a time bound manner – initially for one year, to be
renewed on yearly basis subject to appropriate inspection of
the premises and sampling of the compost produced for
quality check. Valid registration would be a pre-condition for
consideration of any assistance from the Government or the
Local Body.

Inspection of the composting premises would be carried out

9 Sampling by by authorized persons ‘Inspectors’, who would check the
Inspectors premises for compliance requirements and take samples of
the product (compost) in the presence of authorized
representative of the compost plant. The event would be

100 
 
 documented in the presence of both sides and the samples
sealed before being sent to authorised laboratories.

This is another method of composting in which earth worms

10 Vermi- are employed to ingest the organic waste as their food and
composting excrete the vermi-compost as their ‘cast’. The necessary
digestion / stabilization take place in the gut of the worms. In
this case, the earth worms manage the different set of
microbes within their bodies. Vermi-composting is normally
carried out with source-segregated organic waste.

4.6.3. Standard for aerobic compost

Keeping in view the above considerations, the following quality standards for aerobic
compost is proposed.

Table 4.6.1: Standard Parameters for aerobic compost:

Sl.
No. Parameters / Criteria Standard / Value

(A) Physical parameters

1 Moisture (range)** 15.0-25.0 %

2 Colour Dark (brown / grey)

3 Odour Light musty humic odour, free

from any foul odour

4 Bulk density Maximum 1.0 gm/cm3

5 Particle size Minimum 90% should pass

through 4mm standard sieve&&

6 Sand / inert material content (by weight) Maximum 10%

(B) Chemical parameters and macro-nutrients

1 pH (range) 6.5 – 8.5$

2 Conductivity^^ Maximum 4.0 dsm-1

3 Organic carbon (by weight) Minimum 14%

101 
 
 4 Total Nitrogen (as N) (by weight) Minimum 1.0%

5 C : N ratio Maximum 20 : 1

6 Total Phosphate (as P2O5) (by weight) Minimum 0.5%

7 Total Potash (as K2O) (by weight) Minimum 0.5%

(C) Heavy metals

1 Arsenic (as As2O3) (by weight) Maximum 10 mg/kg (ppm)

2 Cadmium (as Cd) (by weight) Maximum 05 mg/kg (ppm)

3 Chromium (as Cr) (by weight) Maximum 50 mg/kg (ppm)

4 Copper (as Cu) (by weight) Maximum 300 mg/kg (ppm)

5 Mercury (as Hg) Maximum 0.15 mg/kg (ppm)

6 Nickel (as Ni) Maximum 50 mg/kg (ppm)

7 Lead (as Pb) Maximum 100 mg/kg (ppm)

8 Zinc (as Zn) Maximum 1000 mg/kg (ppm)

(D) Microbiological parameters

1 Salmonella## Absent

2 Faecal coliforms## Absent

___________________________________________________________________

** A range has been kept for moisture because a minimum level of moisture is required for
maintaining biological activity.
&&
4mm sieve is recommended to remove physical contaminants, such as small pieces of glass,
metal, plastics etc.
$
Upper range of pH is kept at 8.5 because in many places in Nepal, the soil is slightly acidic.

^^ dSm-1: deci-Siemens per meter – standard unit of electrical conductivity

102 
 
##
Salmonella and faecal coliforms are currently used as indicators of pathogen contamination and
incomplete composting process (Fertilizers Act and Regulations, Canada, July 2009).
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

4.6.4. Standard for vermicompost:

Separate standard for vermi-compost is relatively rare. However there is a felt need
for such standards (Clive Edwards and Jean Steele, ‘Biocycle’, July 1997, pages 63-64). The
nutrient content in vermicompost is higher than the aerobic compost, prepared from
similar materials. Therefore, there is a need for a separate standard for
vermicompost. Very few countries, such as, India, have separate standard for vermi-
compost.

