Product Development

and Architecture
Visions / Methods / Innovations
 Uta Pottgiesser, Holger Strauß (eds.)

Product
Development and
Architecture
Visions / Methods / Innovations

Birkhäuser Basel
 Preface
7

9 Human-Centered Design: A Focus on the Individual

Uta Pottgiesser

Digital Architecture: From Design to Production

24
Marco Hemmerling, Ulrich Nether

Contents
Facade Road Map: Paths and Pathfinders 
34
Ulrich Knaack

53 Curved Planes
Christoph Schindler, Jan Bieniek
60 The Rediscovery of Known Materials 
Developing Ideas Christian Grabitz, Christina Kröger

69 Total Building Envelope

Winfried Heusler, Steve Lo
78 Engineers Construct Art
Redefining Boundaries Thomas Henriksen

87 Open Innovation
Eckard Foltin, Lorenz Kramer, Holger Strauß
94 Connections and Layers
Expanding Networks Christoph Kirch, Thomas Böhm

107 Energy Supplying Envelope

Jan Wurm
116 Facade Recycling
Linda Hildebrand, Daniel Arztmann
124 Wohn-Vision-2020
Conserving Resources Verena Wriedt, Mark Fleischhauer

4
 133 Measuring Light – Calculating Geometry
José Miguel Martínez Rico, Sergio Saiz Bombín, Aitor Leceta Murguzur
140 Digital Design and Construction
Marco Hemmerling, Jens Böke, Frank Püchner
148 Optimizing and Directing Processes
Optimizing Planning Tools Xavier Ferrés Padró, Thomas Braig, Jörn Tillmanns

159 The Printed Building Envelope

Holger Strauß
168 Direct Glass Fabrication
Transfering Technologies Lisa Rammig

176 Notes
179 Authors
182 Index
183 Acknowledgments
184 Imprint

5
Preface
A closer look at the processes involved in the progression from idea to invention
to innovation assists in the discovery of suitable approaches and suitable re-
sponses to these issues. The introductory articles relate to the relevant fields of
research and innovation for the built environment: design, computational
methods, and product development.

The case studies selected are the result of interdisciplinary cooperation be-
tween universities, research institutions, engineers, architects, artists, and dif-
ferent companies. They demonstrate that the market success of ideas, visions,
or products for the built environment is closely linked to an understanding of
design issues and cultural experience. They represent examples of best practice
for the design research and innovation system models presented here. They
address the following questions:

How did the different projects and teams find a creative and targeted
method of communication and collaboration?
What are the relevant topics of investigation and action for the built envi-
ronment in the face of challenges such as climate change, resource and
energy efficiency, and changing societies and markets?
How are the projects triggered by different factors, technologies, and
market needs?
How can innovation in the built environment be fostered and increased?

7
Themes
Human-Centered Design:
A Focus on the Individual
Uta Pottgiesser

“Good architecture should be a projection of life itself and that implies an

intimate knowledge of biological, social, technical, and artistic p
­ roblems.”
Walter Gropius

Challenges
Ever since the middle of the nineteenth century – when the negative consequen-
ces of industrialization became inescapably obvious – the improvement of hu-
man living conditions, in both social and environmental respects, has been con-
sidered to be a major concern of architecture and urban planning [1]. In spite of
this, most build­ings and built environments are designed without a detailed know-
ledge of all the effects of spaces, materials, and technologies on the perception
and actions of their users. Now, in the early twenty-first century, almost a centu-
ry after the Bauhaus was founded in Weimar in 1918, architecture – along with the
new disciplines of interior architecture and design – is strongly influenced by the
projected conse­quences of climate change and demographic change on our
world and by the significantly different needs of a society with a rapidly growing
and aging population. The disciplines of planning and design are faced with the
question of what posi­tion to take and how best to contribute to resolving current
problems in society. Quality of life and user comfort are key priorities, and an
understanding of the impact of the built environment and of new technologies
on human perception represents a strategic challenge in the design of spaces,
buildings, and cities. The impact of the early twenty-first century technological
and social innovations described by Nefiodow extends to the processes of design,
planning, and manufacture and the training and labor market [2].

9
 Steam Engine Steel Railway Electrical Engineering Automobile Information Psychosocial Health
Textile Industry Chemistry Petrochemistry Technology

Clothing Transportation Mass Consumption Personal Mobility Globalization of Health Wellness

Communication Real Estate

1929 Depression
1835-1893 Industrial Revolution (G)

1914-1918 World War I

1931 CIAM

1939-1945 World War II

2000 New Economy Crash

1973 Oil Crisis
1. Kondratieff 2. Kondratieff 3. Kondratieff
atieff
ff 4.
4 Kondratieff
K ff 5. Kondratieff 6. Kondratieff
1780 1830 –1850
85 1870 –1890
90 1920
19
920 – 1935
935 1950
1950 – 1980
1 2000 – 2005 20xx

1928 Maison de Verre

1928 Villa Tugendhat
1924 Haus Schröder

1970 Capsule Tower

1945 Eames House
1947 Unité d`Habitation

1969 Visiona 1
1928 Dessau-Törten
1858 Familistère

1965 Metastadt
1898 Hellerau

1  In the 1930s, Kondratieff The historical origins and subsequent development of the relevant disciplines we
foresaw­many major innovations are concerned with here show as many violent contrasts as do the opinions of
and developments of the
twentieth century.
individuals. This refers not just to the subject matter taught, but above all to the
theoretical and methodological positioning of architectural and design training
compared to the classical natural sciences and humanities. In the context of
worldwide ecological, economic, and social issues and challenges that are
becom­ing ever more acute, the debate on the relevance of and need for research
and increased understanding of architecture and urban planning, interior archi­
tecture, and design is one area that has become increasingly important.

Approaches to Research
“This follows the trend of design thinking in the twentieth century, for we
have seen design grow from a trade activity to a segmented profession
to a field for technical research and to what now should be recognized as
a new liberal art of technological culture.”
Richard Buchanan

For decades research in the area of architecture and urban planning was dom-
inated by natural sciences, engineering, and the humanities. Projects and doc-
toral theses were concerned either with construction physics technology or
with aesthetic priorities and the traditions of art, with each of these approaches
pursuing its own methodology. With the emergence of interior architecture and
design as disciplines in their own right, and with the transformations in society

10
Historical Development of Professions

Period Arts and Crafts Art + Sculpture Architecture (Civil) Engineering Interior Design Design

From 1648 Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture, Paris

1700 1667 Manufacture Nationale des Gobelins, Paris
1671 Académie royale d'architecture, Paris
1696 Kurfürstliche Akademie für Maler, Bildhauer,
Architektur und Kunst, Berlin
1700– 1747 Ecole Nationale des Ponts et
1750 Chaussees (ENPC), Paris
1767 Ecole Royale Gra- 1761 Académie des Arts, Stuttgart 1794 Conservatoire National des
1750–
tuite de Dessin, Paris 1797 Ecole nationales supérieures des Beaux Arts, Arts et Metiers (CNAM), Paris
1800
1776 Gewerbeschule, 1797 Ecole spéciale de peinture, de sculpture et 1797 Ecole Polytechnique (X),
Hamburg d’architecture, Paris Paris
1799 Bauakademie, Berlin
1799
1802 Militärakademie
West Point
1821 1829
Gewerbeakademie, Ecole Centrale Paris (ECP)
1800– Berlin des Arts et Manufactures
1850
1825 Karlsruher Polytechnikum
1846 Staatliche Kunstgewerbeschule, Hamburg
1855 1855-1870 Sempers 1855 Eidgenössisches
Bauschule, Zürich Polytechnikum Zürich (ETH)
1860– 1867 Kunstgewerbemuseum und –schule, Berlin
1877 Ecole Nationale des Arts Décoratifs, Paris 1879 Technische Hochschule Berlin 1904 Chase School,
1907 New York
(als Umstrukturierung der Ecole de peinture)
Rhode Island School of Design (RISD), Providence
1896 Central School of Arts and Crafts, London
1907 Deutscher Werkbund (DWB), München

1908 1908 Großherzogliche Sächsische Kunstgewer-

beschule, Weimar (Vorläufer Bauhaus)

1915 Design Industrial Association (DIA), London

1919 1919 Staatliches Bauhaus, Weimar, 1925–33 in Dessau 1919 Staatliches Bauhaus, Weimar, 1925–33 in Dessau
1920– 1925 Ecole nationale supérieure des arts 1920 New York School of
1950 décoratifs, Paris (Ensad) Fine and Applied Art,
1949 Ensad, Paris
1950- Art Schools and Academies 1968 Ecoles nationales 1954 Bund Deutscher 1953 Hochschule für Gestaltung,
1970 supérieures d’architecture Innenarchitekten in Ulm (HfG)
(ENSA) Detmold 1970 Hochschule für Gestaltung,
Offenbach
1971 ff Founding of Universities of Applied Sciences in Germany with the focus to applied education in natural sciences
engineering and design

2000 ff Introduction of Bachelor and Master Programs (Master Researched Based)

2  Historical development of that followed World War II, the focus increasingly began to shift to sociological,
training­structures and academic psychological, and economic issues and, from 1960 onward, this led to a dis-
disciplines in the fields of art,
planning, and design.
cussion on methods, which also had an impact on the structure of the average
training syllabus.

Inspired by Bauhaus ideas, the Hochschule für Gestaltung (HfG) Ulm, which was
in existence between 1953 and 1968, became a place where problem formula-
tions and the design process itself were considered systematically, thereby
making a major contribution to establishing the discipline of design as an aca-
demic field [3] – especially as a large number of its lecturers and students sub-
sequently took posts at institutions all over the world. The alumni of the Ulm
School exerted the same kind of significant influence on design teaching world-
wide that the Bauhaus students had exerted on architecture in the 1930s. Fur-
ther development of these theoretical approaches was particularly marked in
the USA and in Britain, where the universities were more firmly grounded in the
classical sciences due to their proximity to the natural sciences, humanities, and
engineering, than the academies of applied arts and sciences and art academies
of the German-speaking world.

In the early 1960s Horst Rittel became one of the first people to examine the
relationship between the classical sciences and design. In 1967 his work culmi-
nated in the publication of the Design Methods Group (DMG) Newsletter at the
University of California in Berkeley. This publication’s central assertion was that
planning and design problems are, as Rittel puts it, “wicked problems” [4] – that
is, their complexity is such that they cannot be solved solely with the standard

11
 1/2 YEARS | 3 YEARS
Economy Sociology
Cinematography

E WO
ON OD
ST
Architecture Information BUILDING:

META
- CONSTRUCTION SITE

CLAY
Basic - TESTING SITE
- CONCEPT

L
course
- CONSTRUCTIVE AND
ENGINEERING
Philosophy Policy KNOWLEDGE

C
RI
AB
F
Product Communication
design

Psychology

3 4

3, 4  The teaching curriculum at methods of classical science. At around the same time, Herbert E. Simon sug-
the HfG Ulm (3) was charaterized gested that scientific methods should also be applied to the evaluation of man-
by a basic learning structure
shared by all students, of the type
made products (artifacts of design) [5]. L. Bruce Archer founded the Design
that was also practiced at the ­Research Society in England in 1967, thereby bringing the term design research
Bauhaus Dessau (4). Building on into use within the specialist community [6]. Previously, in 1964, Christopher
this, students could specialize
Alexander had written the first Harvard dissertation on the subject of architec-
in various disciplines while
incorporating the humanities ture that was concerned with the deconstruction of complex drafting problems
and social sciences. into smaller units, which could then be solved by mathematics and logic. In the
late 1970s, he developed a further method for tackling complex processes for
which he coined the term pattern language. This method was also accessible
to laypeople; it involved providing a collection of typical design models [7]. The
term design thinking became widespread in the 1990s, becoming a standard
concept worldwide due to its adoption by institutions and by research pro-
grams. This way of thinking was founded on interdisciplinary collaboration
enabled by a shared system of values and methods understood by all parties,
with a focus on creativity, teamwork, curiosity, a user-centered orientation, and
a capacity for innovation [8].

It is becoming clear that the various branches of planning and design are devel-
oping more points of contact with one another in terms of theory and method,
and are also increasingly interconnected with social and cultural sciences. The
debate on the object and goals of planning and design research – a discipline
that is still fighting for its place alongside established practices – is particularly
marked in Europe. The process has been complicated by the fact that depart-
ments of interior architecture and design are generally affiliated to art institu-

12
 Design Thinking skills
FORMAL
Creative COGNITION & QUALITATIVE SCIENCE & DESIGN ART HISTORY THEORY ECOLOGY SOCIAL
Technical
Analytical
BEHAVIOR HUMAN NEEDS TECHNOLOGY FOUNDATIONS SCIENCES
Communications
Business
Social
Cultural
Worldly

Traditional Decorating Knowledge

20th-century Design Knowledge

21th-century Design Knowledge

5  The increased construction tions or technical colleges, meaning that a culture of structured research has
density of cities and urban regions generally had to be built up from scratch. Recent publications in this field and
worldwide means a special
responsibility­for the design of the
a growing number of doctoral theses, however, show the discipline’s increased
built environment in all fields of scientific grounding [9]. Design research and design sciences are now on the
planning (taken from [8]). way to becoming established in Germany and Europe as well. Ulrike Reichhardt
believes that the reasons for this lie partly in a “lack of functional and emo-
tional orientation” triggered by the current worldwide trend toward miniaturiza-
tion (USBs instead of portfolios), automation (button presses instead of manual
operation), and the abstract and ephemeral (cloud storage instead of a specific
location) [10].

Human-Centered Design
“Design can and must become a way in which young people can participate
­in changing society.”
Victor Papanek

Victor Papanek addressed these issues in 1971 in his book Design for the Real
World, in which he offered guidance for “human ecology and social change”
through the design of products and the environment [11]. In the introduction,
he writes that: “As socially and morally involved designers, we must address
ourselves to the needs of a world with its back to the wall ...” Now, forty years
later, his words are being discussed with a new interest. In 1958, Charles and
Ray Eames were invited by the Indian government to compile the India Report,

13
 Begin

Needs
What do people need?

Feasibility Viability

What is technically What can be

and organizationally financially viable?
feasible?

6  The firm IDEO has popularized which contained recommendations for training in design. This led to the
the human-centered design founding­of the National Institute of Design (NID) in Ahmedabad, which saw
method­under the name Design
Thinking.
itself as an institution­whose “broadest service would in fact go to the people
of  India – […] and through the fact that there was a group concerned solely
with quality and performances of the things they, the people, used every day”
[12].

In architecture, too, these experiments and discussions prepared the ground for
the use of in-building technology – on the increase since 1960 – and the re-
sulting “controllable interior climate,” leading to increased and conscious dis-
cussion of interior comfort. Currently, the debate on the energy-efficiency of
buildings, districts, and cities – necessitated by climate policy – and the re-
quirements of demographic change are producing a great deal of discussion on
the need for implementation to be as quick as possible, both in industrial na-
tions and in emerging and developing nations. This situation is creating an in-
creased awareness of the needs and actions of the user, which were previ-
ously taken into account during implementation only as peripheral factors – in
spite of a growing number of people finding themselves using indoor spaces in
a long-term or concentrated way due to their age or to the increased density
of urban regions. It is obvious that the knowledge about the perception, impact,
and use of spaces required for a human-centered design concept needs to be
expanded and deepened [13].

In this case, human-centered design should be understood as an overarching

term for further principles and methods, with the awareness that most terms in

14
 Accessible Universal Design Supporting
Design Technologies

∞
Urban Planning Mechanical Engineering
Architecture Electrical Engineering
Interior Design Media Production
Product Design Information Technology

Human-Centered Design
7

7  Human-Centered Design should general usage (English and German) are defined and used in different ways in
be understood as an overarching American, Asian, and European cultural circles. These include:
term for a number of methods
that put human requirements at
the center of the design and user-centered design (nutzerorientierte Gestaltung)
planning­ process. barrier-free design, accessible design (Barrierefreiheit)
design-for-all (Design für Alle)
universal design, inclusive design (universelles Design)
activity-centered design (handlungsorientierte Gestaltung)

While user-centered design focuses on the functionality of products and spac-

es for a particular target group, the other principles represent a more cross-
target-group approach, emphasizing universal usability of products and spaces
and aiming for extensive social involvement (inclusion). The objective of this
unified approach is to improve day-to-day quality of life for all. The idea is not
to design for a specific target or fringe group, but to enable usability for all –
regardless of cultural heritage, gender, or physical and mental ability.

The expression universal design has now become established; its principles are
becoming increasingly valid due to demographic change in industrial nations,
with the emergence of a larger elderly and aging target group. At the Center for
Universal Design at North Carolina State University, architects, researchers, prod-
uct designers, and engineers have formulated the following principles of design:

1. Broad usability: the design should be usable by and marketable

to people with a range of different abilities.

15
8 9

8  Many products of ambient 2. Flexibility of use: support for individual preferences and possibilities.
assisted living (AAL) are heavily 3. Simple and intuitive functionality: readily comprehensible function
technology-driven and change
the standard living environment
regardless­of the user’s experience, knowledge, language capabilities, or
considerably. current level of concentration.
4. Sensory information: the design should be effective in providing the
9  The evidence supports an
necessary­information, regardless of the environment and of the user’s
approach that unites techno­
logical aids with established sensory capabilities.
technological applications and 5. Error tolerance: the design should minimize risks and the adverse effects
introduces them into the con-
of random or unintentional actions.
struction or spatial context.
6. Low levels of physical exertion: the design should permit efficient and
comfortable use with a minimum of fatigue.

In addition to this, research also focuses on ambient assisting technologies

(AAT). This spectrum is wide, ranging from autonomous products such as spec-
tacles and wheelchairs to space-specific concepts for working, living, and care
spaces. These must be integrated into the space and the building’s design. Of-
ten, however, these projects and products are entirely market- or technology-
based, and take little or no account of the specific details of individuals’ lives.
Robert Verganti comments that collaborations between engineers and the de-
sign and planning professions to create user-centered design concepts is still
not widespread – adding, provocatively, that this would appear to be the way
forward for pioneering innovations [14]. Donald A. Norman spoke in a similarly
critical vein in 2005, describing human-centered design as “detrimental” and
instead advocating activity-centered design, which takes the sequence of hu-
man actions as its starting point [15].

16
 12

Infrared camera Scene camera

line of sight

10 11

10  The mobile eye-tracking The integration of universally designed objects and technologies into spatial
system can record the move- situations has previously been largely restricted to shapes – to the dimensions
ments and gaze direction of
the pupils.
of components. The universal usability of rooms and buildings – in all respects,
including atmosphere, emotional impact, and functionality – has previously re-
11  It is used at the HS OWL ceived little attention. The planning disciplines are able to remedy this situation
primarily in orientation, with
by bridging the gap between the different specialist fields involved, and refining
positive results.
product ideas by looking at rooms and buildings. Homes suitable for elderly
12  Handheld devices support people – placing a high value on homeliness, security, and identity – are one
mobile data gathering onsite or
sector that has led the way in the integration of these disciplines. The challenge
in a variety of environments.
is to unite the required functional qualities with the required emotional qualities,
both in rooms and in products; this calls for a high degree of flexibility and the
incorporation of design that is suited to more than one phase of life. Ensuring
the user’s independence and autonomy in “normal” surroundings for as long as
possible is an important factor, both emotionally and economically.

Architecture and Spatial Perception

“We make the impact of space measurable.”
PerceptionLab

At the Detmold School of Architecture and Interior Design, there are two re-
search departments concerned with technological and space design factors:
the ConstructionLab and the PerceptionLab. While the ConstructionLab is pri-
marily concerned with technological construction issues, the PerceptionLab
focuses on analyzing a space’s qualities, using real and virtual environments.

17
13 14

13  The real administrative space The aim of their research is to reach and to evaluate measurable and verifiable
findings on the impact of perceptual qualities in architecture and spaces and to
14  The virtual administrative
space
make these data available for the design and planning process [16]. The aim is
to develop teaching and praxis toolkits using a variety of methods taken from
natural sciences, humanities, and social sciences. Close links between the two
departments are vital to refining products and methods. The following tools and
methods are deployed:

1. Space laboratory: the implementation of room concepts on a 1:1 scale

2. Powerwall: virtual 3D scenes created by stereoscopic projection
3. Eye-tracking system: analysis and evaluation of visual perception
4. Biofeedback system: the recording of physiological data
5. Handheld devices and questionnaires: user surveys
6. Light laboratory: analysis and evaluation of illumination and lighting c
­ oncepts

Using these methods, the two departments research a number of different

goals and issues relating to the perception of space and architecture – incor-
porating, where possible, comparisons of real and virtual environments. Their
investigations usually take place in the context of classes or as case studies,
which are collaborations with external partners. Examples are [17]:

Spatial experience: assessing the acceptance and usability of a space

Test space: the effect of spatial surfaces in terms of well-being
Digital material: developing a computer-based design tool for making a
preliminary selection of atmosphere/design concepts

18
15 16

17 18

15  Martin Szeleky’s glass stool is

provocative because of its di-
Spatial Experience:
mensions and solidity, as well as
the use of glass for the seat. It
Acceptance and Usability
causes us to question the way we
usually experience materials. “A building as it is experienced is not a lifeless box. The inhabited space
transcends­the geometrical space.”
16  A heating unit designed by Gaston Bachelard [18]
Satyendra Pakhalé: an example of
the adoption of regional design As with any optimization process, considering and documenting the precise
patterns taken from craft prod-
reasons why projects have failed in order to learn from such failures – to dis-
ucts for an industrial product as
an expression of identity. cover the reason why, in spite of positive aspirations, the discussion and sharing
of information between the planners and users did not produce the desired
17  A sample of the real material results – is vital to formulating principles for design and planning. What is re-
was installed in one of the space
laboratories and investigated
quired is a detailed analysis of user needs – functional and emotional – and, in
using a number of methods. second place, evaluation of actual use. In English-language planning and social
sciences and building performance evaluation terminology, these two kinds of
18  The Powerwall simulation
analysis are referred to as User Needs Analyses (UNA) and Post Occupancy
of real space is used primarily to
investigate visual factors. Evaluation (POE). They draw on insights and methods from psychological and
social sciences, which are always adapted to suit the specific situation. Methods
taken from perception psychology that focus on identifying how individuals can
be assisted in achieving their goals represent a further possible methodical ap-
proach that could usefully be deployed more often in practice.

In the Raumerlebnis (spatial experience) project, the real space (in this case, an
administrative space) was compared with the virtual scenario, or “rendering.”
Observation, interviews, and questionnaires were deployed methodologically in

19
 19

19–22  A number of visual the real space. The eye-tracking system was also deployed as an aid to the
scenarios­show the different “thinking aloud” method. In the virtual space, the emphasis was on visual per-
impact of different materials
in the spatial context.
ception, which was analyzed by comparing photographs with visualizations. Put
together, the findings from all of these analyses (real and virtual) produced the
following conclusions on how people perceived the corridor:

The lack of color was perceived negatively – it gave the impression of

grayness and monotony
The planned expansion of the central hallway was viewed positively
Openings and lines of sight into other rooms were evaluated positively
The lack of interesting reference points in the hallway made
orientation difficult

Test Space:
Authenticity and Identification
“Appearance must carry a deeper, integrative argument about the nature of the 
artificial inhuman experience.”
Richard Buchanan [19]

For large expanses of time – for whole epochs – architecture was dominated
by a small number of locally available materials adapted to the climate or to
local conditions. The specific use of materials in any given region – and thus
the specific design of spaces – is therefore a concept that has developed over
time, shaped by individual and cultural mentalities. A built environment, how-

20
20

ever, also expresses factors such as the need to impress, political power, and
fashionable trends. In the age of globalization, a greater degree of material di-
versity, material transfer, and modification of conventional materials to suit a
different cultural context have become the norm. An international construction
industry has imposed this phenomenon on buildings of every kind, and is in the
process of obliterating traditional craft processes. The sometimes inappropriate
application of particular construction types – the most recent example of this
being the popularity of fully glazed and therefore fully climate-controlled of-
fices and residences in tropical and continental climates – is the expression of
an extensively standardized planning and construction process and of expan-
sionist marketing policy, often implemented without regard to the local climate
and labor market. Ulrike Reichhardt views this as an opportunity for “designs,
architecture, and plans developed by means of inclusive participation process-
es […] to provide a counterbalance to globally oriented products, buildings, and
regions by reinforcing cultural identities.”

Planners and designers are now more aware of the importance of the accept-
ability and impact of the materials they use – of how they are perceived. User
demand for appropriate designs and for a choice of surfaces adapted to indi-
vidual requirements is on the increase, in both private and commercial contexts.
The decorative surface is the interface where the first contact between the cus-
tomer and the object takes place [20], and its aim is to produce particular emo-
tions in the customers. The way a product is perceived changes constantly, as
society’s consensus on aesthetic standards shifts – and this is a phenomenon
that relates to emotional criteria, rather than concrete product criteria. It was in

21
 21

21  A realistic visualisation of response to this that the research project Sensorische Gütebestimmung von
materials with digital tools is Oberflächen (Sensory Classification of Surfaces) developed objective test pro-
important for the design process.
cedures based on human perceptions and test panels [21].

The Proberaum, or test space project, looks at aspects of geometry, lighting

moods, and materials by comparing a real test space with a virtual scenario. The
stone veneer was installed in one of the space laboratories, where more than a
hundred testers could touch and generally experience it.

Digital Material: Planning Tools

“Open innovation is a paradigm that assumes that firms can and should use
external ideas as well as internal ideas, and internal and external paths to market,
as the firms look to advance their technology.”
Henry Chesbrough [22]

The Digital Material project involved making a comparative study of how differ-
ent materials are perceived, in collaboration with a commercial company. The
aim was to support the early stages of the design process by carrying out sys-
tematic modifications of surfaces and light situations in a number of virtual
scenarios (renderings). The scenarios were also intended to provide realistic
visualizations of the materials, in order to improve communication between the
experts and the laypersons involved in the process (the architect and the client).
Although those responsible for the design were primarily concerned with find-
ing the visualization that was most realistic and the best in qualitative terms, this

22
 22

22  Digital visualisation and its analysis was also a way of considering and evaluating the impact of materials
effects can be cross-checked in within a space. The renderings created for the project can be treated as an in-
identical scenarios.
teractive materials library, facilitating quick comparison of digitized materials
within the virtual space. This enables designers and users to use the renderings
as a tool in the preliminary selection phase of the planning process.

Overview
The development processes, project and case studies presented here have con-
tributed to an understanding of the impact of products, spaces, and buildings
– on individual users, but also on larger groups. It has been understood ever
since the beginnings of design and planning science that such an issue is a
question of complex combinations, involving a number of different and over-
lapping levels of perception. Individual processes and methods will be defined
and tested at a later stage, possibly through a combination of the principles of
human-, user- and activity-centered design. Of more interest to us are the ways
in which planners and designers can apply the available knowledge in energy-
efficient or high-density construction – or construction suitable for elderly
people – within specific n ­ ations and societies, in order to promote well-being
and quality of life within a specific set of cultural and economic circumstances.
This concerns the community’s cultural construction consciousness as well, re-
quiring the support of a wider public discussion and public education.

23
Digital Architecture:
From Design to Production
Marco Hemmerling
Ulrich Nether

New technologies effect changes in perception and thinking that are quite un-
related to their actual content. They manufacture new realities. Or, as the Cana-
dian media theorist Marshall McLuhan phrased it: “We shape our tools, and
thereafter our tools shape us” [23]. McLuhan was expressing his belief that the
development of media technologies is a trigger for social change. Digital con-
tent influences the spaces in which we live, the objects with which we surround
ourselves, the pictures we see, and the sounds we hear. Additionally, they define
an expanded insight into, and sensitivity to, our reality. This development leads to
a radical change in our environment – and, above all, creates an arena for design
and for operation. In addition to fundamentally changing the working methods
of architects and designers, the use of digital tools has fundamentally changed
the process of formal design in the widest sense of the term – and conse­quently,
the visual appearance of spaces and objects and how they are perceived. The
computer software of today permits the generation of draft concepts­that would
previously have been hardly possible, either technologically or formally. By this
token, computer technology has, to a great extent, divorced­drafts from conven­
tional production conditions. Issues now depend on digital rather than analog
operations, in both the drafting process and production­.

The computer abolishes the borders of imagination and permits operations that
would previously have been made impractical by the limits to technology and
time resources. The results of the fascinating possibilities of digital production,
however, rarely get past a realm of formal experiments, which, in spite of their
geometrical complexity, often appear shockingly one-dimensional. Greg Lynn,
himself an exponent of free digital form worlds, stated his own critical opinion

24
1

1  Design for the SunSys pavilion of this condition of formal dependency ten years ago: “The computer brings
for the Campus Emilie, by Jens with it a language of design in which one always begins by doing what the soft-
Böke, Hochschule­Ostwestfalen-
Lippe
ware does well” [24]. Computer-aided drafting and construction, however,
could potentially benefit us far more than this quotation might lead one to
believe. To unlock this potential, an understanding of the basic information
technology resources made available by the computer is required. This kind of
digital form development process achieves its results according to different
principles – and is affected by different factors – from conventional processes.
It is based on a new understanding of method – at the drafting stage and during
the realization. But what is the profile of drafting in a digital age? What influence
do these technologies have on architecture and design and on the role of future
designers – and therefore on the teaching of draftsmanship today?

One self-evident observation is that the advent of information technology has

led to a widening out of professional specialties: by being receptive to digital
technology, architects and interior designers are able to open up interesting
new areas of activity. In addition to changing drafting methods, these tech-
nologies allow the design abilities of an expert in spatial configurations to be
extended to many areas of media and information technology, and of construc-
tion and production technology.

The impact on architecture of the use of digital media in the drafting and reali­
za­tion process is manifested in two strands of evolution. First, computers sup-
port the origination of concepts with the aid of digital tools. The comprehensive
representation of three-dimensional design concepts by means of digital

25
 2

2  SunSys, structural principle simulations­, with direct interaction with the virtual model enabled throughout
the drafting process, significantly expands the perception of spatial and func-
tional issues. Computer-generated representation, for instance, enables spatial
concepts to be thoroughly reviewed, evaluated, and discussed at an early stage.
Computers are now capable of representing the whole of the design and plan-
ning process, from the first digital draft to concept visualization to a complete
3D data set.

Second, the last few years in particular have seen a perceptible increase in com-
puter-aided construction and production processes using CAD-CAM interfaces
and rapid prototyping processes. One special feature of this technology is that
a wide variety of forms can be produced using one and the same production
process. As the working process is fully automated, the manufacturing price
should, in theory, remain the same. Cost-related dependency on the standard
product is thus largely avoided, introducing new design freedoms into architec-
ture production. The manufacture of individual products using new production
methods enables a project- and customer-specific end product, which has al-
ready become the established norm in some areas of production. A look at the
major areas of use for digital tools demonstrates the extent and range of the
influence exerted by computer-aided methods, even today – and especially in
architecture production.

26
 3

3  Construction variants for

translation surfaces, by
Digital Design
Frank Püchner, Hochschule
Ostwestfalen-Lippe
Drafting processes are characterized by an intuitive way of proceeding, which
might appear difficult to reproduce when working on a computer. Very few
architects and designers arrive at a draft concept by using the computer me-
dium alone – although the computer can be seen replacing the pen in the
early conceptual phase of drafting work among students and the younger gen-
eration of the profession in particular. The real potential of digital drafting, how-
ever, does not lie in simulating formerly analog operations, but in harnessing
computer-immanent processes for data recording, compilation, data process-
ing, and evaluation of complex interactions. This is a significant advance on
classic CAD applications, which assist the drawing process but do not bring any
new qualities to the drafting methodology.

Digital tools, on the other hand, make it possible to take new paths and to de-
velop spatial and object concepts processually, based on a variety of parame-
ters. The results are presented in real time, enabling a direct dialogue between
the draftsperson and the draft [25]. This involves applying algorithms – a math-
ematical set of instructions – to the basis geometry, allowing the development
of the forms to be influenced in a number of ways. Today, many software ap-
plications allow users to program their own scripts and algorithms by permit-
ting the factors affecting the production of the draft to be individually defined.
In other words, architects and designers can develop their own tools. This
process­-oriented procedure permits the overall structure to be manipulated in
a manner that transcends scale within draft development, without losing the

27
 4

4  Parametric 3D model of the interconnections between the individual elements. In this process, the drafting
pavilion, Hochschule Ostwest- activity is extensively supported by information technology, which permits what
falen-Lippe
might be called an intuitive approach. To this extent, programmed parametric
models encourage a new design method that requires knowledge of architec-
ture, together with object-specific and computer-specific expertise.

In architecture, parametric models can be used to create structures that permit

adaptation, and which can therefore respond to external influences such as
exposure to sunlight and wind loads, or internal influences, such as user behav-
ior and functional sequences. The architectonic form arises from the way in
which individual parameters are connected and prioritized. Drafting is undergo-
ing a shift from a formal graphic process to a strategic evolutionary process,
with the designer drafting a system rather than a concrete result. One advan-
tage of this approach – aside from making visible the dependencies in the de-
sign – is that it is flexible, allowing the designer to alter the programming at any
time and therefore to quickly develop and evaluate different concepts or varia-
tions for a drafting solution. This makes spaces, in all their complexity, more
accessible and controllable for the designer, something that also applies to the
work of interior architects or designers.

Digital Production
Computer-aided production methods permit these digital 3D data to be trans-
lated into physical models or components. Digitally generated and machine-

28
 5

5  1:1 model of the pavilion fabricated components expand the construction spectrum and incorporate the
factors associated with materials decisions and manufacturing issues into the
design process. Insights from the manufacturing process are fed back into
the drafting process as programming parameters. These production methods,
however, will not necessarily result in formal transformations in architecture.
Instead, it is a question of applying methods in order to further refine and opti-
mize processes. To this extent, digital fabrication methods are capable of more
than simply creating individual structures with a higher degree of complexity. It
is true that in comparison to other production areas, the construction imple-
mentation of architectural drafts is still largely based on traditional working
processes­. Whereas industrial production processes such as machine assem-
blage or the automotive industry produce highly developed technological
products, buildings are almost always prototypes erected using traditional
methods. In addition to being cost-intensive and time-intensive, the construc-
tion process fails to benefit from the design freedoms offered by digital draft
development and computer-aided production. Developments in materials
research­and product technology lead in an entirely different direction.

As has been discussed, digital production has long become a major tool, if not
the major tool, in industry. It is ubiquitous: no joinery workshop can be com-
petitive without a CNC lathe, and no metalworking concern can be competitive
without a computer-controlled hole punch or bending machine. For many
years now, large-scale industry has used production sites where no human
hand is involved in production. And yet drafting – which is a question of thinking­
in processes – continues to follow the same learned deterministic sequences.

29
 At best, the computer’s potential is employed to optimize use of materials or
working patterns. As a rule, all the data that are fed into the computer derive
from our experiences and traditions in dealing with the things and the proc­
esses that led to its manufacture.

The more the desired result is, by necessity, dictated by individual requirements,
the more digital processes will be integrated into the whole sequence of devel-
opment and production. Two examples that concern us very directly are re-
placement teeth and prosthetic limbs: once manufactured in a painstaking
manual process requiring a large number of modifications and adaptations, to-
day they are frequently created by means of harmonized digital processes, from
measuring procedures to completion. In spite of a relatively high initial invest-
ment, we are seeing these processes become more established over time.

The sectors in which the “rapid process” has become the norm are generally
those in which speedy completion is a priority – the production of product
components for product development projects, for instance, or racing car de-
sign. This allows the processes to be improved by digital methods while also
improving the functionality and ease of use of the products themselves, com-
plete with optimization of materials selection and design. Experts in process
technology engineering are predicting a breakthrough into mainstream industry
in the coming years.

In the foreseeable future, we can therefore expect the computer to become the
tool that guides industrial design, from the initial idea to the completed product,
translating virtual formulations directly into realities – and thereby responsible
for creating the things that surround us in our day-to-day lives.

This will introduce a new quality to mass customization – instead of simply be-
ing able to choose between a number of colors and upholsteries, we will be
able to acquire products that are suited to our needs in terms of function, form,
size, and material. And because we will want to possess these individually tai-
lored objects, the world of production and design will change. Coupled with
developments in media and lighting technology, this new state of affairs might,
for instance, create the following scenario:

“It is possible that in twenty years’ time, we will be printing out shoes precisely
suited to our anatomical and aesthetic requirements at home in our workrooms,
and doing the same thing in the kitchen to produce our favorite vine-ripened
tomatoes, all the while sitting back in our armchairs – which will, of course, be
pre­cisely tailored to our needs – in living rooms which, when we turn on the TV,
become stages upon which virtual characters move in three-dimensional space”
[26].

Digital design and production will make it possible to combine industrial pro-
duction with individually tailored items. This development also offers us the
possibility of being able to relate to objects again in the way that we once re-
lated to manually produced objects – something that has been lost to us in

30
everyday life in a culture of industrial mass-production – thereby restoring to
objects their true value. This paradigm shift and the resulting changes in method­
will need designers and implementers with a philosophy that places the empha-
sis on certain qualities. It will not be a question of generating a “brave new
world” with more complex, seemingly fantastical designs, but of marrying the
seemingly inexhaustible possibilities of parametrically developed design to a
sense of responsibility and avoidance of excess.

This responsibility on the part of the designer is not restricted to the process of
turning a digital product into a tangible product – the tangible object itself will
increasingly be changed as projection of the digital becomes a reality. Interac-
tion, communication, and utility are coming increasingly to the fore, as the
objects themselves become increasingly subordinated to the effect that they
achieve. In this way, spaces and objects derived from digital processes will, in
the best outcome, develop a self-sufficient quality founded on user-orientation
and adaptivity, suitability of materials and production technique, and effective
sustainability. In this last respect, nature can be said to parallel the options for
drafting and manufacture that we have identified.

Digital Sustainability
“Perfection is not attained when there is nothing more that can be added, but
when there is nothing more that can be taken away” [27]. Notwithstanding the
apparent contradiction contained in its diversity, nature is structured so that it
constantly fulfills this condition. Optimization is essentially a never-ending
stage-by-stage selection process. This is precisely what the digital process
makes possible. It is also the next challenge for architecture and design: how
can a state of progressive constant improvement – an evolutionary progres-
sion – be introduced into all processes? If we extend this thought, we arrive at
a cycle comparable with the cycle of nature – a state of true sustainability. This
involves developing materials and processes that approximate nature and its
principles. Ultimately, by transcending user-orientation and replacing it with
affordance – of the kind that we see in the natural world and its self-sufficient
complexities – we obtain the key to defining an aesthetic and the way forward
for a new unity of nature and design.

Currently, we feed data into the computers, defining the extent of the research
and defining the fundamentals, the idea and concept. In the future, the ma-
chines will be able to learn for themselves, enabling them or their operational
arms autonomously to find the best ways of creating the right form for a con-
cept, to make an informed decision. The aim of the postgraduate master’s de-
gree study program in computational design and construction at the Detmold
School of Architecture and Interior Design, based at the Hochschule Ostwest-
falen-Lippe, is to make use of the considerable potential inherent in these de-
velopments. It is based upon a professional profile that unites digital drafting
and production methods to create an overall perspective. This means that in
addition to relevant specialist architecture and interior design subject matter,

31
 the syllabus includes basic informational science and computer-aided produc-
tion. One significant factor in the complexity of the planning process is the
number of requirements relating to the various specialist disciplines, which
must be integrated as one progresses from drafting to realization. This calls for
design, planning, technological, organizational, and communication skills on
the part of the planners. Classes place a particular emphasis on the interfaces
between the various disciplines and phases of planning. This is partly in re-
sponse to the increasing demand for graduates with good qualifications in the
interdisciplinary field, who can bring together information technology, archi-
tecture, and design [28].

But how can these various methods be harnessed for the development of sus-
tainable architecture and space design? And, working in this way, how can an
autonomous means of expression be defined that satisfies current and future
demands?

One significant advantage of using computer-aided methods is that they offer

a variety of possibilities for strategically combining the individual processes, ex-
ploiting synergies and recognizing problems at an early stage and developing
stra­tegies to circumvent them. A process-oriented approach of this kind is
founded on the development of a consistent and adaptable drafting model that
can be refined in design terms and successively expanded and supplemented
by adding new information as the planning progresses. The end result of this
process is an integrative architecture based on the interaction of various factors,
such as a space’s impact and the form, materials, construction, and produc-
tion conditions, together with user behavior, sustainability criteria, and budget
issues­.

Digital drafting creates a direct connection between possibilities of thought and

possible constructions. To this extent, the computer has developed from being
purely a drawing instrument that simply simulates traditional instruments to
become an integrative drafting medium with its own special qualities and re-
quirements. The computer is surely the most all-embracing and dynamic me-
dium that has ever been available to a working designer. In order to develop this
potential fully, however, we must be able to deploy the computer as an interac-
tive instrument and see its artificial intelligence as permitting the expansion of
creativity. The challenge that faces us is that of fulfilling this role for our infor-
mation society and of creating the rooms of the future by becoming more
proficient in dealing with digital media.

The initial reality of the physical space and the virtual reality of digitally gener-
ated environments are increasingly coming together to create an emergent
single experience. The arena in which we can act is expanding and the design
instruments at our disposal are becoming more diverse. Above all, they are
creating a connection between the two worlds [29]. Hani Rashid, cofounder of
the New York architecture firm Asymptote, describes this augmented reality
design field as follows: “We will continue to see experiments with the virtual that
leave the confines of the screen, and merge the virtual with the real, spaces that

32
will ultimately blur the distinctions of what we currently think constitutes a real
experience versus a virtual experience” [30]. It will become increasingly difficult
to draw a clear line between the two. Just as our consciousness collates indi-
vidual experiences in order to form an overall picture, we will arrive at a point
where we think of elements from physical and virtual life simultaneously, and
design them simultaneously. This kind of emergence is a question of uniting
different factors to create a quality of the new type of space. This is a task that
is a natural part of the profession of architects and interior designers – profes-
sions that involve the interfacing of people, spaces, and objects.