Table 4.6.2: Standard Parameters for vermicompost:

Sl.
No. Parameters / Criteria Standard / Value

(A) Physical parameters

1 Moisture (range) 15.0-25.0 %

2 Colour Dark (brown / grey)

3 Odour Light musty humic odour, free

from any foul odour

4 Bulk density Maximum 0.9 gm/cm3

5 Particle size Minimum 90% should pass

through 4mm standard sieve

6 Sand / inert material content (by weight) Maximum 05%

(B) Chemical parameters and macro-nutrients

1 pH (range) (optional) 7.0 – 8.0

2 Conductivity (optional) Maximum 4.0 dsm-1

3 Organic carbon (by weight) Minimum 18%

4 Total Nitrogen (as N) (by weight) Minimum 1.0%

103 
 
 5 C : N ratio (optional) Maximum 20 : 1

6 Total Phosphate (as P2O5) (by weight) Minimum 0.8%

7 Total Potash (as K2O) (by weight) Minimum 0.8%

(C) Heavy metals

1 Arsenic (as As2O3) (by weight) (optional) Maximum 10 mg/kg (ppm)

2 Cadmium (as Cd) (by weight) Maximum 05 mg/kg (ppm)

3 Chromium (as Cr) (by weight) Maximum 50 mg/kg (ppm)

4 Mercury (as Hg) (optional) Maximum 0.15 mg/kg (ppm)

5 Nickel (as Ni) Maximum 50 mg/kg (ppm)

6 Lead (as Pb) Maximum 100 mg/kg (ppm)

(D) Microbiological parameters

1 Salmonlla Absent

2 Faecal coliforms Absent

Note: As per international practice, if faecal matter of human, animal or bird origin is
used in vermicomposting, the material should be pre-composted aerobically for
destruction of pathogens (minimum residence of 3 days at 600C or more).
Alternatively the vermicompost can be sanitized after it is harvested. But the former
method is preferable.

4.6.5. Applicability:

These standards would be applicable for the compost material in the following
circumstances:

i. The compost material is sold in the market or more than one ton is
distributed free.
ii. The above conditions would be applicable for households also.
iii. The compost is registered with the Ministry of Agriculture for subsidy.

104 
 
In view of the shortage of fertilizer in Nepal, organic compost has to play a very
important role. Therefore the aim should be to make aerobic compost as well as
vermicompost safe enough for unrestricted application on food crops.

4.6.6. Sampling Process:

An effective method of sampling should lead to dependable and replicable results.

For this a number of samples have to be picked up. For a consignment of compost
over one ton, at least ten grab samples should be collected from different locations
and depth of the heap. Then these are thoroughly mixed and the requisite amount
packed and sealed. It is always better to take at least two such composite samples
from different locations and depths of the heap.

In case the sampling is done for inspection purpose by a Government Inspector, the
authorized representative of the operator of the facility should be present during
sampling and sealing of the sampling bag.

4.6.7. Eligibility for subsidy from the Ministry of Agriculture

Only those lots of compost and vermicompost would be eligible for subsidy, which
comply with the Government approved standards and are registered with the
Ministry.

4.6.8. Non-compliant compost (Class ‘B’):

Any sample which fails compliance with the approved standards, should not be
allowed to be used for food crops. Such compost / bio-fertilizer may be classified as
Class ‘B’ and used for non-food application, e.g., landscaping, landfill cover etc.
Class ‘B’ compost would not be eligible for Government subsidy.

4.6.9. Need for review:

The quality standards should be reviewed after every five years to accommodate any
changes felt necessary on the basis of actual experience and advancement in the
sector. Analytical Results of large number of samples should be reviewed (minimum
100 per year spread across different seasons) for the intervening 5 years
continuously. It has to be ensured that the sampling is done properly (as mentioned
above) and the analyses be done at the Central Laboratory at Kathmandu or an
equivalent one. These results would give an appropriate direction for review of the
quality standards once in five years.

105 
 
4.7 Support structure for quality control and quality assurance

A strong support structure for quality control and quality assurance is essential
involving:

- Notification of the relevant quality standard regulations

- Official apparatus for monitoring quality control
- Adequate laboratory facilities for facilitating quality check in a transparent
manner
- R&D for improvement in the overall system.

4.7.1 Laboratory facilities and R&D:

Adequate number of well-equipped and dependable laboratories is essential for wide

implementation of composting projects. There is one Central Laboratory in
Kathmandu, which may be upgraded to a ‘Central Referral Laboratory’ with 2-3
regional level laboratories and one district level laboratory at each district
headquarter under the Ministry of Agriculture.