33
Facade Road Map:
Paths and Pathfinders
Ulrich Knaack

Vision
In pronouncements about new developments and/or products, the word in-
novation is understood to mean “anything new.” More properly, however, an
innovation is a new idea or invention, a new product on the market, a new
economic strategy, or a successful new functional application [31]. Our subject
here is innovation in construction, which covers both actual products of con-
struction and the circumstances that led to their development, and also covers
potential ways forward that may hold the key to further developments and to
future actual projects.

Method
In order to arrive at an understanding of the development of facades, the author,
working in association with the ConstructionLab at the Hochschule Ostwest-
falen-Lippe (HS OWL) and the Facade Research Group at the TU Delft, has de-
veloped a facade “road map,” which covers the full timescale of building enve-
lope development – from the massive wall to the elementarized, free-form
aluminum facade – and distinguishes between massive and framework struc-
tures (monolithic buildings on the one hand and frame-built buildings on the
other are understood to represent the principal construction types) [32]. The
timescale is logarithmically tapered in relation to the current date – because
one’s own area of focus, and therefore the best state of understanding, is always
located in the current moment, and because the development frequency of

34
1

1  Facade Road Map

35
2 2a 3

2  Royal Botanic Garden in Kew technical innovations increases exponentially [33]. This results in a map that
(Richard Turner, Decimus Burton, shows the individual stages of development as a technical evolution process,
1844–48)
detailing the succession of functional requirements and the resulting practical
2a  Kibbel Palace (John Kibbel, applications of the technology. In order to make this development visible, the
1873) schema goes on to detail five identifiable isolated development cycles. The
explanatory information focuses on functional and constructive parameters
3  Lattice shell, Museum of
Hamburg­History (Volkwin Marg and on the people responsible for initiating developments.
+ Jörg Schlaich, 1989)

From the greenhouses of the nineteenth century to the

glazed lattice shell

I begin with the glass constructions of the nineteenth century, as this is an area
in which isolated parallel developments in facade developments can easily be
identified. In the first third of the nineteenth century, the need to protect plants
brought from colonial territories against the English climate while still putting
them on display resulted in an era of increasingly delicate British glasshouses.
John Claudius Loudon (1783–1843) could be described as the first notable
creator of such structures, although he was in fact a landscape gardener by
profession. Loudon’s early experience with lean-to greenhouses led him to de-
velop the ridge-and-furrow roof, which will be explained further at a later stage.
He also developed and implemented lattice shells constructed from cast-iron
rods, which were parabolic in order to ensure the optimal orientation in relation
to the sun. The small-format glass panes used in these constructions gave the
shell additional rigidity as well as sealing off the interior.

36
4 5 6

4  Lattice shell, hippopotamus Loudon was succeeded by Joseph Paxton (1801–1865), who shared the same
house, Zoological Garden, Berlin, background in landscape gardening. He deployed the ridge-and-furrow roof –
with exposed termination of
edge (J. Gribl + Schlaich Berger-
in the form of mutually supporting glass panes, similar to a truss construc-
mann und Partner – 1997) tion – for the Crystal Palace, built to host the Great Exhibition of 1851. Aside
from the technical finesse of its construction, its dimensions, and logistical im-
5  Junction solution, hippopota-
plementation, this project is significant because it led to glass being seen as an
mus house, Zoological Garden,
Berlin acceptable material for public and pleasure buildings. John Kibbel’s (1815–
1894) Kibbel Palace (1873) is our final example of glass construction from this
6  Lattice shell, British Museum,
period: originally a watchmaker, Kibbel used cast-iron lattice shells, which op-
London (Norman Foster + Buro
Happold, 2000) erated as a shell only once the glass had been installed [34].

The era of the lattice shell began a good hundred years later, with the courtyard
roof of the Museum of Hamburg History (1989). This generation of lattice shells
consist of a bar grid prestressed by a diagonal cable net to stabilize it against
asymmetrical loads. The space within is enclosed by panes of glass, although
these are not part of the load-bearing system. Aside from the precision of the
shapes involved, junction geometry was a significant factor. The emergence of
a variety of different junction types – from simple cuts to free-form milled
parts – kept pace with advancements in production technology. At this stage,
development was driven by the desire for the construction to be kept as deli-
cate as possible and by technical advancements in glass manufacture and geo-
metrical aspects of fabrication as well as unconventional approaches by those
responsible for the constructions [34].

37
7

14 mm

46,5 mm

46,5 mm

8 9 10

7  Renault UK’s Parts Distribution 8  Patch fitting 9  Planar fitting 10  Hinged fitting
Centre in Swindon
(Norman Foster, 1982)

38
11 12

11  Glazed garden at the The change from drilling to flexible mounting of glass in the late
technology­museum Cité des
Sciènces et de I’Industrie –
twentieth century
Parc de la Villette (Peter Rice,
1986) Due to the desire to make the construction as delicate as possible and to
achieve maximum transparency – and in spite of production and construction
12  Nederlands Architectuur­
constraints that limited the maximum size of glass elements – this epoch saw
instituut Rotterdam (Jo Coenen,
Mick Eekhout, 1993) numerous efforts by architects and construction designers to develop alterna-
tive glass-mounting systems. In 1982 Norman Foster developed a glass mount-
ing system that sat atop a post-and-beam system for Renault UK’s Parts Distri-
bution Centre in Swindon. He used glass panes that were drilled and held in
place by means of bolts or “patch fittings.” The aim was to dissociate the glass
from the substructure in order to bring a high degree of transparency into the
design. In 1986 this development was taken a step further by Peter Rice (1935–
1992) in the glazed garden at the technology museum Cité des Sciènces et de
I’Industrie – Parc de la Villette. Rice realized that the process of drilling a brittle
material like glass and fixing it so as to ensure flexural stability restricted load
application and deformation options for facades, and therefore developed a
solution that involved flexible point fastenings. The fastenings were positioned
so that the lines of force intersected in the joint, thereby avoiding flexural loads
on the mounts. The foyer area of the Nederlands Architectuurinstituut in Rot-
terdam – created in 1993 by Jo Coenen with a construction solution by Mick
Eekhout – was one of the first buildings to use this fastening principle for insu-
lating glass panes. The inner panes were drilled, and the outer panes were held
in place by adhesive edge seals, satisfying the requirements for good thermal
properties in a fully glazed facade [4]. The new technology used for drilling the

39
13 14

13  Cable net facade, Eissport­ glass panes was innovative, as was the rigorous adherence to standards and the
halle Olympiapark, Munich understanding of force flow in the glass panes. These developments were
(Kurt Ackermann, with Jörg
Schlaich, 1983)
pushed forward by architects, by construction designers, and by those respon-
sible for manufacturing the material and for executing the construction work
14  Cable net facade of the [34].
Kempinski­Hotel, Munich Airport
(Murphy / Jahn, with Jörg
Schlaich­, 1993) Cable net facades

For the Eissporthalle Olympiapark project in Munich, Jörg Schlaich collaborated

with Kurt Ackermann to develop an even, vertically prestressed cable system,
with the aim of further minimizing the load-bearing structure contained in the
glazed building envelope. Due to a combination of short distances and the
prestressing forces, this system was subject to virtually no deformation. The
glass panes could be held in place by clamp mounts to form an enclosure for
the interior space. Working on the Murphy / Jahn Kempinski Hotel (at Munich
airport) project of 1993, Jörg Schlaich used the same principle in developing a
level cable net, which, at maximum wind load, registered a deformation of up
to 1/25 and was therefore able to transmit forces as necessary. One conse-
quence was that the glass panes had to be elastically mounted to avoid their
being subjected to heightened flexural loads at the corners as the system de-
formed. Rijk Rietveld and Mick Eekhout developed a cable net that incorporated
glass fiber cables built into the panes of insulating glass, based on a concept by
the author. The aim of this system – used for the Inholland University of Applied
Sciences project in Delft in 2010 – was to cut down further on the visible ele-
ments.

40
 15

15  Glass fiber cable-net facade,

Inholland University of Applied
Sciences, Delft (Rijk Rietveld,
with Mick Eekhout, 2010)

41
16

17

16  Lloyd’s of London This new phase in the evolution of glass systems also owed its development to
(Richard Rogers, 1986) construction designers who were able to count on architects to accept new
17  Facade road map with
ideas and on those responsible for implementing the concept to be creative
double facades as the focus and to take risks [34].

Double facades and component facades

Energy consumption issues are a counterbalance to the desire for an open and
transparent building envelope. This aspect of the building envelope was brought
into sharp focus by the oil crisis of 1973: the glazing insulation values of the time
were unsatisfactory, resulting in high energy consumption values for any build-
ing that incorporated large expanses of glass. In the late twentieth century, the
newly open and democratic nature of society expressed itself in a desire for
open buildings [35], which involved large-format glass surfaces. The need to
take account of the energy-related properties of these surfaces produced a
generation of facades that took on the role of conditioning the climate within
the building as well as enclosing and sealing off the interior space [36].

This cycle began with Richard Rogers’s 1986 Lloyd’s of London project. Here,
Mike Davies, working for Rogers’s firm, developed the “polyvalent wall” – a sin-
gle multilayered element intended to supply all facade functions while conserv-
ing the required amount of energy. As the technology required to realize this
vision was as yet unavailable, an alternative facade solution for the building was
developed. In line with the “high-tech architecture” dictates of the time, the
technological components were positioned toward the outside of the building,

42
18 19 20

21 22 23 24

18  Box window and double with the ventilation and exhaust conduits and the transparent and opaque areas­
skin facade clearly visible. Proposals for incorporating additional functions, which were
19  Shaft-box facade, ARAG
drawn up for this project but never implemented, played a significant role in
Düsseldorf­(Foster + Partners, subsequent developments. A generation of double-shelled glass facades –
with RKW Rhode Kellermann known as double facades – emerged. This facade form can be divided into a
Wawrowsky, 2000)
number of categories, but all variants incorporate an additional air-filled inter-
20  Corridor facade of Stadttor mediate space that acts as a climatic buffer. This layer is transparent. It provides
Düsseldorf (Petzinka Pink und wind and sun protection and facilitates natural ventilation.
Partner, 1998)

21  Box window From a structural point of view, the box window facade must be considered to
be the simplest solution. It involves sealing off individual windows by means of
22  Double skin facade a second layer of glass on their outer side. The double-skin facade places a
23  Corridor facade
second facade of glass around the whole building, which extends across the
building’s full height. Alternatively, stories can be separated in functional terms
24  Shaft-box facade by means of a corridor facade. The shaft-box facade was developed to improve
control of the functioning of the buffer zones between the levels. It consists of
a combination of box windows and a vertical arrangement of glass shafts, which
facilitate ventilation and exhaust processes by harnessing thermal lift [36, 37].

The next step in this development, the component facade, incorporates active
in-building system components (concerned with ventilation and lighting) tradi-
tionally housed within the building itself. Helmut Jahn’s 2003 Post Tower in
Bonn can be regarded as the starting point for this development. Climate engi-
neers from the firm Transsolar added in-house systems to the component fa-
cade concept by integrating climate control devices into the roof’s face. The

43
 standard solution
E²

T-motion
Smartbox

closed system open system

Capricon

Post Tower

individual solution
25

26 27 28

25  An overview of component 26  Post Tower, Bonn (Helmut 27  Post Tower, Bonn, detail 28  Prototype T-Motion facade
facades and their spectrum of Jahn with Transsolar, 2003) solution­for integrating in-build- by Wicona
application ing systems components into
the facade

44
 29 30

29  Capricorn Haus, Düsseldorf next stage arrived with the T-Motion concept study by the facade manufactur-
(Gatermann und Schossig, 2006) ers Wicona, which, in addition to including previously integrated functions, in-
30  Capricorn Haus, Düsseldorf:
corporated artificial lighting into the space between the panes. Similar concept
detail solution for the modular- solutions are present in the Smartbox by Cepezed / Delft and in the E2-facade
ized in-building system compo- by the facade manufacturer Schüco. In 2006 the Capricorn project in Düssel-
nents
dorf by Gatermann + Schossig included a successful integration of artificial
lighting of this kind.

It is interesting to note that this phase in the development of building shells was
driven forward by architects who, with the support of climate engineers, took
the risk of developing new systems for projects that were large enough to jus-
tify such a step, and were supported by the component and facade manufac-
turers in the second phase. Analysis of this situation shows that the approaches
taken by architects consistently produce individualized solutions, whereas solu-
tions developed by companies are standardized and less flexible due to the
need for broad applicability. This analysis distinguishes the capability for inte-
grating components that are not part of the original system and the standardi-
zation of system solutions [34, 39].

The NEXT facade was developed in collaboration between Kawneer Alcoa,

TROX, Somfy, Cepezed, and the TU Delft, based on an analysis of the limitations
of system-oriented component facades. In addition to an aluminum load-bear­
ing system and the in-system media provision, it enabled additional in-building
system components to be integrated, making it an open system. In a further
project, the facade planning firm ImagineEnvelope, The Hague, developed the

45
31 32 33

31  NEXT facade. An open-system “Co2mfort facade” for the Solarlux company, to be used for that company’s own
component facade. new premises in Nijverdal in the Netherlands. In addition to the standard solu-
32  Fully openable Solarlux
tions, this corridor facade system enabled the facade to be entirely opened up,
Co2mfort facade in Nijverdal avoiding excessive heat during the summer while ensuring maximum transpar-
ency. Both of these are examples of an existing system being further refined
33  Ekris Headlights in Utrecht
through cooperation between planners and operators involving an open re-
(Kas Oosterhuis, 2007)
search and development approach.

Freeform facades

Fundamentally, the development of construction systems goes hand in hand

with the development of manufacturing technologies. The same is true of the
development of planning instruments, especially when the planning and the
production are, ultimately, building upon the same basis – the same data sets.
This becomes apparent when one reviews the evolution of digital planning in-
struments: the development of FEM in the 1940s, the first CNC processes in the
1950s, software and hardware development in the 1980s, and CAM and 3D
modeling systems in the 1990s [39]. This background knowledge makes the
development described below more easy to read, enabling us to recognize the
evolution of formal principles in terms of design geometry – although not in
terms of structural engineering’s impact on forms and shapes.

The Utrecht Ekris Headlights project of 2007, by Kas Oosterhuis, is a suitable

starting point for an outline of technical development, chiefly because of the
choice of junction system: a steel tubing system composed of triangles based

46
34 35

34  Guggenheim Museum in on the free-form principle. In the junction areas, the glass layer is held in place
Bilbao (Frank O. Gehry, 1997) by means of a separate profile system, with the separation facilitated by spacers.
35  Detail solution for Guggen-
This achie­ves a separation of the load-bearing construction and of the building
heim Museum in Bilbao envelope.

Frank O. Gehry’s Bilbao Guggenheim Museum of 1997 makes use of a similar

system, with the load-bearing structure system separated into a number of lay-
ers in order to create the building’s forms: on a steel main system is mounted a
secondary load-bearing system, also steel, and onto this is mounted a load-
bearing system for the free-form envelope. A further refinement – also by Frank
O. Gehry – can be seen in the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles, built in
2003: here, two further steel sub-load-bearing structures are fitted in addition
to the main steel load-bearing structure, with the support structure for the free-
form outer shell secured to one of them by means of adjustable fine-detail ele-
ments. This allows the form of the building to be more easily created and for it
to be better adapted to local conditions.

The highly complex Kunsthaus Graz design by Peter Cook, from 2003, presents
us with the most ambitious solution of any project within this cycle. For the
Kunsthaus, in addition to a main system and a steel sub-load-bearing structure,
Cook developed a covering system that used sheet metal panels, with a water-
proofing layer lying atop it and, mounted atop the waterproofing layer, a clad-
ding layer composed of backlit polycarbonate. In particular, the design’s geo-
metrical conception and the transition from the triangle-based geometry of the
main load-bearing structure to the (quadratic) geometry of the cladding posed

47
36 37

36  Walt Disney Concert Hall in compatibility problems during planning and production, and impacted on the
Los Angeles (Frank O. Gehry, parameters for the dimensions of construction components.
2003)

37  Detail solution for One striking observation that can be gained from the development described
Walt Disney Concert Hall in here is that once a possibility for developing a design for free-form architecture
Los Angeles
has been recognized in principle, the difficulty lies in translating it into a practi-
cable construction. Architects could be said to be the driving force behind fur-
ther refinements, but such refinements can only be implemented where opera-
tional software and suitably skilled construction designers and firms exist to
carry out the implementation. A generation of 3D specialists can be seen
emerging in all groups involved in the construction process.

Innovation?
As was remarked at the outset, an innovation – in the true sense of the word – is
a new idea or invention, a new product on the market, a new economic strat-
egy or a successful new functional application [31]. From this, we can see that
inno­vation in construction is never created by the unilateral activities of a single
party – it is always an interplay involving a number of different parties:

The architect / designer, who, in his or her search for something that does
not yet exist, takes on board formal aspects and creates a new formal
configuration

48
 38

38  Kunsthaus, Graz (Peter Cook, The construction designer, who, with the aim of doing something new,
2003) introduces new technical possibilities into construction, plugs any gaps in
the design’s performance, or comes up with appropriate compromises
The system manufacturers and/or construction implementers, who, based
on the requirements imposed by the projects, must ultimately make the
construction feasible

One interesting conclusion that can be drawn from all our observations is that
developments ultimately derive from individuals and their motivation, or even
from blind coincidence – at any rate, construction developments are never due
to the systematic process of searching for possible innovations known to us
from other industries. Whole sectors allow their innovation processes to be
guided by advisors and directors, beginning with a targeted search for new in-
ventions and ending with the completed product, building on theories such as
TRIZ (Theory of Inventive Problem Solving, conceived by Genrich Altschuller in
1946) or TOC (Theory of Constraints, conceived by E. Goldratt in 1986) and
orienting their development strategy accordingly [41].

If we acknowledge this fact, and respond by trying to liberate our innovation

development processes from an individual or chance-driven development pat-
tern, it is important to recognize the determining parameters of these proc­
esses. If this can be achieved, then, for instance, solutions that are already
known to us from one area of construction can be applied to another. Alterna-
tively, we could systematically examine technologies from other branches of
the sciences to assess whether they have any value for construction and the

49
39

39  Facade road map with free-

form­facades as the focus

50
 architecture pull

demand

Architecture Construction Technology

offer

technology push
40

40  Pull-push mechanism potential benefits of adopting them, and doing so where appropriate. If neither
adapted­for Tillmann Klein / approach achieves the desired goal, then it will be necessary to develop alter-
TU Delft building envelope
native solution scenarios, possibly involving developing a new technology.

The facade road map concept presented here as a method follows this ap-
proach. In addition to identifying development patterns and tracing long-term
development progressions, it endeavors to generate new possibilities, to iden-
tify new connections and missing building blocks and possible future scenarios
for development. Admittedly this approach can offer no answers to the ques-
tion of which of the developments that promise to deliver potential innovations
are worth pursuing and which are interesting only in a purely academic sense,
with no economic or social significance: the difficulty lies partly in the risks of
evaluating a social consensus that constantly shifts its focus, and partly in the
fact that economic processes depend only to a limited extent on technological
development and are also subject to significant (politically motivated) reversals.
At present, for instance, we find ourselves in an era in which special attention is
given to energy issues, but we can already see the conservation of water re-
sources emerging as the next major topic, without as yet being able to assess
fully all aspects of water conservation’s impact on construction.

As there is no possibility of solving this problem in a long-term and universally

applicable way, the road map described here must be regarded as an instrument
for dynamic development steerage. It enables an appraisal of the subject matter
but will remain subject to change due to changes of direction and chang-
ing perspectives on trends.

51
Developing
Ideas
Curved Planes
Christoph Schindler
Jan Bieniek

Vision
The need to produce curved forms from level materials has presented many
architects, designers, and engineers with a challenge – particularly in the twen-
tieth century. The addition of individual digital production to industrial serial
production at the turn of the millennium made the manufacture of curved
forms – without the need for molds – an enticing prospect.

Methods
The ZipShape method is based on a simple geometrical idea. A molded body
consists of two panels toothed in such a way that they will fit together only at
the desired curvature. The curvature is determined by the difference in the an-
gles on the tooth sides. After joining, there are no cavities or openings in the
molding body volume – making the process different from methods that involve
regular slits (such as Glunz’s Topan MDF Form [42], Daniel Michalik’s Cortiça
chaise [43] or Christian Kuhn’s and Serge Lunin’s Dukta [44]), and from concepts
that allow sheet metals to be bent to conform to a predetermined geometry
(such as Florian Tschacher’s La Chaise [45] or ROK’s Flat2Form [46]).

With its repeatable but individual details, ZipShape is tailor-made for generative
modeling. A parametric model can be used to derive the logical detailing from
any given output curve. All of the details are parametrically recorded and can
therefore be adapted at any time.

53
1

1  A ZipShape molded body con- At the heart of the standard production strategy for ZipShape panels is either a
sists of two panels toothed five-axis lathe (a saw blade for the teeth edges, a flat nose end mill for the tooth
in such a way that they will fit
together only at the desired
base), or a three-axis lathe with parallel finishing perpendicular to the direction
curvature. The ZipChaise is con- of the teeth. In spite of the beauty of the constructive logic behind ZipShapes,
structed from solid laminated both methods are time-intensive. As the curvature is defined by the geometry
oak with a thickness of 20mm.
of the teeth, the mold normally used during the drying of the glue can be re-
Schreinerei Bach Heiden with
Schilliger Holz AG, Küssnacht am placed by a vacuum sack, which acts as a flexible mold.
Rigi, July 2007
Possible materials were considered, and wood was chosen. The good machina-
2  The Ziprocker, developed with
R. Aimer, K. von Felde, O. Illner, S. bility of timber also made it highly suitable for cutting with a lathe – the planned
Rehders, T. Schütt and H. Wolf, is method of construction. A number of toothed MDF, plywood, and solid lami-
a projecting rocking chair with an nated wood panels were successfully curved to a radius of 5–20 times the
overall material thickness of
30mm, composed from a spruce
thickness of the material (although the tighter of these radii had a pronounced
middle layer between two layers tendency to break). This, however, is impressive when one considers that the
of walnut veneer. This shape was maximum radius that can generally be achieved in the cold bending of wood is
derived from that of a car seat.
50 times the material’s thickness [47], [48].
Fachschule für Holztechnik,
Hamburg, January 2009.
The Ziprocker, created in a course at the Fachschule für Holztechnik Hamburg
(Hamburg school of timber technology), is a particularly impressive prototype.
Two covering layers of deciduous wood veneer (cherry or walnut) and a conifer-
ous wood middle layer (spruce) were laminated; the additional rigidity allowed
a radius of five times the material’s thickness while safeguarding the rocking
chair’s load-bearing ability. This resulted in widespread approbation and a series
of awards [49], but further examination showed that the quality of the end prod-
uct was still unsatisfactory: the panels only bent between the teeth, giving the

54
3 4

3  Recoflex is a compound ma­ surfaces a polygonal appearance. The tight radii placed too much stress on the
terial composed of wood, cork wood fibers on the surfaces, and the veneer tended to develop hairline cracks
and latex particles. It is fairly
elastic, but it becomes rigid as
on the outside of the curves and to warp on the inside of the curve. Cold bend-
soon as veneer is applied. ETH ing the panels also required the physical efforts of three people.
RAPLAB, Zurich, July 2010

4  The ZipLiege chaise is con-

structed from an 18mm Recoflex
Innovation
middle layer with glued ash ve-
neer. Its shape is derived from
The realization that the same construction principle could have different out-
human proportions. It was sawn comes for different materials caused the universal status of ZipShapes to be
in five sections at the Schreinerei revised, and the selection of the right materials to be incorporated into the
Schnidrig in Visp and vacuum-
process as a necessary step.
laminated at the BFH–AHB in
Biel. Designers’ Saturday 2010,
Langenthal, November 2010 As a consequence, it became clear that the toothed cross-section of a ZipShape
panel must consist of two separate areas – the teeth and the thin layer that
holds them together. In order to define the geometrical structure, the teeth had
to be elastic yet pressure-resistant, and the connecting layers had to withstand
tension while remaining flexible.

For the middle layer, a product known as Recoflex was used: a compound ma-
terial composed of wood, cork, and latex particles. This material is fairly elastic,
but it becomes rigid as soon as veneer is laminated onto it.

This combination of a wood-cork-latex compound material with facing veneer

was tested intensively for its suitability for the production of two large ZipLiege

55
 5

5  The CNC hot wire cutter pro- chaises. Both objects were given a ZipShape Recoflex middle layer with ash
vided by Stepfour GmbH can be veneer on both sides. This allowed the radius to be reduced to a material thick-
used to prepare any standard
surface. Detmold School of Ar-
ness to radius proportion of 1/3 (a minimum radius of 75mm for a material
chitecture and Interior Design in thickness of 24mm). The elasticity of the wood/cork/latex middle layer makes
association with the University of a clear difference to the user, helping to make the object more comfortable.
Florida, May 2011
This is surprising to the user, as the facing veneer provides no clue to this aspect
of the piece’s character.

The ZipLiege case study investigated a production speed of 1.1m per hour for a
material thickness of 0.6m (equal to 0.7m2/h), using a five-axis lathe – insuffi-
cient for an economically viable working process.

A workshop held at the Detmold School of Architecture and Interior Design in

May 2011 provided the opportunity to find a production concept that did not
require the lathe. Extruded hard polystyrene foam (XPS) was generally used for
the middle layer, with the teeth cut into it by means of a large CNC hot wire
cutter. A hot wire cutter can cut the whole of the ZipShape profile in a single
working phase without the need to change tools, cutting production time to
4.4m per hour – four times faster than the five-axis lathe. Polystyrene is quick
and easy to prepare, as well as being lightweight and inexpensive. However, it
cannot be compared to wood or wood-derived products in terms of surface
haptic properties, stability, and sustainability.

The CNC hot wire cutter is capable of producing standardized surfaces, and is
therefore particularly of interest in the case of undulating shapes, for which the

56
 // curve
// thickness between teeth // angle = 90°

// thickness of nose

// total thickness

// number of points [number of teeth]

6

6  Programming variants 1, grid- teeth sides are not level and can therefore not be sawn. In order to make the
and point-oriented: thickness of XPS molding bodies sufficiently tension-resistant, veneer was once again ap-
nose describes­the thickness of
the “barbs”, total thickness
plied on both sides to serve as facing. A wide field of experimentation had now
describes­the total thickness of been opened up with regard to joins that cannot be produced through sawing.
the assembled product, number In particular, the focus was on snap-lock connections, which allowed the two
of points defines the grade of the
panels to be interlocked without needing to be additionally secured. The Klick-
grid (and therefore the number
of points), thickness between Zip procedure has potential in a number of different respects:
teeth affects the breadth of the
individual tines
it avoids the need for the costly and time-intensive vacuum sack gluing
process;
the joining process can be relocated to the application site, reducing
transport volumes and significantly simplifying protection during transport;
temporary connections are a possibility; these would allow a wide variety
of requirements, situations, and needs to be responded to quickly and
flexibly.

On the other hand, this procedure imposes increased requirements on the me-
dium: it must be stable in order to ensure that the connections do not separate
(especially in the case of tight radii, for which significant forces can occur). At
the same time, it must be flexible.

No specific results had previously been obtained for models on a 1:1 scale. An
inner angle measurement of between 130° and 160° enables the teeth to fit
smoothly together while ensuring support.

57
 // angle teeth // curve
// thickness between teeth // angle = 90°

// nose

// total thickness

// distance between teeth

// angle basic line
7

7  Programming variant 2, line- The conclusion to a paper published in 2008 proposed the investigation of
oriented: nose describes the general­preparation of standardized surfaces, reduction of the radius, and ex-
thickness of the “barbs”, total
thickness describes the total
periments with materials other than wood and wood-derived materials [50]. All
thickness of the assembled three points have been investigated. No other known cold-bending process
product­, number of points de- permits a comparable radius-to-material-thickness ratio. In the course of
fines the grade of the grid (and
working toward these goals, the existing results were taken into account and
therefore the number of points),
thickness between teeth affects the following conclusions were reached:
the breadth of the individual
tines, angle basic line defines
From geometry to experience – ZipShape having initially been conceived as an
the angle of orientation, angle
teeth, in turn, describes the angle abstract geometrical model, an awareness subsequently developed of the need
of spread for this particular to take account of production conditions and of how to create designs ac-
direction­ tively, incorporating knowledge of material properties – with form, material,
and production technique treated as an indivisible system. One particularly
surprising­finding was that the impact of each of the various material and pro-
duction factors could not be predicted with absolute precision. Once materials
and production techniques have been taken into account, the coherent geo-
metrical model must be abandoned.

From the university to the market, or: the path is the goal – the project, which,
thus far, has consisted of four invitation-only workshops and a number of lec-
tures, can currently be considered an academic success, and has been recog-
nized by a series of awards. The clear way in which it combines material and
information processing appears to epitomize the modern attitude to architec-
ture and to product design.

58
 8 9

8  KlickZip hot wire-cut snap lock Introducing ZipShapes to the market, however, has proved to be more complex
system by J. Bieniek, F. Nienhaus, than expected. The perfect combination of materials has not yet been found.
L. A. Pinkcombe and A. Wood,
Detmold School of Architecture
One has the impression that this process is not a candidate for replacing exist-
and Interior Design in association ing technologies in existing areas of application. Where ZipShapes do possess
with the University of Florida, potential is in the search for novel applications based on specific properties.
May 2011

9  KlickZip pattern in thermo­ Acknowledgments

plastic ABS from the 3D printer,
Detmold School of Architecture
schindlersalmerón is a private furniture manufacturer with a limited research
and Interior Design in association
with the University of Florida, operation. Without the opportunity to hold workshops at a series of academic
May 2011 institutions, the project would not have been possible. We are grateful to all
those who helped in this. Our particular thanks goes to Marco Hemmerling of
the Detmold School of Architecture and Interior Design for providing access to
the Detmold Workshop and the CNC hot wire cutter, and to Stepfour GmbH.

59
The Rediscovery of
Known Materials
Christian Grabitz
Christina Kröger

Vision
The Arbeitsgemeinschaft Blechprofilroste (ABR) or “Sheet metal grids working
group” brings together leading German and European manufacturers, and is
­responsible for producing the RAL-GZ 639 quality assurance system. The aim of
their collaboration with students of the International Facade Design and Con-
struction (IFDC) master’s degree program at the Detmold School of Ar­chitecture
and Interior Design was to develop new ideas for the individualized application
of standardized industrial products in building envelopes. The companies are
acting in the light of an increasingly significant trend toward internationalization
in the market, which presents new challenges to those concerned with distribu-
tion, technology development, and production. The combination of teaching
and practice in this workshop was pioneering in that it brought together a total
of twenty-four master’s students from fourteen nations (including Spain, Hun-
gary, Thailand, Bangladesh, India, Jordan, and Iran) in order to engage with this
issue. The students also brought to the table their own qualifications and pre-
paratory training: their studies in architecture, architectural engineering, metal
construction technology, construction engineering, and design.

Sheet metal profile grids have previously been used primarily as nonslip floors
and floor-covering materials in industrial, commercial, and vehicle construction,
and for walkways, platforms, and stairs. Their use in offices and administrative
buildings or in special buildings is fairly rare, and even rarer in facades. Examples,
however, show that these products possess considerable potential in design and
construction terms – potential that has hitherto largely remained unexploited.
Advantages of sheet metal profile grids include their combination of low materi-

60
1

7  Danone laboratories, Palaiseau.

Architect: Architecture Studio,
Paris. Construction variants:
SIMO SIRO/P 300 50 2 grid
in rough aluminum, SIMO Blech-
verarbeitung GmbH

61
2 3

4 5

6 7

2  “The Human Network,” 3  Mooring jetty in Bregenz. 4  Messeparkhaus Frankfurt 6  Brainstorming and idea­tion
Utrecht. Architect: Atelier Dutch Architect­: Nägele Waibel ZT ­(multistory parking garage for process
Almere and Centrum Architecten. GmbH. Product: Lichtgitter trade convention use). Architect:
Product: Staco Holding B.V. GmbH ­Eisenman. Product: Lichtgitter 7  Participants of the workshop
GmbH at the Detmolder Schule für
Architektur und Innenarchitektur
5  CHU Hospital, Dijon. Archi­ in collaboration with ABR
tect: Groupe 6, Paris. Product:
SIMO Blechverarbeitung GmbH

62
 8 9

8, 9  Extension to Museum of als use and high load-bearing capacity – enabled by the C-profile cross section,
Military History, Dresden. Archi- which permits span lengths of up to nine meters. Additionally, sheet metal profile
tect: Daniel Libeskind. Product:
Graepel-STUV GmbH
grids manufactured from galvanized steel or precious metals are maintenance-
free products with a long useful life, which can be temporarily or permanently
secured to any backing so that surface form and design can be varied.

Possible facade-related applications include shading elements, access routes,

and connective passageways, as well as wall cladding and panels – both for
new buildings and for modernizing existing buildings.

Both sides profited from the workshop collaboration. The primary goal was to
find and to visualize new ideas and applications for further product develop-
ment. The method, however, can also be used to facilitate quicker implementa-
tion of innovative solutions and to help both the companies and the students
to acquire knowledge to equip themselves for the future. The bringing to­gether
of technicians, distributors, planners, and students facilitated interdisciplinary
and comprehensive perspectives. The companies involved benefited from new
insights into a variety of markets and user groups, and the students bene­fited
from direct contact with the companies. The work they produced also had
strong links to industry practice.

Methods
In order to do justice to existing and future building envelopes requirements,
the project was linked to a specific IFDC master’s degree semester project: an

63
10 11

10, 11  Sheet profile grids: energy optimization and facade restoration plan for an office building dating
product variants from the 1980s. In addition, the state of technological development in available
sheet metal profile grids was a significant predetermining factor for further de-
velopment of the new products. Representatives of the four companies in-
cluded in the working group – Graepel-STUV GmbH, Lichtgitter GmbH, SIMO
Blechverarbeitung GmbH, and Staco Holding B.V. – therefore provided an in-
troduction to the manufacture, processing, and previous applications of sheet
metal profile grid products.

A preliminary brainstorming session was held in order to come up with ideas.

During the initial creative process, fundamental design principles, needs, and
criteria were defined (with an emphasis on specific markets or target groups),
and early drafts of the restoration concepts identified specific needs in design
and product development. The students separated into eight work groups and
came up with a variety of ideas and potential applications.

Results
The students taking part in the workshop presented a wide variety of solutions,
which then had to be refined in the subsequent development stage, with a view
to a possible constructive and technology-related production implementation.
These involved combining sheet metal profile grids with LED backlighting or
with greening elements, and with fixed or mobile shading elements. Taken to-
gether, these ideas allowed particular creative approaches to be identified as
being particularly worth pursuing:

64
12 13

12, 13  Idea: a specimen facade applying suitable design to existing products (ornamenting);
composed of sections; Panos the reversal of existing design principles (“patchwork”);
Sakkas, TU Delft, Daniel Palma
Ramirez and Surachat Gumngen,
new ways of combining known materials and functions (LED lighting,
Hoch­schule OWL glass-metal combination, greening);
scaling up conventional product dimensions (the development of facade
“zones”);
perforation geometries as determiners of function (sun protection);
the visualization of a double skin at night (lit supports).

Starting with the terms modular and lawn, one group visualized an approach that
responded to the less-than-optimal situations associated with the existing build-
ing through an economical amalgamation of functions. Their self-imposed goal
was to create compact courtyard areas adjoining the building, to enable con-
nections between forward and recessed sections of the construction. This com-
pact geometry makes sense in energy terms, and also creates new spaces to a
high standard for users. Once other important criteria for an up-to-date building
envelope had been taken into account, this design created a possible application
for sheet metal profile grids, which have the advantage of being cost-effective
and simple to install and to remove, and also allow the microclimate­of the
modified areas of the complex to be improved by means of planting.

The results show that members of the ABR group and the students at the three
locations taking part – Detmold, Delft and Lucerne – profited considerably
from the exchange. The international and interdisciplinary philosophy also gen-
erated a particular kind of added value in that the wide variety of approaches
made a significant contribution to the development of creative ideas.

65
 14

14  A combined glass and

metal facade
Innovation
During the workshop stage itself, samples and presentation objects were con-
structed in order to carry out tests and to improve visualization. This permanent
intercommunication of two- and three-dimensional representations was mate-
rial to steering the further development and revision of ideas, allowing novel
visual, haptic, and acoustic effects to be demonstrated in a credible manner – a
major factor in connecting with new target groups and markets. Like other as-
pects of the project, optimizing the combination of know-how, technology,
and design is a stage-by-stage development process.

Following the workshop, the students assessed and categorized the degree of
innovation contained in the essentials of their ideas and the timeframe that
would be required to implement them. This process provides the basis for fur-
ther discussions with the companies, who will assess the feasibility of specific
implementations of individual proposals after making an evaluation of their own.

The workshop has in any case demonstrated that the future of sheet metal
profile grids does not lie solely in horizontal applications (such as floor cover-
ings), and that vertical situations such as facade design also offer the possibility
for a number of different applications. The members of the Arbeitsgemeinschaft
Blechprofilroste sheet metal profile grid work group have already demonstrated
that their products can be used in facade design. The students have provided
the impetus for the next stage – the development of function-specific facades
using sheet metal grid profiles.

66
 15

16 17 18

15  The courtyard element is 16–18  Idea: LED backlighting;

­defined by a superimposed sheet Alejandro Cabello Carretero,
metal grid facade. Hochschule OWL, Wang Yajie,
TU Delft, Paul Jurisic, Lucerne
University of Applied Arts and
Sciences

67
Redefining
Boundaries
Total Building Envelope
Winfried Heusler
Steve Lo

Vision
In the new millennium, we have been living through a third wave of globaliza-
tion, which is characterized by a state of permanent technological change, with
personal devices, the Internet, and an extremely fast and economically viable
fibre optics network at its heart. This state of permanent technological change
goes hand in hand with new expectations from users and changes in what is
required from the built environment. The greatest challenge that this third wave
of globalization has brought with it is that of implementing an urban or building
plan that is sustainable in all its aspects – ecologically, economically, and so-
cioculturally – throughout the lifetime of the planning object:

From the ecological perspective, what is required is a design that makes

sparing use of resources.
From the economic perspective, cost-effective solutions – optimization of
initial outlay and life cycle costs – are the long-term goal.
From the sociocultural perspective, the form and aesthetic of the build-
ing – including issues of cultural preservation – are key. These issues are
closely linked with the comfort of users who inhabit and function within
the building and with healthy home and workplace conditions.

Concepts and products that ensure energy efficiency and material efficiency
and structures and buildings with highly efficient planning, construction, and
operation processes are required. Development work currently focuses on
communication between construction components and building automation

69
 3

2
9
1 8

1 Thermal sheet radiator / selective absorber 6 Micro-pore gas-flow layer

2 Silica weather skin and deposition substrate 7 Electro-reflective deposition
3 Electro-reflective deposition 8 Sensor and control logic layer, internal
4 Sensor and control logic layer, external
5 Photoelectric grid
6 Micro-pore gas-flow layer
7 Electro-reflective deposition
8 Sensor and control logic layer, internal

1 Silikon-Wetterhaut und eingelagertes Substrat 6 Mikro-/feinporige gasdurchströmte Schicht

2 Sensor-und Kotroll-/ Steuerungs-Logik, außen 7 Elektro-reflektierende Einlagerung
3 Photoelektrisches Gitter 8 Sensor und Steuerungs-Logik, innen
4 Wärme-Schicht-Radiator/ Selektiver Absorber 9 Eingelagertes Silikon-Substrat, innen
5 Elektro-reflektierende Einlagerung

1  Layer structure schematic and their responsiveness to users. The facade is a particularly important part of
for polyvalent wall the implementation of a total building design – because its visibility and impact
makes it a crucial part of the building’s identity, and because it exerts such a
major influence on energy efficiency, material efficiency, process efficiency and
cost efficiency.

Method
The challenge is to develop a facade engineering design process by empower-
ing all the disciplines and sectors involved to resolve specific building envelope
issues. Such practices are employed mostly in large companies working on
large-scale multinational projects. Their size allows specialist facade engineer-
ing and building services contractors to be engaged early in the design process.
Nevertheless, it is mostly in smaller and less prestigious projects that difficulties
in technical understanding and communication are encountered during the
design process, occasioned by the presence of multiple professionals with con-
flicting discipline-related interests. Without the in-house expertise of large de-
sign practices, the standard facade design process in an SME means the archi-
tect and the specialist facade envelope contractor are involved in numerous
iterative decision-making loops. Insufficient technical knowledge and guidance
within these  – often small – architectural and engineering practices, which
must rely on feedback from the envelope contractor to resolve issues at every
stage of the design and specification process, create looped discussions of
every facade component. Additional consultation loops arise between the fa-

70
 Sustainability aspects for building envelopes

ecologic economic sociocultural

raw materials / semi-finished

production / processing

manufacturing / mounting
lifecycle

use / maintenance

refurbishment

demolishing/ demounting

recycling

2  Life cycle analysis as the key cade envelope contractor and the facade component supplier. Conflicting
to a sustainable building plan feedback from the client, the architect, the facade systems specialist, and the
(beam length is shown to
illustrate­the significance of the
many disciplines involved in the design process makes it difficult to arrive at a
different issues) consensus. This lack of full understanding inhibits the productive collaboration
and synergy between all parties required for a holistic building design process.
The loop that exists for each and every component is a complex process. The
results of decisions in each loop also have an impact on many of the other fa-
cade component decision-making loops. Ultimately, the designer resides a
long way from the supplier. This fragmented approach and lack of embedded
technical and design expertise hinders meaningful long-term synergies, making
optimal design solutions difficult to incorporate at the later stages of the design
[51].