These laboratories can provide facilities for soil testing, analysis of irrigation water as
well as compost analysis. Dependable testing facility at affordable cost is an
essential tool for quality assurance. The district level laboratories can also serve as
agricultural extension centres.

Agricultural institutions and universities in Nepal are taking interest in agricultural

production and various related aspects as is evident from increasing number of
published research papers and studies. Students from universities and experts from
a number of institutions in Europe have done commendable work in Nepal including
dissertations. The Government of Nepal can consider directing some of these efforts
to specific issues in fertilizer production and application, which is crucial for food
security:

i. Long term analysis of different organic substances, which may be made

available for composting in different parts of the country, including agricultural
and municipal waste, in different seasons for (a) nutrients and (b)
contaminants such as pesticides and disinfectants, toxic chemicals, heavy
metals, e-waste etc.

ii. Application and advantage of TCLP (Toxicity Characteristic Leaching

Procedure) based monitoring of the heavy metal concentration in compost
should be explored along with parallel studies of accumulation and uptake of
the heavy metals, particularly when municipal solid waste is used.

106 
 
 iii. Ideal combination of chemical fertilizer mix with organic compost for various
soil profiles across Nepal for crop-specific applications. This would help in
finding out the best possible supplementation as well as substitution of
chemical fertilizers with organic compost.

107 
 
 Chapter 5

Conclusion and
Recommendation

108 
 
As a predominantly agricultural nation, fertilizers have a very important role to play in
Nepal. But the country does not have any plant for production of chemical fertilizers.
So it has to depend on imports from neighbouring countries. Use of chemical
fertilizers in Nepal is still low (25 kg per hectare) compared to other countries in
South Asia. Organic compost can provide a big support by at least partially bridging
the gap and at the same time improve soil health with the addition of humus and
micro-nutrients.

Composting also provides a viable and sustainable way of processing bio-

degradable waste material, which in turn brings in cleanliness, improves environment
and reduces greenhouse gases.

Composting has been done traditionally in farms all over the world. However, the
trend has changed fast with the arrival of chemical fertilizers. In the developing
countries inadequate facility for soil testing and faulty irrigation system has
compounded the problem.

Thus Nepal can gain significantly by supporting composting in a big way. All the
stakeholders – farmers, horticulturists, community, Government Agencies, NGOs,
CBOs and private companies – have to play their respective roles in a concerted
manner.

Apart from a number of important issues, the following can contribute to the growth
of the composting sector:

(a) Standard practice and bench marking for composting, which necessitates
appropriate guidelines and
(b) Appropriate quality standards for composting and vermicomposting.

5.1 Recommendations:

At present composting is happening at household and community levels and small

scale efforts only by a few municipal bodies. Strong efforts have to be made for
setting up city level compost plants, which would provide substantial quantity of
compost for boosting agricultural productivity and at the same time, clean up the
cities. The following need to be done:

1. Supporting and propagating segregation of waste at source, followed by

segregated collection and transportation to the respective processing /
disposal facilities.

2. This activity would reduce the infrastructure needed for processing plants,
thus reducing the extent of capital investment. At the same time the chances
of contamination, especially with heavy metals would drastically reduce.

109 
 
 3. Composting at household level needs to be promoted for citizens who have
genuine interest in doing their own composting. With awareness generation,
this trend would definitely increase.

4. Composting at small scale by NGOs, CBOs and entrepreneurs would also

contribute very meaningfully to the disposal of various organic waste
materials, especially at urban fringe areas.

5. For large compost plants handling 300 TPD and above, production of refuse
derived fuel (RDF) would lead to better use of the dry waste and provide
additional revenue stream. Lalitpur Sub-metropolitan City is making a plan
for making RDF with a capacity of 30 TPD.

6. Aerobic windrow composting and aerated static pile composting can be done
in hilly and mountainous regions of Nepal also but the time required would
be more.

7. Finally, quality control and quality assurance is crucial for not only generating
good market demand but also safeguarding our food chain and consequently
health of human beings and animals.

8. Any lot of Organic Fertilizer (Compost), which is not compliant with the
Government approved standard, would not be eligible for Government
subsidy.

9. With lapse of time, as experience grows and feedback accumulates, there

may be need for modifications – both in the guideline and in the quality
standards. Therefore there should be provision for review of both these
documents after every five years. If an urgent need arises for any
modification, it should be addressed through adequate consultation process.