It was in 1981 that the adaptable polyvalent wall building shell system was first
introduced to the discussion (by British architect Mike Davies). Its extremely thin
functional layers regulate the flow of energy between the indoor and outdoor
environment, and adapt themselves to changing climate conditions without the
need for intervention. This marked the beginning of a phase where researchers
and developers worked with materials and components that respond to external­
conditions, automatically regulating light and heat permeability, air exchange
and sound transmission to ensure optimum energy and materials efficiency.
Facade engineering is a multidisciplinary industry involving architects, engineers­,
specialist contractors, and consultants. This discipline is key to ensuring holistic
building design – to resolving aesthetic, environmental, and structural issues by
developing a solution that ensures a sustainable enclosure for a habitable space.

71
 D I S C I P L I N E S

Property

Clients Industry Architects, Project Managers

Sector

P R O C E S S
Architects, Engineers (Structural &
Building Designers Building Physics), Specialist Consul-
Construction tants

Industry

Building Contractor Sector Engineers, Project Managers

D E S I G N

Engineers
Specialist Contractor
(Structural & Mechanical)
Manufacturing

Manufacturers Industry Engineers (Mechanical, Chemical,

Building Physics)
Sector

3  Facade engineering sectors It requires a detailed knowledge of design, materials, fabrication, and installa-
and disciplines involved in the tion. These disciplines encompass many sectors, which operate more and more
design process
at an international level.

An increase in requests for research in this area – especially from SMEs involved
in the sector, such as small architectural practices, engineering consultants, and
specialist facade contractors – reveals industry-driven demand for more unified
design processes and guidance. There is a clear need to unify the disparate
knowledge, education, and research at this level so that an integrated and fully
supported facade engineering design process may emerge. This will enable
science and industry to strive toward a common education and research frame-
work for a more integrated building envelope design process. It also allows for
novel and bespoke designs to be achieved through transparent and embedded
levels of technical communication and for greater understanding between the
design and construction teams. The proposed joint research initiative and Ph. D.
project ToBE (Total Building Envelope) aims to contribute to the challenges of
a holistic building design by enhancing knowledge and knowledge transfer in
facade engineering.

Results
Reconciling all the disparate design approaches involves bringing all the
disciplines­concerned with building envelope design together to pool and
exchange­their substantial individual knowledge within a single framework of

72
 Current iterative
decision-making loops
Facade Engineering Disciplines and related
components

Architect
Disciplines: Components:

Architect Framing

Project Manger Panels

Engineers Glazing
Specialist Facade
Envelope Contractor
Specialist .........
Consultants

......... ......... Façade Component

Supplier
4

4  The complexity of decision experts, academics, and clients. This framework – the European Facade Net-
making iterations between the work (EFN) – was founded in 2009 in Brussels, in an initiative originating from
various actors in the design team
European universities­that have established facade-related teaching programs
(University of Bath, TU Delft, the University of the Basque Country, Hochschule
Ostewestfalen-­Lippe, and the Hochschule Luzern). The network is accom-
plished by the transfer of engineers and practitioners from commercial facade
engineering sectors into a neutral academic environment with an overarching
multidisciplinary direction. The framework involves identifying and discussing
the gaps that exist in the concept, the appropriate technical guidance, and de-
sign tools, with the development and application of a common design language
at every stage of the design process.

The resultant synergies will allow the process-led technical guidance and de-
sign tools required for an integrated environmental facade engineering and de-
sign to emerge. The framework aims to bridge the knowledge and communica-
tion gap between architects and designers, engineers, and building specialists,
and the facade engineering industry by empowering the educational system at
master’s and Ph. D. level by promoting broader knowledge. The repository of
knowledge thus produced will promote interdisciplinary cooperation between
specialists with backgrounds in different disciplines and give them the confi-
dence to engage in a more design-rich dialogue that uses a common design
language, ensuring less ambiguity and confusion. This turning-inward is an es-
sential precondition for the development of an appropriate and optimal build-
ing envelope as an integral part of a holistic building design.

73
 Architect
Select tinted glass for g-value
INPUT: Building regulations, rules-of-thumb, experience
Reject for lack of flatness, select coated glass
INPUT: Aesthetic considerations of design team
Reject for lack of color consistency
INPUT: Aesthetic considerations of client
SUBOPTIMAL SOLUTION
Agree partial shading and less tinted glass

Recommend shading devices

INPUT: Design guides, best practice, experience
Advise that coated glass will show irradiance
INPUT: Optical properties of materials
Advise toughened glass to avoid thermal fracture
INPUT: Thermophysical properties of materials
Envelope Contractor

Facade Component Supplier

5

5  The feedback loops between Efficiency or sufficiency strategy

the architect, the specialist
facade­envelope contractor, and
the facade component supplier
The problem-solving approaches that have been introduced into the wider dis-
cussion to promote a unified building design adopt either an efficiency strategy
or a sufficiency strategy [52]. The efficiency strategy begins with an analysis of
the planning, construction, and operation of the building, aiming to minimize
wastage of energy, materials, money, and time – a product-centered design
approach. The sufficiency strategy, on the other hand, begins with an analysis
of the behavior of individuals, with the aim of reducing the consumption of
resources for a sustainable future – a human-centered design approach. Fields
in which these could make a contribution include:

energy efficiency through optimization of user comfort, solar protection,

and daylighting, addition of buffer zones and modification of the building’s
thermal and physical boundaries, automatic and adaptive building auto-
mation, integration and optimization of renewable energy technologies;
material and process efficiency through minimization of materials used for
building and increased durability and recycling potential of the compo-
nents, using the “garbage” of maintenance and modernization measures as
an archive of resources, and a more flexible production that could be
better adapted to specific needs;
eco-sufficiency through a reduction of consumption to save natural
resources, goods, and materials by changing the user’s and society’s way
of living, and empowering the users to embed more intuitive energy-effi-
cient building operations.

74
 Facade Engineering Knowledge
Capital
U-Values
Durability Architect
Structural calculations
Sealant selector
Glass properties and
Maintenance
calculations
Sustainability
Acoustic properties and
Embedded CO� Informed dialogue
calculations

Data bank: Specialist Facade

Envelope Contractor
∙ Thermo/ physical/ optical properties of
materials
∙ Library of standards and best practices Most appropriate and
∙ Design guidelines optimal use of components
∙ Simple S/S design tools
∙ Simplified design tools
∙ Detailed design tools Facade Component
∙ Finite element calculation tools
Supplier
∙ ...

6  Interface between the facade All these topics will be investigated within the planned Ph. D. program ToBE
engineering knowledge capital (Total Building Envelope) of the European Facade Network:
design portal and the architect

Design & process: Design strategies for new and existing lifetime low-
carbon building envelopes.
An integrated system-level, low-carbon knowledge-driven design process
for new building envelopes
Low-carbon refurbishment of existing building envelopes

Interfaces in the planning process

Structures: Maximizing structural efficiency of the building envelope and its

components
Low-carbon structurally efficient facade elements
Structural bonded glass profiles with composite action

Materials: Embedding systems-based life-time carbon assessment into

­sustainable procurement to reduce building envelope carbon emissions
Design for achievable economic lifetime durability
Forensic Interface Damage Manual

Integrity: building envelope interfaces when using multiple modern materials.

Achievable economic lifetime durability of building envelopes

75
 8

7  The aim: to dissociate Building Physics: Zero-carbon building envelopes with fully optimized or
comfort from energy integrated building services.
consumption
Low-carbon building envelopes for minimal building services
8  Atrium as buffer zone Intelligent and adaptive total building envelopes
(Shanghai­Tobacco Building,
Shanghai China)

9  Currently, facades show Innovation

various ­forms of energy
optimization, responding
Considered over their whole life cycle, innovative building envelopes minimize
flexibly to microclimate and
macro­climate­ changes by unnecessary and unproductive consumption of energy, material, money, and
using moveable vacuum time. In addition to energy-efficient and material-efficient concepts and prod-
panels as temporary thermal ucts, this requires highly efficient planning, construction, and operation pro-
insulation.
on the right: Photovoltaic
cesses. The viability of the problem-solving approach increases if the system
elements­as part of the design boundaries are extended. Truly innovative solutions (for both new buildings and
(Schüco E² facade) existing ones) do not stop at considering the building envelope – they look at
the building and all its components, together with its immediate and wider sur-
roundings, extending to the traffic of people and items. They provide for the
interconnection­of the individual buildings within extensive buffer zones (“is-
lands”) with climate-effective envelopes suited to the location and with a re-
generative energy supply. However, they also link the building and electric ve-
hicles into a regional transport net. The aim is to maximize the length of time
during which both comfortable living and working conditions capable of meet-
ing changing requirements and individual mobility are ensured within the “is-
land” without needing to import resources. This problem-solving approach is
based on the efficiency strategy and depends on the optimal conversion and

76
 PV Modul
PV modul

automation ventilation cooling

control storage
LED IT e-mobility Steuerung Speicher
10

10  Connection system for use of finite natural resources. Its success determines the ecological and eco-
energy­-producing and energy-­ nomic success of the concept.
consuming components
(Schüco E³ principle)
To enable these complex requirements for buildings and building envelopes the
planning disciplines, in the form of architects, designers, engineers, and con-
tractors, must be prepared. Architects supported by more multidisciplinary
knowledge capital will be able to specify facade engineering solutions that re-
flect more accurately their design aspirations with less complex decision-mak-
ing processes and improved clarity. At the same time these solutions contribute
significantly to sustainability over the life cycle of the building.

It is possible that now, at the end of the third wave of globalization, the time is
right for a global, sustainable network of “islands” that are largely independent
in terms of resources. Innovative, climate-efficient climate envelopes function
simultaneously as a semipermeable membrane and as collective services for
the regenerative energy supply, making them an integral part of a sustainable
regional plan. In some countries, it may be advisable to combine the climate
concept with a security concept (with barriers, surveillance cameras, and secu-
rity staff). The shared tasks, then, include – aside from the reliable provision of
a sustainable infrastructure – possibly also the construction and operation of
the climate envelopes, including its maintenance: in other words, guaranteeing
a moderated and secure island climate. This allows individuals to create their
own energy-efficient and comfortable indoor climate in their immediate envi-
ronment.

77
Engineers Construct Art
Thomas Henriksen

“I have created a space that can almost be said to erase the boundary between
inside and outside – a place where you become a little uncertain as to
whether you have stepped into a work of art or into part of the museum.“
Olafur Eliasson

Vision
“Your Rainbow Panorama” walkway is a work of art by Olafur Eliasson, erected
on top of the ARoS art museum in Aarhus, Denmark. Studio Olafur Eliasson
(SOE) won the tendered design competition in 2006 and the project was exe-
cuted from in 2007–2011. At the concept design stage SOE worked with ArtEn-
gineering to design the glass components of the supporting structure. The pro-
ject was built by Rohlfing Stahlbau.

The work of art enters into a dialogue with the existing architecture, and blurs
the lines between art and architecture, inside and outside. The view toward the
city is constantly changed by the colored reflections and the movement of the
visitor, encouraging him or her to question common boundaries and experi-
ences. The installation “Your Rainbow Panorama” consists of an inner and
outer­ glass ring that produce a rainbow effect, since each panel in the walkway
has its own transparent color. The walkway is 52m in diameter, consisting of
58  different panels in each ring, and is elevated 4m above the roof of the
museum­. Each glass element of the circular skywalk has another transparent
color and contributes to the intended rainbow effect. The view is not disturbed
by any construction elements as the glass is the primary structural element that

78
1

1  Walkway, interior view, supports the roof of the walkway and acts as a stiffening element for the box
© Thilo Frank/Studio Olafur girder. The greatest challenge in implementing the artist’s design was the con-
Eliasson
sistent use in construction of the colored glass as the essential element for the
appearance of the installation.

Method
Glass and steel interaction

All steps in the planning process were thus reviewed in consideration of the
design and the intended appearance. The glass is colored using a Saflex inter-
layer with the Vanceva color system, and has up to four different colored layers
per panel to achieve the right tone. The principles of the technical design con-
cept, particularly the interaction of the steel structure with the glass panels,
have been investigated and verified using different Finite Element (FE) models.
Personal safety, fire resistance, load-bearing capacity, and the glass manufac-
turer’s capabilities were the parameters governing the dimensioning of the glass
panels. The walkway consists of five main structural parts:

roof of the walkway

structural curved glass walls
steel box girder
14 columns that lift the walkway 4m above the roof (spaced at max. 20m)
the load-distributing beam system, which transfers the loads from the
walkway columns to the ARoS building

79
2

2  Walkway, interior view, Initially it was envisioned that the glass would be decoupled from the bottom
© Thilo Frank/Studio Olafur box girder. However, at the interface between the glass and the steel no solu-
Eliasson
tion was found that would completely decouple the glass. The glass thus inter-
acts with the box girder, providing additional stiffness to the structural system.
This made extra requirements of the glass because of the long span between
the fourteen supporting columns of the box girder. The wind load was the gov-
erning factor determining the glass dimensions. The force on the lower half of
the glass is transferred directly to the box girder, and on the upper half to the
roof plate of the walkway. The glass panels behave as single spanning beam
elements with a slight membrane effect. The roof plate acts as an arch and
transfers the localized wind loads to the sides of the walkway and down to the
box girder by relatively small shear and normal forces through the glass.

The concept design was verified by the construction company and its consult-
ants. As mentioned, the support condition of the glass was changed under the
detailed design. The new structural concept was verified using an FE program.
The authority approval presented additional requirements for the structural use
of glass: it had to withstand an impact load at the same time as snow and wind
load. Overall deflections are shown in Fig. 8.

Selection of the glass

The use of structural glass to transfer the loads of a roof structure has featured
recently in several buildings such as The Crypt entrance to Saint Martin in the
Fields in London (designed by Eric Perry and engineered by Arup). The glass

80
3 4

3  Walkway, exterior view, must be capable of transferring vertical loads and the bending moments, to
© Thilo Frank/Studio Olafur ensure stability of the glass and the roof. Additional requirements must be ful-
Eliasson
filled before permitting the use of structural glass as a primary load-bearing
4  Walkway, exterior view, material:
© Thilo Frank/Studio Olafur
Eliasson
The glass must be safety glass and fulfill class 2B2 in EN12600 [53].
The glass must fulfill the requirement of a class A1 material.
The load-bearing elements in the walkway must resist fire for 60 minutes
(F60) and seal the walkway from the ingress of smoke.
The glass must have sufficient strength and stiffness to accommodate the
loads.

The new walkway has an outer diameter of 26m in such a way that the walkway
meets the building’s edge (52 52m in plan) at four positions. The 4m difference
between the walkway and the building’s roof requires the glass to be laminated
to meet the safety-glass criteria in local building regulations [54]. The glass is
class A1 and it is not flammable. However, the 60 minutes’ fire resistance (F60 –
highly fire retardant) requirement can only be met if a fire insulating material is
used in combination with the glass such that it retains its structural integrity
when subjected to direct flames. Consequently, this makes it difficult to use
colored interlayers in the glass and is not an acceptable solution to the Studio
of Olafur Eliasson. Instead, a solution was derived from investigating the prob-
ability of a fire with open flames on the walkway. It was shown that by adding
sprinklers and ensuring that inflammable material is used on the roof a probable
fire would not have a magnitude great enough for open flames to reach the

81
 5 6

5  FE model of the walkway glass. The smoke would have a temperature exceeding 350°C when it touches
structure with load-distributing the glass. The glass therefore needs to be heat-treated, toughened, or heat-
beams, © ArtEngineering
strengthened. Previous tests showed that 2 12mm heat-strengthened glass
6  Section of the walkway, would accommodate smoke of up to 450°C before the glass laminate starts to
© Thilo Frank/Studio Olafur disintegrate. Two layers of toughened glass could potentially lose their com-
­Eliasson
bined structural integrity after a fracture. Therefore two layers of heat-strength-
ened glass or a mix of heat-strengthened and toughened glass would have the
best performance in a fire.

The structural requirements for the glass were derived from the imposed load-
ings using Eurocode 1 [55]. The loadings applied to the dimensioning glass pane
are as follows (vertical loads have been disregarded): Wind load: 1.59kN/m2
(pressure) and 1.15kN/m2 (suction) applied perpendicularly to the glass surface.
The maximum stresses in the glass were calculated using an FE model as part
of the structural model. The allowable design stresses for the glass were deter-
mined according to prEN14373-3 [56].

The curved glass panels are 3.2m high and 2.8m wide and consist of two 12mm
leaves of glass laminated together. Additional parameters must be considered
when selecting the glass composition: the usages of colored interlayer, post-
breakage integrity, and production capabilities. The colored interlayer in the
glass could potentially accumulate heat, and since the top and bottom of the
panel are hidden in a frame there could be a risk of thermal breakage in the
glass, if annealed glass is used. This means that the glass must be heat-treated,
as annealed glass cannot fulfill the requirements. Experience from other glass

82
 7

7  Computer model of the structures shows that the usages of two layers of toughened glass can collapse
walkway­, ©  ArtEngineering under its own weight if both panes are broken; therefore using glass with dif-
ferent break patterns is preferred [57]. If both layers are broken, the different
break patterns keep the glass intact and will have sufficient capacity to work as
a barrier against impact.

If two leaves of toughened glass would be considered, structural silicone would

be used to keep them intact. Hot fumes could reduce the silicone’s stiffness and
result in the glass collapsing. The suggested glass composition in this situation
is a combination of heat-strengthened glass and toughened glass. The heat-
strengthened glass should be placed on the inside of the walkway to prevent it
from breaking if small impact damages are made to the glass. The preferred
solution would be 12mm heat-strengthened + 12mm toughened glass, lami-
nated together with colored PVB interlayers. However, due to geometric differ-
ences in the production of the curved toughened glass and heat-strengthened
glass this was not possible to produce, and 2 12mm toughened glass was
produced instead (by Sunglass). The strategy was that if both leaves are broken,
an intermediate support replaces the glass, as the roof panels can carry the
broken glass until the temporary support is in place.

The optical quality of the glass is also significant as the glass is used as part of a
work of art and is a panoramic viewpoint. Since curved glass has been seen to
have bad optical quality, it was specified that the glass supplier only use an os-
cillating furnace to bend the glass.

83
 8a 8b

8a, b  Stress plot of curved glass, Finally the curved glass was tested according to CWCT technical note TN66
© ArtEngineering and Tn67 [58] to ensure satisfactory performance. Four specimens were given
soft- and hard-body impact tests and a wind load test using sandbags as the
imposed loading. Several wind load tests were undertaken for the glass; with
both leaves intact, one leaf broken and both leaves broken.

Innovation
The walkway “Your Rainbow Panorama“ is the first of its kind in Denmark in an
area accessible by the public. The usage of structural glass was approved by the
municipality of Aarhus and the walkway was officially opened in May 2011. The
greatest challenge for implementation was the overlay of numerous extreme
requirements made by the artist, the construction itself, and the regulator. The
resolution of these sometimes contradictory requirements resulted from an
iterative planning and optimization process, which produced a convincing solu-
tion in this interaction between art and engineered construction [59].

84
 9

9  Walkway, panoramic view,

© Thilo Frank/Studio Olafur
­Eliasson

85
Expanding
Networks
Open Innovation
Eckard Foltin
Lorenz Kramer
Holger Strauß

Vision
Innovation can be successful only if we look to tomorrow’s needs today. Open
innovation is a strategy pursued by companies in collaboration with experts
from outside, in order to design development processes that are close to prac-
tice and to clients, and to do justice to the dynamism of the framework condi-
tions. The early involvement of partners from the value-added chain enables
development goals to be implemented more rapidly [60].

Bayer MaterialScience AG (BMS) has been actively supporting the setting up of

an open innovation network to develop application concepts for lifestyle, home
and work, under the name future_bizz. Within the network, experts from indus-
try meet researchers and academics, and connect the cutting edge of research
with the current state of technology. The Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe (HS
OWL), with its departments of architecture, interior architecture and design, has
been a member of this network for several years.

Method
Network projects are initiated to work through a focus topic within a defined
period: for example, to formulate a market demand as a vision. Starting from a
more general task specification, concrete project goals and the necessary proj­
ect participants are defined. In a joint briefing for all project participants, the
plan and the target expectations are articulated in the context of the available

87
 1

1 Team Open Innovation background information. After discussion, the procedure in the project and a
schedule are agreed.

The project Click & GO was undertaken jointly between BMS and students of
the HS OWL in the master’s program International Facade Design and Con-
struction (IFDC). The students all have expertise in building but, as an intercul-
tural technical team of experts, process the topic with their different perspec-
tives and skills. This diversity of the master’s students was intended to spark new
approaches, particu­larly in the area of building insulation, as the participants
approached the topic with highly varied backgrounds and experience in build-
ing culture and design.