5.2 Recommended Composting Systems for Nepal

(A) Small compost plants (up to 10 TPD)

Sl. System / Technology Level of operation Scale of Whether

No. operation existing in
(TPD) Nepal

1 Bin composting Household 1-10 kg Yes

(80-100 litre volume ) per day

2 Vermicomposting (using Household 1-2 kg per Yes

110 
 
 vermi-bins, cartons etc.) day

3 Box type (batch feeding Community Upto 2 tons Only upto 1

type) – multiple boxes per day ton per day

4 Vermicomposting Community / private Upto 2 tons Upto 0.5

enterprise per day tons per day
average

5 Aerobic windrow City level Up to 10 $$$

composting tons per day

$$$ - small to medium scale compost plants were tried at Bharatpur, Kathmandu etc. but these
were not successful due to inferior quality of product and financial constraints.

(B) Medium size compost plants

Sl. System / Technology Level of operation Scale of Whether

No. operation existing in
(TPD) Nepal

1 Aerobic windrow City level 10-50 TPD No

composting

2 Aerated static pile City level 10-50 TPD No

composting

3 Vermicomposting City level 5-10 TPD No

(C) Larger compost plants (above 50 TPD capacity)

In addition to composting activity at household and community level, cities would still
need large compost plants to process their municipal solid waste and reduce space
requirement at the sanitary landfill. These plants may vary in size from 50 to 500
TPD. These can be either of the following types:

I. Aerobic windrow composting (with turning of windrow). In case of 300 TPD

and above, production of RDF should also be included as explained in
chapter 3.

II. Aerated static pile composting system for better control and for saving diesel
(yard management equipment – refer Chapter 3) and land space. This system
requires less diesel but additional electrical power compared to aerobic
windrow composting. It is a tricky situation. Both diesel and electrical power
are in short supply in Nepal. So at the time of planning such project, the

111 
 
 relative availability and price of electrical power and diesel should be kept in
consideration for taking a decision.

5.3 Recommendations for marketing

The way of marketing would depend upon the size of production and quality of
product:

 Compost manufacturers with a certain minimum production capacity are

eligible to participate in the procurement tender from the Agriculture Inputs
Co. Ltd. (last year’s condition was minimum 500 TPY production).

 The quality has to be as per the notification of the Agricultural Ministry for
subsidy / grant (refer Chapter 4).

 Smaller manufacturers should approach the farmers’ cooperatives.

 Household producers may approach the dedicated shops, which sell

commodity for agricultural, horticultural and floriculture activities.

 Some compost producers have found that the word of mouth is very effective
as a tool for publicity.

5.4 Recommendations for KMC and surrounding VDCs

(A) Facilities at Teku Transfer Station:

112 
 
5.4.1 Revival of the vermicompost plant, Teku

The vermicompost plant at Teku can be revived with the following modifications:

a. Cleaning up of the whole area.

b. Construction of an impermeable concrete surface around the vermi-beds with

appropriate gradient and surface drain, so that there is no stagnation of rain
water or leachate in the vicinity of the facility.

c. Checking and repair of the leachate collection traps.

d. Extension of the roof by one meter on all the four sides, so that the vermi-
beds are saved from direct sun and rain. Preferably a louver should be fixed
on the side from which sun rays come from noon time to afternoon.

e. On the adjacent concreted area, a platform for composting should be

earmarked, where segregated domestic waste and waste from vegetable /
fruit market would be composted in open windrow for 3 weeks. The windrows
would be turned once every week.

f. Initially, the plant can be started with 0.5 TPD waste and gradually increased
to 1.5-2 TPD over a period of one year.

g. Preferably a shed should be built over this windrow area for keeping out rain,
winter frost and better control of moisture.

h. The semi-composted material would be screened through a rotary screen with

16 mm perforations. The rotary screen should not have a central shaft and
would be driven from outside. The material passing through the screen (<16
mm size) would be fed into the vermi-beds, which are prepared beforehand
with coconut husk, composted cattle manure (cow dung), mulch material etc.
and the worms are allowed to get acclimatized.

i. Moisture content of the harvested vermicompost would be checked. If

required, it would be dried and screened to remove any undesirable material.
(in this report, 4mm screen size has been proposed in the quality standard for
vermicompost, which is subject to approval of Government of Nepal). The
final product has to be free flowing and clean (free from any undesirable
material).

113 
 
5.4.2 Revival of the aerobic compost plant

A compost plant was built at Teku in the year 1986. The plant is closed, reportedly,
for the last 18 years. In the absence of drawings and design of the plant, it is difficult
to understand the process flow and capacity. However, the shed, although small, is
still in reasonably good state. The remains of the plant consist of a hopper,
conveyors for transfer of the different fractions of the material, a rotary screen with
perforation of 25mm. Although rusted, the steel structure appears to be strong
enough for reuse in some form.

This compost plant can be re-designed for composting of segregated waste and
vegetable market waste already being received at Teku. The existing shed can
house screening facility for a compost plant of 10 ton waste per day. Additionally,
space would be required for the following:

a. Unloading / tipping area – already available at the transfer station, separate

not required.
b. Composting platform (for 3 weeks) – 600 m2
c. Rain shed (for 2 weeks) – 200 m2
d. Curing area (for 3 weeks) – 40 m2
e. Screening area (coarse segregation and refinement) – to be done in the
existing shed, separate not required.
f. Leachate treatment facility (Sequential Batch Reactor) – 40 m2
g. Storage area (for 3 months, in case direct sale is contemplated, otherwise for
1 month if the compost is to be routed through some selling agents) – 150 m2
/ 50 m2
h. Dedicated drainage to take care of the compost and the vermicompost plants.

Thus the total additional area required would be about 1000 m2. Majority of this area
is already a hard surface but repair and proper levelling would be required.

Since transfer-cum-segregation facility is proposed below for the VDCs and at Teku
site, pre-sorting of the waste is not recommended separately.

114 
 
5.4.3 Transfer cum segregation station at Teku

This facility can be used to supplement the segregation cum transfer efforts at VDC
level as mentioned above. A two-pronged strategy can be adopted at this existing
split level facility:

(a) Major part of the upper deck can be used for transfer of segregated waste to
the respective recycling industries in Nepal or outside as per the present
practice.
(b) One slot on the upper deck can be used for transferring any un-segregated
waste into a simple segregation facility involving a large trommel and a sorting
conveyor.

Reportedly the upper deck is not used at present because of litter flying into the
neighbourhood on the unloading side. An 8 metre high screen for preventing litter
should be installed before resuming operations at the upper deck.

Transfer of segregated waste would be continued as per earlier practice – smaller

collection vehicles moving up and unloading into a larger vehicle / bin placed at the
lower level.

5.4.4 Sorting facility:

This facility would have the following components / items (similar to the pre-sorting
facility mentioned in the case of large compost plants):

115 
 
  Hopper
 Feeding conveyor (feeding into the trommel)
 Trommel with 100mm pore size
 Conveyor for >100mm (majority – non-organic waste)
 Sorting conveyor for separation of non-organic waste (e.g., paper, plastics,
bottles, small containers etc. as required by the recycling chain market)
 Suitable receptacles (bins) for separated items
 Conveyor for <100mm (majority – organic waste)
 Sorting conveyor for separation of organic waste (for removal of residual small
bottles, pieces of plastics, metal etc.)
 Suitable receptacles (bins) for separated items

The separated organic waste should be regularly tested for contaminants, especially,
heavy metals. In case these are absent or within prescribed limits, it can be
composted at the revived compost plant. If the composting activity at the level of 10
TPD is successful, the screening facility at Teku can be expanded and more material
can be composted there. There is enough space at Teku for demarcation of windrow
area. Due to proximity of habitation proper environmental management plan
(leachate, vector, dust, odour, noise etc.) would have to be worked out and strictly
implemented.

5.5 Transfer cum segregation stations in each VDC: 4

demonstration facilities in the first year
The Village Development Committees (VDC), mostly located in the peri-urban areas
can contribute effectively to the management of municipal solid waste by maximizing
segregation at source. Households have been participating in the segregation and
bin-composting program of the Government. But for taking care of the total waste
generated in a VDC, community level segregation facility would be necessary.