To drive the creative process, the specific cooperation between business and
teaching enabled the product search to be targeted, market-relevant, and use
the latest specialist knowledge. This interweaving of realistic figures and re-
quirements and the creative freedom of teaching and of the students led to the
shared development of deepened understanding and learning.

Market conditions and the principles of market logic were taught by Gerd
Daffertshofer, an experienced and independent external coach with many years
of marketing experience.

The project leadership lay with the BMS Creative Center, and specific topics
were taught by the material, technology, and application experts from the busi-
ness areas. The focus was on polyurethane foams, the heat-insulating materials
that reach the optimum values.

88
2 3

2 Brainstorming The project Click & GO applied the market pull approach in the open innovation
process, developing in stages to extend an initial idea into a potential innovation
3  Concept finding
and thus a future product. The procedure and development criteria will be de-
scribed below using examples.

Briefing

As a basis for the independent development of new ideas, the available materi-
als, technologies, possible markets, and existing applications for the PU materi-
als were first presented. The working title “Click & GO” refers to the ease of use
of the new applications, and also expresses the possibility of a future use of
insulation that is not just static, but can adapt dynamically to climatic changes
that take place over the course of a day or a year.

Materials collection

Through the joint orientation, the market situation was determined using a mar-
ket study of the insulation materials that are available, in use, or new. The inter-
national markets and globally available products for building insulation were
analyzed, so that the market relevance of the ideas that arose could always be
determined. This is necessary in order to recognize potentials among a multi-
plicity of ideas, using market-relevant factors. Only approaches that will later be
in demand on the market can be developed as innovations.

89
 zip + klett

4  Zip-Klett by Barbara Hyska Generation of ideas

For the technological basis of today’s PU insulation products, we sketched and

formulated initial ideas with the participants in a creative workshop [61]. In the
team discussion the mixture of technological and economic background
knowledge, combined with the students’ fresh views on the desired perfor-
mance of a future heat insulation system, led to the generation of holistic, for-
ward-looking concepts.

Checking market needs and sketching a dream concept

as a ­possible solution

From the product research we can state that the market for insulating materials
will grow in the decade up to 2020. A large share of this market will be home
users, who will make their own efforts to reduce their energy consumption
through insulation. To be attractive to these customers the products must be
varied and simple to use (for example, the Click-and-Go principle for floors or
wall coverings). One idea has been to link a well-known product (Velcro) with
variable insulating panels. This dream concept offers the possibility of modular
facade insulation that can be adapted to the funds available and to any struc-
tural modifications. Its use must be intuitive, and later upgrades possible.

90
 5

5  PU sound insulation by Added value and unique selling points

­Hemant Yadav

In processing, it becomes clear that a future market could offer two starting
points: lower costs for the user, or improved product characteristics. The sec-
ond point was the focus of the creative process, as actual costs can only be
determined in a later study. The result was the development of a new applica-
tion of the surface expansion and sound-insulating properties of PU as a mate-
rial: an active wall covering that improves sound insulation and is as simple to
use as a conventional wall paint.

Recognizing usefulness to customers; sustainable system

solutions­through process optimization

The linkage of different disciplines – in this case construction engineering and

architecture – transformed the need for simply erectable structures into a fur-
ther idea for structural planning: PU in forms that can easily be reduced in size
for transport, and equipped with an internal self-foaming support structure. In
its later use on the building, the combination of lightweight framework and
pneumatic structure offers a hybrid solution for roofs.

91
6

6  Pneumatic PU structures by Presenting a business opportunity

Surachat Gumngen

Innovative concepts also require a strategy for turning them into a business
model. This strategy describes the steps in which the market may develop, and
the chance of implementation can be analyzed in the value-added chain. At the
start of the project, a market segmentation analysis was carried out, and the
potential of the different insulating materials evaluated. The system solutions
with polyurethane produced by the process show the development potential
for these markets. For instance, they target possible innovations in shaping,
insula­tion of thin walls, simplification of fitting, and alternative distribution
channels.

Innovation
In order to place new products on the market – made by an innovative proc­
ess – and generate additional growth outside of current business, new solutions­
are needed in which cooperation and teamwork are important components.
Lone wolves and isolated applications no longer provide this service. The open
innovation approach demonstrates one way of accelerating development proc­
esses through interdisciplinary exchange, and deriving new business opportuni-
ties from ideas.

92
 7

7  “Tranquility Flooring” by
Hemant Yadav

93
Connections and Layers
Christoph Kirch
Thomas Böhm

Idea and Vision

Small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the building sector are normally
different from companies that are classically featured in research. Many of these
companies have their origins in the trade, like Böhm GmbH, or are founded on
a patent, like SilenceSolutions GmbH. In their day-to-day handling of various
construction-related tasks, they are constantly confronted with the need to
optimize existing products, to adapt to changing demands, or to break into new
markets and niches. This makes it necessary, in economic terms, to implement
a targeted product development strategy even if the company has no in-house
research department. In this respect, these two companies chose a different
path: Böhm GmbH cooperated with several research institutes, and SilenceSo-
lutions GmbH opted to collaborate with a university in a publicly funded pro-
gram.

After conducting research, Böhm GmbH ascertained that there were no large-
format ceramic facade elements currently on the market. The starting point for
the firm’s in-house development process was a large-format 3mm-thick high-
tech ceramic element with a variety of coatings depending on its area of in-
tended use, marketed under the brand name VidroStone®. The material is used
in museums, shops, hotels, and private interiors. It possesses exceptional me-
chanical properties and can be worked to highly specific parameters.

SilenceSolutions has already possessed the rights to an innovative and patented

multilayered sound absorption system of flexible polyurethane foam (PUR),

94
 1

1  Apartment in Berlin. called a multi-impedance absorber. This kind of absorbent material is highly
Application­: furnishings, effective and able to absorb the whole frequency spectrum (wide-band absorp-
floor and wall surfaces,
bath, terrace, LED lights,
tion). Due to its particularly high effectiveness in the low-frequency range, it
fireplace mantle also possesses a significantly flatter construction than conventional porous ab-
sorbers. Because it uses PUR, however, this system does not comply with the
more exacting fire protection standards for public facilities. The multilayer prin-
ciple therefore had to be adapted for nonflammable class A fire protection ma-
terials. The market has previously offered few nonflammable materials or prod-
ucts with good absorption properties. The publicly funded project was
concerned with the analysis of these materials and with sound absorber devel-
opment. In addition to acoustic standards, commercial and public buildings
must also satisfy high standards in terms of aesthetics and comfort. A func-
tional design analysis of the existing absorbers showed that a more modular
design was required so that the surface could be altered to create solutions
tailored to a variety of applications.

Method
In both cases, interactions between different specialist areas and interdiscipli-
nary collaborations involving physical scientific analysis and space design skills
played a role. In the case of Böhm GmbH, thought exercises and exchanges with
a wide variety of people – during work time and free time – took place through-
out every stage of the development process. Initially, there was a discussion only
within the inner circle of this family business. Subsequently, external contacts

95
2 3

2  Jewish Museum Berlin – and advice became extremely important for ensuring an expedient develop-
Foyer mental process. Relevant disciplines included physics and chemistry (with par-
3  Glass cases, NOESA Beautycare
ticular note to adhesive technology), marketing and law, funding options, and
Shop in Seoul, Korea official and administrative procedures. This complex interdisciplinary networking­
and research process required confidentiality. Internally, this was implemented
by means of IT infrastructure; externally, it was achieved through design protec-
tion, agreements, and patents. The research process for the facade elements
extended over seven years and incorporated a variety of procedures and com-
binations of different materials, which produced additional innovations. For
instance­, a special low-emission adhesive material with no evaporation was
developed for museum buildings to protect sensitive exhibits. The aim was also
to develop a new adhesive and bonding technology for the facade panel. Due
to reasons of weight, it could not be glued to a glass plate in the inner area as
had previously been the case; instead, it was to be combined with a lightweight
construction material and a simple fastening technology.

Right at the outset, a formal framework was established for the SilenceSolutions
GmbH research project, with the phases of work on the project determined in
advance. The search for suitable absorption and surface materials that would
satisfy fire protection and damping requirements and the process of compari-
son with products in current use was carried out on a number of levels:

Open-ended research of specialist literature, material databases, and

manufacturers’ information allows products already on the market to be
selected

96
 4

4  Layer thickness and layer The “Detmolder GreifBar” materials library, which includes approximately
construction­of the ceramic
350 innovative products, gives a reliable impression of the current state of
elements for interiors
development of raw materials
5  Existing sound absorption The “CES EduPack” is a toolkit for raw materials and processing technolo-
systems for use in office gies in science and development, providing supplementary and compari-
premises­.
son information on materials’ technical, economic, and environmental
properties. The results are expressed in materials charts, which provide an
overview of the parameters in diagram form.

A table was compiled giving the results of data gathered in this way for 49 mate-
rials and products, grouped in a number of categories: glass foam, natural stone
(expanded/fibre-form minerals), metal foam, and worked stone (mineral foam).
In addition to this, material patterns were assessed and evaluated. Alongside po-
rosity, flammability, and projected absorption properties, price was a key factor:
metal foams, for instance, were unfeasible due to high costs. As none of the
low-flammability materials achieved the same low values as PUR foam (50kg/m3),
compromises had to be reached on strength and, in particular, on bulk density.

In the age of Internet search engines, numerous materials databanks, and other
service providers, it should in theory be easy to track down and select the most
suitable materials. However, it quickly becomes clear how differently materials
are represented and presented in each of the different branches and sectors of
the industries concerned. Not all of the required information was easily ob-
tained from the manufacturers, and materials were often categorized according
to properties that did not facilitate direct comparison.

97
6

6  The “GreifBar” materials library Once this research had been conducted, it was necessary to make additional
at the Hochschule OWL comparative measurements of the core and surface materials in order to ensure
a reliable basis for comparison and to obtain the missing acoustic parameters.
Following a preliminary selection based on sampling and impedance tube
measurements, the materials’ and coatings’ various degrees of sound absorp-
tion were determined using a reverberation chamber [62]. Various material
combinations and layer thicknesses were tested until, ultimately, the same pos-
itive results associated with the flammable PUR foam were achieved by com-
bining mineral wools with different high-bulk densities. At this point, the most
crucial goal – to replace the flammable absorbent material used in the existing
absorber with a nonflammable core material possessing the same acoustic val-
ues – had been attained.

The functional design development process began with a typological investiga-

tion of the application and integration of the absorber modules in typical indoor
situations. Architectonic design issues made it desirable to be able to empha-
size or efface the modules as necessary, enhancing the absorber modules with
higher-quality surface materials and edge/join details, and integrating the ab-
sorber modules into construction components.

The surface material determines the absorbers’ appearance, their value, and
their capabilities for integration into the interior design [63]. To allow sound to
penetrate the absorber, a percentage of its surface area must be made open
­(by  means of perforations, for instance). Research and metrological tests re-

98
 Price / Density
Stage 3
Limit: Nonflammable, less than 1000 Kg/m³

100000

Aluminum foam

10000

Price (€/m³)
Aluminum SiC foam
Brick
Carbon foam
1000

Phenolic foam: closed cell

250

100

50 100 500 1000

Density (kg/m³)
7

7  CES EduPack materials chart: vealed that the most suitable surface materials [64] in acoustic and design terms
price to bulk density of core were: glass fibre fabric, fine wire mesh, expanded metal, and perforated sheet
materials
metal.

Results
At construction level, the absorber modules under development would need to
perform a number of functions simultaneously. The project succeeded in de-
veloping a new aluminum extruded-profile frame system to allow these func-
tions. Primarily, the frame provided static scaffolding for the absorption mate-
rial, which possessed low inherent strength and solidity. The surface materials,
with mechanical properties that varied widely, also had to be incorporated into
the construction of the absorber modules. A convenient tensioning/clamping
system was developed for the fabrics, with the fabric clipped into a groove by
means of an aluminum rod in order to secure it and keep it stretched. The per-
forated plates and expanded metal elements, which are more rigid, were se-
cured in the constructions as filling. They are interchangeable: any acoustic
materials that are rigid enough to hold the absorber core in place while forming
the outward-facing surface of the frame-filling element can be used.

The design of the perforated sheet metal surface materials was changed to
improve them and to make them useable in a number of areas. Ornamental
designs were developed, created by means of additional perforations in the

99
 Acoustic absorption in comparison

1,8

1,6

1,4

Acoustic absorption [-]

1,2

0,8

0,6

0,4

0,2

0
50 80 125 200 315 500 800 1250 2000 3150 5000
frequency [Hz]

New, nonflammable system: mineral wool layered inside the acoustic panel
Existing system: PUR layered inside the acoustic panel
8 9

Absorber

Absorber

Absorber

10

8  Layering of materials for 9  Comparison of measurement 10  Application and integration

acoustic tests results: the nonflammable of the absorber modules in an
module­compared to the existing indoor­ situation
PUR module

100
11

absorber material

clamping profile
2

frame
1
corner cleat
infill fabric frame
12 13

11  Surface materials: expanded 12  Construction principles 13  The clip system used to
metal, perforated sheet metal, of the frame system for the secure­the fabric surfaces.
glass and metal mesh absorber­ module

101
14 15

14  Perforated sheet metal sheet metal. This can be used as filling in the frame profile, but can also be used
surfaces­embellished with for the existing system. The acoustic module had to be suitable for mounting
ornamental­ perforations
on the wall or  the ceiling and also suitable for integration into architectonic
15  Mounting principle for components. To facilitate this, the profile was fitted with a mounting system for
wall module the ceiling and wall.

The plan also included a monoblock separating wall module compatible with
the existing glass separating wall system. A clip system was developed for this
purpose that allowed two similar modules to be joined together by a connect-
ing profile to create a separating wall module. These elements are fitted into a
ceiling and floor profile like a glass pane. This expedites on-site mounting by
avoiding the time-consuming assemblage of many small individual parts, ped-
estal profiles, and glass retainer profiles.

Böhm GmbH has achieved a facade panel with maximum measurements of

3.60  1.24m by combining the large, industrially produced ceramic elements
with a suitably light carrier material. It is weather-resistant and fireproof, and
therefore has a long useful life. The large-format elements keep the proportion
of joints to a minimum, creating an exceptional surface quality, which is desirable­
and the subject of considerable demand from architects and clients. The spe-
cialized point-fixed subconstruction of the individual ceramic elements creates
a back-ventilated facade construction. A weight of 25kg/m2 and an integrated
anchorage system facilitates mounting onsite. This avoids adaptation work: no
additional cuts or positioning are required to create a backcut system onsite.

102
16 17

16  Mounting principle for In both cases, existing products were successfully modified, expanded, and
ceiling module applied­to new areas. One striking aspect of these two projects is that reference
17  Mounting principle for
standards for new developments and refinements of existing advancements
absorber­separating wall were initiated and defined by the design and function requirements of the
module market­.

Innovation
The sound absorption system’s aluminum frame profile allowed the design and
constructive integration to be extended and improved. An appealing visual ap-
pearance well adapted to usage conditions and integration with other con-
struction components significantly increases flexibility and user acceptance.
The new product has the advantage of being a flat system construction for a
multilayer absorption system that is highly effective across the bandwidth for
areas with increased fire protection requirements. In the case of the facade
panel, as well, the combination of individual components to create a new prod-
uct, with the addition of a simplified mounting system enabled by the inte-
grated anchorage system and maximized prefabrication, constitutes an innova-
tion.

There is no end in sight to the research and development process; instead,

these refinements and optimizations will provide the foundation for future
successes­. In the future, it should be possible to deploy the absorber modules

103
 19 20

18

18  Facade view, showing large- in combination with a sound-masking system [65]. For the facade panel, inter-
format 3.60 1.24 m panels actions with solar heating and solar power are being investigated. The real task –
19  Facade construction
marketing – begins after the development process is complete. For medium-
sized companies, this is a major financial and organizational challenge,
20  Anchorage system integrated particularly in our globalized age. A crucial factor here is whether market de-
into the facade panel
mand has been correctly assessed, and whether the product can break into new
market sectors and regional markets.

104
21 22

21  Luxury apartment with sea

view project, India – general view

22  Luxury apartment with sea

view project, India – detail view

105
Conserving
Resources
Energy Supplying Envelope
Jan Wurm

Vision
Biomass and microalgae technology

Biomass is stored solar energy. One major benefit of using it as a fuel is that it
can be stored with virtually no energy loss. Bioenergy accounts for the largest
percentage of overall energy consumption of any form of renewable energy
(7%); in Germany, it is the second most significant source of energy for electric-
ity generation after wind energy. Biomass is available in solid (e.g., firewood or
wood pellets), liquid (e.g., biodiesel) or gaseous form (biogas), and can be used
in a highly flexible way in the fields of electricity generation, heat generation,
and fuel production. Obtaining energy from biomass is a CO2-neutral process
because burning releases the same amount of carbon dioxide into the atmos-
phere that was initially absorbed in its formation.

Their ability to efficiently convert sunlight into biomass makes microalgae one
of the most promising building blocks for alternative energy scenarios today.
Like other plants, microalgae use the sun as a source of energy, combining it
with CO2 and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) to produce biomass. This
photosynthesis process takes place in the same manner as it would in agricul-
tural crops. Microalgae, however, convert light energy into biomass consider-
ably more efficiently than higher plants because they are single-celled plants,
with photosynthesis taking place in every individual cell.

107
 share
building
2008 2009 2010 2011
integrated
2011
biomass 125.000 144.000 160.500 163.390 0%

wind power 40.500 38.500 36.500 46.500 0%

water power 20.500 19.000 20.000 19.500 0%

solar energy 8.600 11.000 17.000 24.600 3%

geothermal 4.600 5.000 5.500 6.340
sum 199.200 204.000 239.500 260.330

share in gross 9,3 % 10,2 % 11,3 % 12,2 %

power demand

1  The contribution of renewable Unlike the cultivation of energy crops such as maize, the cultivation of micro-
energy to power generation and algae does not take up additional land and therefore does not compete with the
heat generation in Germany
[GWh] – source: renewable
cultivation of food crops, and there is no dependence on weathering factors or
energy­report, Federal Ministry of need for intensive livestock farming. Microalgae can be cultivated in photobio-
Environment, Natural Protection reactors (PBR). These are enclosed hollow bodies filled with a culture medium
and Reactor Savety (BMU) 2011
that are permeable to light, which can be installed in locations where conditions
would be too dry or too harsh for other methods – such as in the center of a
major city.

Bioreactive facade

Previously, the energy benefits of integrating tube collectors into facades have
been canceled out by the relatively high construction costs involved. Recently,
however, the development and testing of panel bioreactors has led to a break-
through in the economically viable cultivation and utilization of microalgae. The
convection reactor developed by the firm Strategic Science Consult (SSC) in
Hamburg in the TERM pilot project permits open-air use all year round in North-
ern European climatic conditions, while also achieving production rates that are
significantly higher than those of other reactor systems. In terms of the conver-
sion of sunlight into biomass, the coefficient is between 5% and 8%. Automated
process and system operation enables continuous cultivation with low mainte-
nance costs.

The periodic conduction of pressurized air to the underside of the reactor cre-
ates turbulence within the reactor, increasing the mixing of the culture medium

108
 2 3

4 5

2, 3  Dynamic profile of the PBR,

created by the introduction with the continual influx of flue gas (CO2) and optimizing the supply of light to
of air bubbles (picture credits: the algae. The high speed of the currents around the bioreactor’s inner sur-
Jan Wurm) faces prevents deposits of algae and biological waste matter on them. The heat
4  The pilot TERM plant with the produced in the reactor by solar thermal effect must be removed in order to
PBRs developed by SSC GmbH in prevent overheating in the medium. In this respect, the reactor functions like a
winter. Location: Hamburg-Reit- solar collector with a coefficient of approximately 40% – approximately equal
brook (picture credit: Jan Wurm)
to that of an open absorber.
5  The pilot TERM plant with the
PBRs developed by SSC GmbH in The added value associated with the cultivation of microalgae in bioreactor
summer. Location: Hamburg-
facades attached to buildings is shown here:
Reitbrook (picture credit: SSC
GmbH Hamburg)
The biomass stores CO2
The biomass can be converted into methane (biogas) or hydrogen, thereby
serving as a source of renewable energy
As with a solar collector, heat is generated that can then be used within the
building
Bioreactors are multifunctional facade elements that are also capable of
providing light protection, heat and cold protection, and sound protection.
Bioreactors can also operate as aperture elements, facilitating the natural
ventilation of the building

Photobioreactors cause 25–250g CO2/m2 per day to be stored as biomass. The

harvested biomass can be converted into biogas (methane) on-site by means
of hydrothermal conversion. One m2 of reactor surface produces an average of
15g dry mass per day per year, which is equal to 2.7m3 of methane. At a fuel

109
 6

6  Outline of the functioning of value of 10.6kWh/m of methane, a gross energy yield of approximately 29kWh/
the facade system (picture credit: m²a can be achieved. The methane can be burned during the heating period,
Jan Wurm, Arup GmbH)
stored in the municipal natural gas grid, or used as engine fuel. By harnessing
the solar thermal effect, a heat exchanger can increase the heat yield by ap-
proximately 30kWh/m2a. This can then be used for the hot-water supply by
means of a heat pump. The auxiliary power supply for the systems and regula-
tion technology is to be supplied directly by the PV modules.