VDC level transfer-cum-segregation facilities are suggested. But before planning for
all the VDCs, demonstration-cum-trial facilities should be planned in 4 selected
VDCs around KMC. The facility would consist of the following (the size / capacity of
each item would depend on the total waste to be handled):

A concreted platform (for strength and durability) with overhead shed

A sorting conveyor (1m wide) with side stoppers (for avoiding spillage from the
sides). The workers would stand on either side of the belt and pick up specific
materials / items.

Bins (100-120 liter) on both sides of the conveyor belt for deposition of materials
removed (one each on either side for paper, plastics sheet or bag, plastic items,
glass bottles, metal pieces / items, cans etc.).

116 
 
These dry recyclable materials / items would be carefully examined and packed for
sending to the relevant scrap chain dealer.

The organic material would move on to the end of the conveyor belt and can be
collected in a tractor trolley / dumper placer bin for direct transfer to a composting
facility.

5.6 Establishment of an integrated processing facility of 400-500

TPD at Sisdole for compost and RDF
A minor part of the municipal solid waste generated by KMC and also Kathmandu
valley would be taken care of by (i) the community level composting facilities set up
by NGOs, CBOs, small companies and entrepreneurs and (b) home composting
efforts. A majority of the waste would still be left. If adequate facility for processing
this waste is not done, it would consume space at Sisdole quite fast. A rational
solution would be to set up processing facility of 400-500 TPD for producing compost
and refuse derived fuel (RDF). The exact size required would be worked at the stage
of preparation of the DPR. An idea of the requirement of land, layout of civil
structure, plant and equipment can be found earlier in chapter 3.

117 
 
 Annexures

118 
 
 Annexure – I

Evaluation of community level compost plants

Questionnaire

Date of filling this questionnaire: ……

Name and place of the composting project –

Name of the operating organization –

Process flow (brief) –

Source of waste –

Sl. Amount Date / Time

No. Item / Parameter Quantity (Nepali (Weeks /
/ No. Rupees) months)

1 Capacity of the plant (average daily

intake of waste material) in tons ..........

2 Area of the site in hectares ……..

3 Construction period in weeks ……..

4 Date of commissioning …………

5 Capital investment
– civil construction ………….
– plant and machinery ………….
– vehicles ………….
– any other ………….

6 Operation and maintenance cost

– Land rent ………….
– man power (no. and amount) ……….. ………….
– electricity ………….
– cost of waste ………….
– transport cost ………….
– loading / unloading cost ………….
– water ………….
– cost of cattle dung / structural ………….
material ………….
– cost of storage ………….
– marketing ………….
– any other (e.g., packing) ………….

7 Production of compost per day ………..

119 
 
 (average)

8 Average production cost per ton …………

9 Average sale price per ton …………

10 Total sale per month (quantity and ……….. …………

amount)

11 Profit / loss in the last one year …………

120 
 
 Annexure II

Evaluation of community level vermi-compost plants

Questionnaire

Date of filling this questionnaire: ……

Name and place of the vermi-composting project –

Name of the operating organization / Person –

Process flow (brief including species of earthworm) –

Source of waste –

Sl. Amount Date / Time

No. Item / Parameter Quantity (Nepali (Weeks /
/ No. Rupees) months)

1 Capacity of the plant (average daily

intake of waste material) in tons ..........

2 Area of the site in hectares (one ……..

Ropani = 0.0547 ha)

3 Construction period in weeks ……..

4 Date of commissioning …………

5 Capital investment
– civil construction ………….
– plant and machinery ………….
– cost of earth worms ………….
– vehicles ………….
– any other ………….

6 Operation and maintenance cost

Operation and maintenance cost ………….

– Land rent ………….
– man power (no. and amount) ……….. ………….
– electricity ………….
– cost of waste ………….
– transport cost ………….
– loading / unloading cost ………….

121 
 
 – cost of cattle dung / structural ………….
material
– water ………….
– Cost of storage ………….
– marketing ………….
– any other (e.g., packing) ………….