Because the microalgae absorb light, PBR units also constitute effective sun-
protection elements. The cell counts can be doubled or halved over the course
of a day by harvesting the algae to thin them out or by suspending harvesting,
permitting light permeability to be adjusted by 100%. In winter, reduced solar
radiation reduces the algae content to only approximately 0.5g/l, resulting in a
light permeability of over 30%. PBR can therefore replace traditional external
sun-protection systems and collectors, while maintaining added value.

Method
Facade integration

The technology required for microalgae cultivation on buildings is shown in

overview in Fig. 8. To ensure optimal lighting, the reactors are applied to the
outer side of the facade as facade elements. The best orientation is from the
southwest to the southeast. The load-bearing system with which the PBR is

110
 :LQWHU 6XPPHU
7

7  Schematic of the functioning secured to the facade, oriented and occasionally realigned is of primary impor-
of the bioreactor facade in winter tance. In the winter, a vertical positioning of the reactors creates a favorable
and summer – the bioreactors
can be realigned in order to
orientation due to the sun’s low angle of incidence. In addition to this, where
facilitate natural ventilation or to there is no opening between the two, an air or buffer space between the PBR
optimize orientation toward the and the thermal envelope can help to prevent heat loss. In summer, on the
sun (reproduction: ©Arup GmbH)
other hand, turning the PBR to an angle of 30° from the level of a south facade
increases heat gain.

The bioreactors are connected in clusters of approximately 10m2 in a row, so

that the medium circulates through all bioreactors. Sunlight causes the reactors
to additionally heat up over the course of a day; they function in the same way
as solar thermal absorbers. The heat and biomass are cycled via the in-building
systems, with both removed at a central point. The energy generated is stored
or distributed by means of the energy management center.

The heat is transferred through a heat exchanger in the in-buildings systems

room, and is then stored within or inside the structure of the building (floor plate
or PCM storage) or used directly to heat water. In winter, the operating tem-
perature of the algae must not be allowed to sink below 8°C, so that on cold
days the inflow is directed through the ground heat storage.

The biomass created by the growth of the microalgae is harvested using an

algae­cutter. The energy contained in the biomass can be converted into natu-
ral gas through a biological or physical chemical conversion with an efficiency
of about 70–80%. This gaseous fuel can be used in a number of ways (feeding

111
 circulation

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

CO 2
compressed air

5 5
Principle of a biomass
powerplant facade 3

1 facade element
2 heat exchanger
4 2
3 algae separator
4 conversion plant
5 feed and delivery pipe for nutrient solution
(25 mm diameter) methane heat

building services / energy control center

8  Diagram showing how the into the public natural gas grid, used in the tanks of natural gas-fueled cars, used
bioreactor facade works. All in communal heating/power stations), and can be stored with almost no loss.
functions of the bioreactor
­facade – heat generation,
biomass­production, and flue Automated process and plant automation enable the continual cultivation and
gas clearing – are directly utilization of the algae at the site of the building, with the minimum of mainte-
coupled­with the in-building
nance costs. The necessary additional building systems can be integrated into
systems (reproduction:
©Arup GmbH). existing in-building system solutions as a plug-in. The supply and drainage of
water for the bioreactors can be provided by the municipal water supply and
wastewater system.

Innovation
In 2010, the SPLITTERWERK team won their first award for their involvement in
a competition to implement a Smart Material House at the Internationale Bau-
ausstellung (IBA) Hamburg in 2013. An outstanding feature of their design was
a bioreactor facade with a surface area of more than 200m2, which was drafted
in association with Arup, who then created the plan for it. In a research project
funded by the German ZukunftBau federal research initiative, the firms Arup,
SSC, and COLT are developing a system-based solution for back-ventilated fa-
cades constructed from flat-panel photobioreactors positioned on a single axis.
Plans for the appropriate facade system have been completed; in January 2012
the first prototypes were installed at a test site in Hamburg. The first evaluations
of yield values suggest that the plan is a success. Modifications with the aim of
optimizing heat yields are ongoing.

112
9

9  Rear side of the prototype, on

the test site

113
 10 11

10  Front side of the prototype, The photobioreactors are integrated into story-high vertical slats with a width
on the test site of approximately 70cm. The glazing is constructed in four layers. The reactor
11  External sun protection slats
space within which the medium circulates is located between the two inner
as a possible application area for panes. Insulating air-filled cavities are positioned on both sides of the reactor
PBRs, for regulation of incoming space to reduce heat loss. The outermost layer consists of white antireflective
daylight – Project PSD Bank
glass on the front and cover glass with free decoration on the back. Further
funding will allow this technology to be developed and to establish itself on the
market in a similar way to photovoltaic technology.

The next immediate step in the testing phase is to integrate the system into
industrial and commercial premises in order to dispose of the CO2 arising from
their process chains. The large surface areas of the facade and roof surfaces of
single-level industrial buildings help to make operating such a system econom-
ically viable. The bioreactor facade is feasible for retrofitting in existing con-
structions as well as for new structures. Installing bioreactors can significantly
improve the design properties of an existing building. This system could de-
velop into a key technology for CO2-neutral developments and districts – with
the production rate of the algae and therefore the rate of CO2 removal made
visually apparent by the way the facade becomes green. As a further refinement
of solar thermal components, PBRs represent an ideal addition to building-in-
tegrated PV, especially in the implementation of plus energy buildings. The fa-
cade’s usefulness consists in producing biomass and heat, thereby improving
the energy budget, the reduction of CO2 emissions, and the regulation of light
and radiation penetration. A number of different possible installation situations
exist in the roof and the facade, and are currently being simulated and evalu-

114
 12

12  Simulation of the Smart ated in current research projects. The first building with a bioreactor facade – known as the
Material­House at the IBA 2013 “Smart Treefrog” – will be created in 2013, in connection with the Internationale Bauausstellung
in Hamburg with 200m² of
integrated­ PBRs
(IBA) in Hamburg.

115
Facade Recycling
Linda Hildebrand
Daniel Arztmann

Vision
Effective concepts are required to combat the impact of the climate crisis. Ex-
pected demographic developments and their resulting energy consumption
call for sensible solutions. Concern for the environment is no longer a periph-
eral issue. It is now clear in all sectors – including construction – that a serious
sustainability strategy and an environmentally friendly image are essential ele-
ments in positive publicity. One significant reflection of this is the increased
certification of new buildings.

The tasks of the construction sector

The construction sector is responsible for more than half of the raw materials
consumed worldwide and over 60% of all waste produced [71], making it a
special case. The consequences of these figures are very clear: the construction
sector is more in need of change than other industrial sectors, and also has
more potential for change. Recyclability of products is recommended as a start-
ing point for improving the situation, as analysis of the intensive consumption
of resour­ces during the construction process shows. This is backed up by an
innovative ecological product development process, with documentation to
show the feasibility of environmentally appropriate implementation.

The construction industry takes raw materials from nature in order to produce
heat, cooling, and power. The consumption of this energy in the operation of
buildings correlates with operating costs. Lowering consumption is in the inter-

116
1 2

1  Production of ests of the operator, and also minimizes impact on the environment. Raw ma-
element facades terials and the energy derived from them for use in construction and demolition
2  Assembly of
of a building’s structure – “gray energy” – have hitherto received less attention.
element facades As operating energy consumption declines, however, this value is becoming
increasingly relevant. For a building that complies with the 2007 German En-
ergy Savings Ordinance (EnEV), for instance, gray energy levels are equal to
operating energy levels over a period of thirty years.

Gray energy levels can be calculated and evaluated using life cycle assessment.
This involves listing and evaluating all raw materials required for the production
process, together with all harmful emissions. Nonrenewable primary energy
and global warming potential are the most commonly used indicators.
This overview of energy use must take account both of the operation energy
and of gray energy.

Balancing environmental impact against quality makes particular requirements

of the architect. More than was previously the case, architects must examine
the consumption of materials and energy and justify it in terms of quality deliv-
ered. Aside from the economic issues, the incorporation of ecological aspects
increases the need for decisions to be well considered and, subsequently,
clearly­presented. Architects and planners have to give more thought to wheth-
er investment of energy will be justified by an increase in quality.

117
3 4 5

3  Inclusion of silicon in
molten glass
Methods
4  Contamination of glass by
Three strategies exist for optimizing the environmental impact of buildings:
PVB film
improving the cost-benefit ratio (increased efficiency);
5  Compound materials for
saving energy and reducing the associated emissions (sufficiency);
insulation­ walls
restructuring to accommodate new energy forms (new energy structures).

Increased efficiency

Efficiency denotes the achieving of a goal with a minimum of effort. In this

context, it means deriving maximum quality from a minimum of raw materials
while minimizing CO2 emissions. Transparent presentation of energy use is an
important indicator for the efficient operation of a building in Germany. The
German Energy Savings Ordinance (EnEV) requires building owners to produce
the figures for their properties.

Sufficiency

The simplest way of reducing cost and carbon dioxide emissions is to restrict
consumption. Intelligent use of energy is one way of avoiding excessive con-
sumption of energy for heating. Passive measures are of particular significance
to the construction sector. The avoidance of ventilation and transmission heat
loss via the facade has a significant impact on the amount of energy needed for
heating and cooling. Construction standards have risen since the oil crisis of the

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6 7

6  Waste from facade 1970s, and look set to conform to European demands for “nearly zero-energy
production building” standards over the next few years.
7  Scrap category:
aluminium cuts New energy structures

Renewable energy provides light and heat and releases less CO2, as it does not
use fossil fuels and therefore produces no fossil fuel emissions. As of 2012, a
resolution to increase the level of renewable energy use from 5.8% (the 2006
level) to 20% by 2020 has been enshrined in law [72]. It is the intention of leg-
islators that requiring grid operators being to buy power from renewable en-
ergy systems at a fixed price will act as an incentive for adoption.

Increased efficiency for facades

Innovative ways of changing how we make use of diminishing resources while

contributing to reducing emissions can be realized by means of specific plan-
ning strategies within the building industry. In this case, standard practice in the
recycling of facades was the example taken as the object of study.

Specifically, the recycling potential of an element facade was investigated [73].

Element facades’ extensive prefabrication makes them a likely choice for use in
large-scale projects involving full glazing. We can assume that after their pro-
jected useful life of fifty years, a large proportion of facades of this type will
enter the recycling process.

119
 insulation bars

upper corner connection

T-connection

façade fixation
PA-connectors

lower corner connection dry glazing

Dismantling of original facade unit Allocation of materials % by weight total % by weight AL only
1. Removal of glazing beads Category 1 / 3 (glazing beads, glass support) 9,5 % 12 %
2. Removal of glazings and panel construction and separation depending on material Category 4 (insulated framing profiles) 41 % 48,5 %
3. Removal of EPDM gaskets (outer and inner glazing gaskets) Catergory 5 (insulated profiles with impurities) 33 % 39,5 %
4. Cutting of framing profiles depending on impurities EPDM gaskets, allocated to homogenous EPDM scrap 14 %
Others 2,5 %

8  Recycling plan for The analysis of the facade system’s recycling properties began with an investi-
original facade gation of the materials used and the ways in which they are connected and
combined. The principal material is aluminum, which is used for the facade
profiles and numerous additional components. In addition, several types of
plastic, such as EPDM, polyamide, polyethylene and PVC, are used in large
amounts, with the addition of small amounts of stainless steel. By themselves,
almost all of these materials possess extremely favorable recycling properties
– especially aluminum, which is almost 100% recyclable. In order to exploit this
potential for recycling fully, however, it is necessary to separate the materials
completely. The way in which the materials are combined and whether the
combinations can be dissolved is the significant factor. The spectrum ranges
from easily dissolvable connections, in which the materials can be separated
out without deterioration or contamination with detrimental substances, to
combinations that are irreversible or reversible only to a limited extent. The
plastics compounds that are in frequent use represent a particular challenge; to
create them, two or more plastics are “blended” together at the production
stage in such a way that separating them out at a later stage is either impossible
or economically unfeasible.

Materials analysis has shown that, for element facades in current use, major
expenditure of resources is required to separate out the constituent materials.
This prevents the recycling potential of their components from being fully ex-
ploited. In addition, the individual constituents of the facade are not labeled,
making it difficult to distinguish between materials with a similar appearance. As
a consequence, only materials that can readily be isolated and separated out

120
 insulation bars

upper corner connection

T-connection

façade fixation
PA-connectors

lower corner connection

dry glazing

Dismantling of alternative facade unit

1. Removal of EPDM outer glazing gaskets and glazing beads
2. Removal of glazings and panel construction Allocation of materials % by weight total % by weight AL only
3. Removal of EPDM outer glazing gaskets Category 1 / 3 (all aluminium components) 74,5 % 100 %
4. Loosen of screws from PA-connectors and facade fixing brackets Polyamide, allocated to homogenous PA scrap 9,5 %
5. Loosen of screws from horizontal framing profiels and rails EPDM gaskets, allocated to homogenous EPDM scrap 14 %
6. Disconnection of insulation bars from aluminium profiles by special machinery Others (stainless steel, optional PU-foam,…) 2%
7. Carefull soting of different materials

9  Recycling plan for can actually be recycled. The remainder of the facade construction is broken
alternative facade down and sorted into various grades of scrap, depending on the levels of con-
taminants. At the next stage, these waste materials may be downcycled into
inferior products, reused as raw materials, thermally utilized, or disposed of.

Innovation
The master’s thesis “Recycling von Fassadesystemen” (“Recycling of facade sys-
tems”) contributed to the evaluation of the potential for improving the recycling
options for this kind of facade by proposing the development of an alternative
facade type that would allow ways of solving the above-mentioned problems
to be found and implemented [73]. The starting points for this investigation
were:

the number of different materials used;

the ease with which the materials can be identified;
the subsequent feasibility of separating the construction complex for
recycling.

Optimization produced a reduction in the number of plastics used: whereas

seven types of plastic were found to be present in the original facade construc-
tion, the alternative facade plan reduced the number to three. These three types
of plastic could easily be distinguished from each other due to their different
degrees of hardness. Reversible connections were integrated into the facade

121
 construction with minimal expenditure, making it easier to dismantle the facade
components. The alternative facade also dispensed with the use of compound
materials.

Comparing the original facade construction with the alternative facade reveals
that the recycling qualities of technical products can be improved – dramati-
cally, in some cases – by simple means. The amount of aluminum contained in
the original facade construction that could be reused without quality deteriora-
tion was approximately 12%. Simple changes to the connections between the
components in the alternative facade allow this percentage to be increased by
almost 100%.

The recycling qualities of a technical product, however, do not depend solely

on recycling-oriented product development. Clear communication of recycling
properties – so that the recycling operator is aware of all the adaptations that
have been made – is equally important. A recycling passport of the type de-
scribed by VDI Directive 2243 [74] appears to be indicated. The recycling pass-
port should contain “all information relevant to recycling together with a per-
spective view image of the product, a list of the materials it contains and
their respective weights, the names of the substances that must be extracted
and treated separately (e.g. contaminants), and any potentially damaging sub­
stances and components, indications of how to remove these substances and
of reusable materials and components and a tabular list giving all substance
groups contained in the products.”

These specifications were taken as the basis for the sample recycling passports
for the facade systems described above. A recycling passport of this kind must
be available to recycling providers at the right time and in the right place; given
the projected lifespan of an element facade – about fifty years – this represents
a challenge. Radio-frequency identification (RFID) might offer one possible so-
lution to this problem. This involves storing all the relevant information pertain-
ing to the construction components used on a chip. The chip is secured to the
facade element, allowing the information to be retrieved using an RFID reader
so that the materials can be recirculated.

Future Prospects
Regardless of whether or not human activity is responsible for global warming,
its proven impact on the environment creates a need to act. The current debate
has led to calls for the restructuring of consumer behavior to recognize envi-
ronmental concerns as well as economic concerns and, ideally, to combine
them. The more sustainable reuse of construction products described here is
one possible way forward for the industry in meeting these demands. It is im-
portant to make responsible use of the available materials in such a way that
subsequent generations are not disadvantaged.

122
It can be stated that schemes to improve recycling properties significantly
­de­pend on three factors:

factor 1: taking into account recycling properties during product develop-

ment, primarily in the selection of materials and in the way they are com-
bined;
factor 2: communication of recycling options to the recycling provider, so
that the materials can be thoroughly and correctly separated. This can be
ensured by means of intelligent construction and through clear identifica-
tion of the products;
factor 3: in the final stage, it is important that the retrieved raw materials
really can be reused at the same quality level, as this is the best way of
ensuring the reuse of our world’s natural resources without loss of quality.

Further measures are needed to bring these specific insights together in a wider­
context. The example shown here sufficiently demonstrates the results of re-
sponsible planning and construction product use. It identifies a new strategy for
taking a construction concept for construction products and (certified) build-
ings and arriving at a demonstrably “green” product by means of innovative
resource management.

It is clear that the balance of energy investment (as an indicator for environ-
mental impact) against quality achieved is a complex area for architects and
planners. Building certification schemes, such as the German Sustainable Build-
ing Certificate (DGNB), create transparency for customers and the responsibil-
ity of proof for planners. It is they who must reconcile the demands of ecology,
the economy and society in order to meet the responsibility of optimizing the
environmental impact of the construction sector by creating sustainable build-
ings.

Within the construction sector, improvements can be made by optimizing

products through a multiperspectival product development process. The cur-
rent perspective on the development of features such as window and facade
systems is excessively biased toward improving individual factors, such as com-
ponent-specific heat-permeability coefficients. Legislation in the various coun-
tries is now so exacting that these values can be achieved only by using appli-
cation-specific materials or compound materials. The manufacture of these
materials is extremely energy-intensive, and, as mentioned above, their dis-
posal is extremely problematic. On the other hand, the past few years have seen
the materials consumption and environmental impact of the construction in-
dustry decline to such an extent that an assessment of the gray energy ex-
pended on the materials locked up in construction components can no longer
be ignored.

123
Wohn-Vision-2020
Recycling Design for the Living Spaces
of the Future
Verena Wriedt
Mark Fleischhauer

Vision
The aim of the Wohn-Vision-2020 research project was to help strengthen the
position of small to medium-sized companies (SMEs), and to provide opportu-
nities for disadvantaged young people and long-term unemployed people by
developing forward-looking visions for interior furnishing that make good use
of resources. The intention behind this project, which was sponsored by the
Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt (DBU), was to create an innovative network
in which different agencies’ requirements and competencies would complement­
one another, in order to create a win-win situation for the various partners from
the fields of design, education, production, advertising, and sales. It culminated­
in an exhibition of 1:1 scale representations of visions for furniture  made from
used materials – intended for living spaces, workspaces, leisure spaces, bathing
spaces, rest spaces, and cooking and communicating spaces – held in July 2011
[66].

People are increasingly looking for home-design concepts that are flexible
enough to permit adaptation to changed lifestyle requirements. The overriding
thought behind this is that every person should be able to live in his or her fa-
miliar surroundings (house, apartment, or room) for as long as possible. The
expert view is that no society (growing, stagnant, or shrinking) can afford to
ignore its population’s increasing need for home-design concepts with new
qualities and values [67]. These thoughts led to the drafting of the following
parameters for designing future interior furnishing visions in the Wohn-Vi-
sion-2020 project:

124
 1

1  Wohn-Vision-2020 started in Recycling as a basic principle: the utilization of used materials to improve
May 2009 and ended with a final resource efficiency
exhibition in the foyer of the
Detmold School of Architecture
Barrier-free living spaces: guaranteed socioeconomic participation
and Interior Design, Hochschule for all, regardless of factors such as disability, gender, age, and level of
Ostwestfalen Lippe education
Flexible floor plans: adaptation to life’s changing requirements
Minimizing climate change and adaptation: reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions and adaptation to the inevitable consequences of climate
change.

In particular, the Wohn-Vision-2020 project concentrated on deploying used

materials. In workshops, design experts and students established that in imple-
menting the project, particular emphasis should be placed on previously unex-
ploited mechanical, aesthetic, and atmospheric properties [68].

The production processes upon which the project was founded were designed
to provide disadvantaged young people and long-term unemployed people
with useful skills. The intention was that the manufacturing process for the in-
terior furnishing designs would principally require manual skills, discernment,
patience, and creativity – important prerequisites for a successful qualification.
In addition, the following criteria specifically relating to materials were defined:

1. Dismantling: Products intended for use can be isolated – by disassembly,

melting down, or cutting, for instance – in such a way that the materials
obtained do not become waste.