7 Production of compost per day ………..

(average)

8 Average production cost per ton

9 Average sale price per ton …………

10 Total sale per month (quantity and ……….. …………

amount)

11 Profit / loss in the last one year …………

122 
 
 Annexure III

Filled questionnaire

Evaluation of community level vermi-compost plants

Questionnaire

Date of filling this questionnaire: 14/7/2012

Name and place of the vermi-composting project – Vermicompost & kalanki

Name of the operating organization / Person – Praramva Biotech Pvt.Ltd

Process flow (brief including species of earthworm) – Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus

eugeniae and Perionyx excavatus

Process of vermicomposting:

Preparation
- Vegetable Waste and
cow, horse dung collection
Sorting

Aerobic &
AnerobicDegradation
-apply EM, Jeevatu

Vermicomposting
-Inoculation of Worms
-Monitoring
-Harvesting

Maturation
-Hatching of cocoon
-Separation of worms

Screening
-8mm & 4 mm screens

Packaging and storing at

cool and dry place 123 
 
Source of waste – Surrounding area & Kalimati fruits and vegetable market

Sl. Amount Date /

No. Item / Parameter Quantity (Nepali Time
/ No. Rupees) (Weeks /
months)
1 Capacity of the plant (average daily intake Cow dung: On
350 kg
of waste material) in tons Wet Green average
waste: 500 kg per day
expense
on waste
2 Area of the site in hectares (one Ropani = 0.1641
0.0547 ha) ha

3 Construction period in weeks 3 WEEKS

4 Date of commissioning …………

5 Capital investment
– civil construction 350000
– plant and machinery 25000
– cost of earth worms 110 Kg 275000
– vehicles ………
– any other( registration,etc) 15000

6 Operation and maintenance cost

– Land rent 22000

– man power (no. and amount) 5 648000
– electricity 6000
– cost of waste (wet green waste) 180000
– transport cost (wet green waste) 146000
– loading / unloading cost 90000
– cost of cattle dung / structural material 96000
– transport cost(cattle dung) 72000
– water
– Cost of storage ………
– marketing
– any other (e.g.,packaging,registration) 52000

7 Production of compost per day (average) 280 kg

8 Average production cost per ton 13120

9 Average sale price per ton 18000

124 
 
 10 Total sale per month (quantity and ……….. …
amount)

11 Profit / loss in the last one year ……

Note from Praramva Biotech Ltd.:

It has been just 3 months since the company’s monthly production capacity has increased to 20 ton
per cycle, and we perform 5 cycles per year. So, it's hard to actually figure out the total sales per
month in term of quantity and amount as well as to do profit and loss statement.

125 
 
 Annexure IV

Scanned copy of ‘Organic and Biological Fertilizer Regulation Procedure, 2068

(2011) and Organic Fertilizer Grant Guideline, 2068 (2011)’

– English translation

126 
 
 Annexure V

Scanned copy of ‘Organic and Biological Fertilizer Regulation Procedure, 2068

(2011) and Organic Fertilizer Grant Guideline, 2068 (2011)’

– Version in Nepali language

127 
 
 Annexure VI

Experiences and lessons from other countries

1. Dhaka decentralized community based composting

The community based decentralized composting model of Dhaka (Bangladesh) is a

successful demonstration of solid waste management by adopting low cost
technology, local resources, community participation and partnerships among
various stakeholders (source: Sudhakar Yedla, ‘Replication of urban innovations – prioritization of
strategies for the replication of Dhaka’s community-based decentralized composting model’, Waste
Management and Research, Vol. 29, Issue 10, October 2011, International Solid Waste Association,
page 20). ‘Waste Concern’, a Dhaka based NGO had initiated a community based
decentralized composting project at ‘Mirpur’ in Dhaka, involving civil society, the
informal sector, private sector and NGOs. This has come to be known as the DCDC
model. After scanning different composting techniques, the windrow method was
selected and a 3 TPD capacity compost plant was established. The steps were as
follows:

i. Doorstep collection by waste workers of Waste Concern.

ii. Sorting of the collected waste, the recyclable dry items were given to the
waste workers, who could make some money by selling them.
iii. Mixing of saw dust and cattle manure with the waste and making of the
windrows.
iv. Screening of mature compost.
v. Recycling the rejects from the screen on the fresh windrows.
vi. Bagging of the prepared compost.
vii. Marketing of the compost through a fertilizer marketing company ‘Pam Agro
Industries’, who enriched the MSW compost according to needs of the market
and sold it at a higher price.

Quality was perceived to be the most important point for keeping up the demand in
the market. The model was successful because all the stakeholders had some
benefit.

2. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania – community level composting

Community based composting was started by a community based organization in

Dar es Salaam, Tanzania called KIWODET (Kisutu Women Development Trust). The
municipal solid waste of Dar es Salaam has 60-78% organic waste as reported by
different authors (source: Oberlin and Sza`nt`o, ‘Community level composting in a developing
country: case study of KIWODET, tanzania’, Waste Management and Research, Vol. 29, Issue 10,
October 2011, International Solid Waste Association, page 1071), making it suitable for
composting. They started their waste management activity with collection and
transportation and later carried out composting in a small rented piece of land.

128 
 
However, the neighbouring community turned hostile due to presence of waste and
odour and they had to stop. However a few important lessons were learnt:

i. The clients (compost buyers) did not buy compost made from household
waste, perceiving it to be contaminated. They preferred commercial waste
obtained from hotels and markets.

ii. They could demonstrate a successful model for a short period – technically
as well as financially. Their control over collection and transportation gave
them greater control over feedstock quality for composting.

iii. They benefited from the training and finance provided by ILO.

iv. They prepared mixed feedstock, using additives to the collected waste, such
as, cattle and chicken manure, ash, charcoal dust etc. A wooden rack was
made using wooden poles and a bed of dry leaves was made on this. The
mixed feedstock was piled in layers, interspersed with thin layers of saw
dust, ash etc. The final layer, within 2m height was covered with a thin layer
of sand, water was sprinkled and green leaves spread over the top to control
evaporation of moisture. The pile was manually turned on the 21st, 28th and
35th day and finally the compost was ready in about 6 weeks. One such
batch of pile produced 100-200kg of compost. The product was liked by the
consumers.

v. The site owner was one of the compost clients and a key ally till he was
pressurized by other neighbours to evict KIWODET.

vi. The scale of operation appears to be very important for quality and viability
of the project. Guarantee of quality from the residential efforts can not be
ensured as these are done as per the individual persons or families.
Community effort is the middle path with a semi-professional attitude and
has a place in developing country situation.

vii. Getting suitable land is an important issue for community initiatives because
in most of the cases, suitable sites are out of their reach. Support of the City
Authorities would be crucial from this point of view. Lack of integration with
the municipal body is big constraint for sustainability.

viii. One of the major constraints was that they could not influence the
community for segregation at source and support for the composting activity.

129 
 
 Annexure VII

Minutes of the training program on Organic composting

24th August, 2012

Under the ADB TA program, a training program was organized in Kathmandu at

Hotel Summit for the various stakeholders, mainly, the officials from different
municipal bodies. Apart from them a small number of NGOs who are working in this
sector, also participated. The one-day workshop was structured into three
components: demonstration, lecture and panel discussion cum open forum for
discussion.

The demonstration of bin composting and vermicomposting was followed by opening

remarks for the workshop by the Director, Solid Waste Management Technical
Support Center. She talked about the financial, institutional, technical and social
challenges for the composting sector in Nepal.

The main training was conducted by the ADB TA Consultant for organic composting.
In the afternoon there was a lecture from an invited expert on vermicomposting,

130 
 
followed by panel discussion with Expert Resource Persons and open forum with the
participants.

The hands-on demonstration program was attended by all the participants. It

generated keen interest, especially during the vermicomposting demonstration. A
very clear picture emerged before the participants and some misconceptions were
dispelled.

In the main training lecture the participants were told about composting in a step by
step manner. A ‘reading material’ was prepared and distributed to the participants.
The program was structured as follows:

Introduction

Importance of composting for Nepal

Composting situation in Nepal

 What is composting and what are its benefits?

 Composting process

 Factors affecting composting and ways to compost efficiently

 Vermicomposting

 Factors influencing vermicomposting

 Quality assurance and quality control

 The road ahead for Nepal

In the lecture on vermicomposting, Prof. Tamrakar shared her knowledge on

different varieties of earthworms gained through years of R&D and her practical
experience in tending the earthworms and harvesting vermicompost.

During the panel discussion and the subsequent open discussion forum, the
participants discussed at length. The municipal sector and the private and NGO

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sectors highlighted the issues and problems faced by them. Some municipalities
posed their specific situation regarding availability of land, waste and the possibility
of building integrated facility comprising composting and sanitary landfill.

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