125
2a 2b 2c

3a 3b 3c

2  MyTie by Celia Günther 2. Designing series: Postconsumer materials and secondary raw materials are
used to create new product series, e.g., cushions made from ties or broad
3a, b   Piet and Pepe by
Nina Kreitsmann, renderings
couches made from pallet wood.
3. Ready-mades: The usability of selected furniture or components is altered
3c  Piet and Pepe by or expanded by combining two or more elements.
Nina Kreitsmann, prototype

Method
These basic conditions and principles served as guidelines for the ten different
partners (see below), who were integrated into the multistage process accord-
ing to their different types of know-how relating to design, education, manu-
facture, advertising, and distribution. The project comprised the following
phases­:

Development and representation of future living spaces

Design and assembly of prototypes made from used materials
Taking prototypes forward to serial production
Sale of the furniture

Recycling design communication campaigns – such as the recycling design

prize awarded by the RecyclingBörse! Herford since 2007 – were run to coin-
cide with the project.

126
 4a

4 4b

4  kommod and kommod2sit by

Jana Niggemeier, rendering
Results
4a,b  kommod by Responding to the demands of future living spaces
Jana Niggemeier, prototype
One of the most important results was that the concepts that were developed
contributed to meeting anticipated changes relating to future living conditions
and functions:

the living room and the kitchen merge to form a space for activities with
family and friends
the bedroom and the bathroom merge to form an oasis for relaxation
a multifunctional space takes on the roles of workspace, music room,
home cinema etc.
to create a living space in which children can grow up and adults can grow
old, flexibility is required

The students designed furniture based on the future scenarios developed in the
first phase of the Wohn-Vision-2020 project, to accommodate increasing re-
quirements in terms of mobility, flexibility, communication, withdrawal, and re-
laxation:

Flexibility: MyTie by Celia Günther can be adjusted to serve either as a sofa

or a divan bed.
Variability: the Piet and Pepe designs by Nina Kreitsmann can be used as
bar stools, armchairs, trestles, bowls, or tables.

127
5a 5b

5a  Kentrum kitchen table by Adaptability: kommod and kommod2sit by Jana Niggemeier are inter-
Maria Schewzow, prototype changeable in terms of both style and use.
5b  Kentrum kitchen table by
Foldability: fiet by Belinda Bergener can be converted from minimal mate-
Maria Schewzow, detail rial thickness for transportation to large-scale shelves or seating elements
in a single stage. The Kentrum kitchen table by Maria Schewzow can be
6  fiet by Belinda Bergener,
extended by deploying a folding leaf.
rendering
Divisibility: Julia Ebbeskotte’s space divider permits division into personal
6a, b, c fiet by Belinda Bergener, and public zones.
prototype

Contribution to sustainability

In addition to conserving materials, the project contributes to sustainability in

many other areas:

Field Details
reducing waste by using old materials for furniture production
reducing greenhouse gas emissions
reducing water consumption
Ecological reducing air pollution
increased employment (provided by a number of manufacturers) through new and growing market
s­ egments, each with its own consumer group
Economic new product types to increase profits for designers and retailers
Social Labor-intensive production: workplace niches for people with disabilities and skills-development schemes
Recycling design products encourage environmental debate and can potentially promote behavioral change
and the replacement of a throwaway culture with a culture of recycling.
Cultural The project may also stimulate the everyday creativity of individuals.

128
6

6a 6b 6c

Positive environmental impact and resource efficiency ­

in a life cycle concept

Life cycle phase Details

Resources from bulk refuse or clearances are collected on a local, or, at most, a regional
level. Most of the material is processed manually, often in workshops for people with
Extraction and processing of resources disabilities.
Product design is based around secondary raw materials (mostly particle board). Every new
piece of furniture consists of 80–90% used materials, which are checked for the presence of
formaldehyde and other harmful substances. As one of the project’s design principles,
Design materials­without harmful substances are given a label [69].
Products are primarily made by hand or using small-scale machines. Most manufacturers are
Manufacture and retail also outlets, ensuring low or zero production-site-to-sales-outlet transport costs.

The distribution of the furniture covers a wider area than resource extraction, with around 75%
of the furniture being sold up to 300km from the manufacturing site.
Distribution
The distinctive character of the new furniture designs, together with a certain degree of
identification with the product (customer’s requests are often taken into account during
Use manufacture) result in the furniture remaining in use for a longer period on average.
The process of collecting old recycled furniture does not differ significantly from the collection
Collectors of conventional furnishings.

Reuse, recycling, energy, restoration,

There is no significant difference from conventional furniture in this respect either.
disposal

129
7

7a 7b 7c

7  room partitions by
Julia Ebbeskotte, rendering The basic thought behind the production of furniture from used materials was to
extend the useful life of these materials. However, there are other aspects – such
7a, b  room partitions by as the quality of the design – that can extend a product’s period of use. Qualita-
Julia Ebbeskotte, prototype
tive product life cycle assessments were drawn up relating to these aspects:
7c  room partitions by
Julia Ebbeskotte, prototype Fig. 8 gives a picture of the potential resource savings in terms of relative values
lamp shade.
and initial qualitative assessments, taking electricity use as an example. The
flowcharts show conventional furniture production on the one hand and recy-
cled furniture production on the other. The comparison shows that significant
improvements can be achieved in terms of the ecological balance sheet, as the
energy consumed in recycling furniture production is about 63% lower than for
conventional furniture production [70].

Due to the unavailability of data, only reasonable assumptions can be formu-

lated for the standard environmental indicators. By analogy with energy con-
sumption, reductions of between 50% and 75% have been projected for other
environmentally significant factors.

Innovation
The Wohn-Vision-2020 is innovative in the following respects:

Product: new products made from new materials with a unique design
Procedures: slow production by including underprivileged social groups

130
 8

8  Example of reduction Technology: development of new production techniques, as used materi-

of environmental­ impact als require new approaches
in absolute terms
Processes: the development of entirely new ideas for organization and
interconnection
Layout: the development of furniture that is flexible in its applications and
operation

The impact of these innovations must be judged in an economic context. They

are best expressed in the specific constitution of the production factors that
contribute to more sustainable products and production processes. The aim of
the environmental protection strategy adopted by the Wohn-Vision-2020 proj­
ect – and of the furniture ideas listed above – was to combine production
factors­in an innovative process so as to optimize existing potential and exploit
any possible synergies. Expressed in terms of production factors as understood
in classic economic theory, the implementation of the environmental protec-
tion strategy takes the following form:

Land and natural resources: sparing use of raw materials (ecological value)
Work: work-intensive production that requires manual skills, discernment,
patience, and creativity, and enables people with disabilities and to disad-
vantaged sections of the population to acquire valuable skills (social value)
Capital: cost-efficient production and resources (economic value)
Human/intellectual/social capital: close ties between design, production,
and sale (creative value)

131
Optimizing
Planning Tools
Measuring Light –
Calculating Geometry
José Miguel Martínez Rico
Sergio Saiz Bombín
Aitor Leceta Murguzur

Vision
Building envelope and architecture

The main developments in contemporary architecture focus on the building

envelope. We emphasize two distinct conditions that govern its materialisation:
a search for continuity in the skin and a better control of energy flow through
the envelope.

Hans Ibelings described the status of architectural trends at the end of the
twentieth century: “Abstraction arises in radical contrast to the extravagance
and deconstructivist complexity that have constituted the aesthetic frame of
reference for the past two decades. This simplicity is not primarily a reaction to
the aesthetic of visual excess, although that aspect certainly plays a role. In es-
sence the new abstraction is an expression of a fundamentally different attitude
to architecture, which it sees less and less as significant and filled with sym-
bolic meaning, and more and more as a neutral object [75].”

The New Museum of Contemporary Art in New York clearly illustrates this idea.
Designed as a set of boxes placed on top of one another, the off-center ar-
rangement of the boxes generates a dynamic but self-controlled effect. The
continuous skin is sparingly marked with windows, offering views of the city, but
does not blight the clear, ardent and abstract image of the building. The skin is
made of a silver-plated aluminum expanded metal mesh, which is able to re-
spond to changes in artificial and natural light, to generate varying ambiances
within the building.

133
 1

1  New Museum of High-tech or supermodern architecture must now take a more sustainable path
Contemporary Art, New York. in construction, above any stylistic considerations. Neutral and efficient facades
can significantly enhance the sustainability credentials of a building, and im-
prove energy efficiency by regulating the flow of energy through the envelope
and avoiding seasonal fluctuations in temperature.

Much of the research in facade design is now focusing on thermal and solar
transmittance. We need simple design tools to quantify the performance of
systems for practical, logical, and widespread application.

Method
Metal screens and solar factor

There are a range of solutions that meet the requirements for a neutral and ef-
ficient facade. We can define these as metallic translucent facades, which are
finished with woven metal fabrics, perforated metal sheets, or expanded metal
meshes. Their translucency acts as a solar control layer and permits visual con-
tact between inside and outside through the envelope. Placing them outside
the glazed and opaque parts of the skin homogenizes the exterior image of
the building as it blurs the difference between hollow and solid. This research
is focused on the performance of expanded metal meshes as solar control
devices.

134
 2

2  Different types of metal The solar factor is between 0 and 1 and indicates the percentage of solar radia-
screens tion or thermal energy entering a window, glazed element, or solar control
device. Another useful value is the daylight factor; this refers only to light and
not thermal energy. The expanded metal meshes’ ability to absorb and re-emit
radiation depends on the color and type of material, its shape, and ventilation
of the envelope.

Tools for assessment

The geometry of expanded metal meshes induces a complex behavior of radia-

tion. Reflection, absorption, and radiation are important considerations, when
analyzing the solar and luminous character of expanded metals. There are three
methods of analysis:

Computer simulation
Laboratory simulation
Analysis of real solar radiation

The objective is to quantify solar and luminous transmittance and reflectance.

The angle at which the solar or light beam hits the metal (the angle of incidence)
dictates the transmittance capabilities of the metal.

Testing several samples will highlight the parameters affecting the performance
of an expanded metal sheet as a solar control device, and which combinations
of parameters provide an accurate relationship between solar and luminous
transmittance.

135
3

4 5

3  Visual representation of
a parametric control of the
Results
geometry­of expanded metal
meshes with the software Computer simulation
Grasshopper­
A geometrical analysis of the manufacturing process enables the use of para-
4, 5  Digital simulation of
metric design modeling. The parametric design software enables us to create
different lighting situations
through a metal mesh 3D models of the expanded metal meshes. Existing radiation simulation pro-
grams can then be used on the 3D models.

These models can be used to obtain the required type of expanded metal mesh
for the designer. The shape of the expanded metal depends on several geo-
metrical parameters. There are many possible combinations of these parame-
ters, and consequently a great variety of the geometrical possibilities of ex-
panded metal meshes.

Geometry as a result of the manufacturing process

Expanded metals are simple to manufacture. The process consists of metal

coils subjected to shearing and expanding operations in press machines. The
resulting­mesh is then galvanized or lacquered. The process consists of con-
secutive cutting and bending operations in discontinuous segments of straight
lines [76].

There are several types of expanded metals, each depending on the form of the
blade and the shape of the hole. The simplest and most common type has rhom-

136
 6 7 8

6–8  Determining factor of boid holes. Meshes with hexagonal holes are also a common form. This emu-
the geometry of expanded lates the circular pattern of perforated sheets but with a significant cost advan-
metal meshes
tage. It produces a different relationship between cross-vision through the mesh
9  Screenshot of and solar control performance when compared with rhomboid-holed sheets.
parametrically designed
model
Other than solar screen applications, expanded metal sheets have been used in
industrial elements as filters. These meshes can be pressed, formed, and welded­
into components for straining, retention, and filtration. They also serve as anti-
slip surfaces for catwalks and ramps, and as reinforcement for walls, mortar, and
plaster works.

When designing a facade the choice of building shape is dictated by the plastic
considerations. In general, we can state that the use of wider strands will obtain
greater reflection of solar radiation. Solutions comprising thinner nerves pro-
vide better cross-vision but less sun protection.

Parametric modeling of expanded metal

Parametric modeling allows us to define an object by means of parameters

instead of drawing it directly. We define the attributes of each part of the model­
and the relationships between parts or between parts and the environment.

As the objective is to analyze the performance of numerous expanded metal

models, a parametric definition of expanded metal becomes particularly useful.
The Rhinoceros modeling application and its extension Grasshopper were used
to provide the definitions regarding parametric design.

137
 10

10, 11  Different meshes Daylight and thermal computer simulation

under identical lighting
conditions
The models are exported to the radiation simulation program, which can calcu-
late the daylight factor for a three-dimensional device in a given location and
with the device in a given position.

Thermal solar energy behavior is difficult to predict. Considerations must be

made regarding the energy absorbed and re-emitted by the device and the heat
relief due to ventilation in the gap between the device and the next facade
layer.

Laboratory simulations and field tests

Laboratory simulations have two main constituents: the lamp and the sample
holder. A rotary sample holder allows us to check several directions of radiation
for the fixed lamp. The solar factor of glass is usually measured by precision
radiometers, which are designed for small samples.

Field tests on a clear sunny day are most suitable for testing the solar factor of
a solar control device. Constant changes in the position of the sun, clearness of
the sky, and air movement will produce changes in the amount of radiation and
the temperature on-site. The results obtained are then compared with the re-
sults from other methods.

138
11

Innovation
Existing methods for calculating solar paths or trajectories allow us to calculate
the angles of incidence that the sun would have in a specific location and at a
specific facade orientation. From the results of each test, we can calculate the
average solar factor for a specified mesh, geographical situation, and inclination,
which can then be used to obtain the thermal and daylight performance of fa-
cades with expanded metal meshes.

Following on from this research, a software program will be developed to gen-

erate the 3D model of expanded metal mesh and calculate the solar and day-
light factor of the device, from specified geometrical parameters, and the posi-
tion of a facade.

The development of innovative products initially focused on developing new

materials and new transformation processes. In some cases, a more efficient
design can be achieved by researching into possible improvements of an exist-
ing product. This is the case for expanded metal, a metal product invented long
ago, which has been widely introduced into the construction field without pre-
cise characterization. Obtaining the solar factor values for an expanded metal
mesh will improve the thermal efficiency of buildings; it will expand its range of
implications and lead to the design of devices with enhanced responsive capa-
bilities and thus facades will be able to adapt to varying solar characteristics.

139
Digital Design and
Construction
Marco Hemmerling
Jens Böke
Frank Püchner

Vision
From the historical perspective, the role of computer technology in the infor-
mation age is comparable to the influence of mechanized production on indus-
trial society, or that of land management on agrarian society. Changes in the
tools of production have always changed society – and, by extension, architec-
ture [77]. The increasing influence of digital technologies on the conception,
development, and implementation of architectonic design has become par-
ticularly visible in recent years. Computers have now been introduced into al-
most all architecture firms, together with the appropriate programs and appli-
cations. Generative designing methods, building information modeling (BIM)
and digital fabrication technologies are playing an increasingly significant role
in the evolution of architectonic forms. The comprehensive representation of
three-dimensional design concepts permitted by digital simulations, which also
permit direct interaction with the virtual model during the design process – sig-
nificantly expands the designer’s awareness of spatial relationships. The com-
puter is now capable of representing the whole designing and planning process,
from the first concept visualization to the completed 3D building data set. This
situation calls for an architect’s classical task areas to be redefined. It requires
architects to become familiar with a new language and to understand the
methodology that lies behind digital designing. Recognizing the potential this
offers promises more than simply new designing possibilities. Above all, it re-
stores the architect to a central role in the whole architectural production pro-
cess – from the initial idea to the completed building. This development holds
out the prospect of simplifying processes in many areas of architectural devel-

140
opment through the ability to respond more quickly to changes in the design,
by saving time through automation, by increasing economic viability through
this saving of time, by reducing the number of interfaces and potential sources
of error, and through the ability to directly transfer the digital results into phys-
ical results through the use of CAD/CAM [78].

The computer is surely the most comprehensive and dynamic medium that
architects have ever had at their disposal in completing their work. The possi-
bilities inherent in digital designing methods bring new freedoms to the devel-
opment of architecture. In order to benefit fully from this potential, however,
those involved must recognize the computer’s ability to function as an interac-
tive instrument, and see its artificial intelligence as a creative asset. Profes­sional
handling of digital media allows architectonic quality to remain in the designer’s
area of responsibility from the first draft to realization while increasing the de-
signer’s influence on the future development of architecture.

Methodology
The three specimen projects described here are part of a series of student
projects­­designed, developed, and implemented at the Detmold School of
Archi­tecture and Interior Design, Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe, over the
past  few  years with the aid of digital tools. These studies are prototypes in-
tended to demonstrate the role of the methods described in the essay “Digital
Architecture: From Drafting to Production” (p. 24) in specific projects from an

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1  Digital drafts academic­context. Aside from transmitting knowledge and expertise relating to
parametric design, the assignments given to the students were geared to the
on-site use of digital fabrication technologies. The students’ work was created
in the context of a continuous development process – from the first formal idea
to the integration of functional, constructive, and material-specific aspects into
the designing process to the manufacturing processes – incorporating diverse
disciplines, workshops, and collaborations with external partners.

SunSys

Jens Böke’s BA dissertation [79] was produced in response to the Detmold

School’s need to provide students on its campus with outdoor facilities, par-
ticularly for summer use. First, parameters for the design were established by
analyzing on-site conditions using digital tools such as GPS tracking and sun-
position analysis. In particular, existing patterns and structures of movement
on-site, usage timeframes and alignment in relation to the course of the sun
and to changing patterns of shade were used as source data for the designing
work, into which they were incorporated generatively. Analysis of pedestrian
routes and shade conditions were used to find the best possible location for the
pavilion in the plaza between the main buildings. The values for the structure’s
graduated succession of open and enclosed sections were derived from the
findings of the time-usage analysis and the sun analysis.

The profiles of the different usage areas, which give the spaces their form, were
created with reference to the seating elements – chairs, benches, and deck-

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2  Variations on the design, chairs. Users in the secluded zones are shielded from the bustle of the campus.
based on a parametric model These areas, however, do not feel shut-off or dark. Here, the roof part of the
structure is open; in the areas of the pavilion designed to function as seating
areas, it is closed. Based on the analysis, the sun vector for the day time span
was used as the reference point for creating the openings in the structure.

The parametric structure model for the design that was ultimately put forward
is based on a modeled output form. The individual surfaces of this output form
were converted into a parametric definition, which was then given the appro-
priate structure. The pavilion was to be constructed from planar elements con-
nected at an angle of 90°. The individual elements differ in shape, but can be
manufactured on a CNC lathe using a single, unified principle. The structure of
the openings is created solely by scaling the individual elements.

The fact that the structure is based on a formal principle means that SunSys
should also be understood as a prototype for this principle. Given a different set
of parameters, it would produce different major forms and different use func-
tions, but the principle would remain the same. It is an illustrative example of
the potential benefits of parametric designing and the resulting production pro-
cesses. The individual building blocks, which also constitute the connective
elements, are based on a formula that incorporates all parameters, but also
permits endless variations in terms of combination, allowing for an ideal form
with a high degree of diversity and precision [80].

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3  Simulation and optimization Design to production

of the load-bearing structure

This architectural diploma dissertation by Frank Püchner took as its starting

point the possibilities for producing curved surfaces using computer-assisted
tools [81]. He investigated a number of construction systems in relation to dig-
ital construction variants, also implementing them as physical models. The first
step was to produce the base geometry, a translation surface composed of sine
curves, on the computer. This then served as the starting point for the investiga-
tion of a variety of production and construction variants.

During the next phase – the actual production phase – it emerged that changes­
and additions to the digital data model (in terms of values, materials, positions,
details, and other factors) would be required in order to implement the digital
model using computer-controlled machines. In particular, it was necessary to
integrate readings on production tolerances, static requirements, and connec-
tion and join parameters, and the properties of the materials used (various wood
types, hard foam) into the data set involved in the transition from planning to
production.

To avoid having to produce the 3D model again from scratch as a result of these
optimization measures, a parametric model permitting adaptation was devel-
oped using Rhinoceros 3D software. The digital model was duly parameterized
with the aid of the Grasshopper plug-in [82], enabling modifications to be ap-
plied to the model in a holistic way. This allowed all the building blocks in the
process to be simultaneously controlled and altered by means of a single cen-

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4  Using laser-cutting technology tral file. Grasshopper’s visual programming also provided a template for practi-
to produce a scale model cal implementation of the series of experiments. This resulted in a digital proc­
ess chain capable of serving as the basis for a continuous development process,
from the creation of the concept geometry to the refining of the 3D model to
the realization. The parameterizing process allows any construction approach
to be directly adapted and optimized, and to be evaluated in design terms.

In addition to the triangulation, horizontal layering, and insertion raster system

production principles, Frank Püchner’s architectural diploma dissertation incor-
porated the ZIP principle [83] as developed by Christoph Schindler, programmed
as a functional data set. As a result, these digital tools do not relate solely to a
single geometry – they also allow for the production of diverse single- and
double-curved geometries.

Sparkler

Sparkler is a three-dimensional interpretation of the well-known study of pro-

portions by Leonardo da Vinci, which shows the Vitruvian man within a circle
and a square. Seen from the outside, this experimental pavilion [84] resembles
an angular crystal, while its interior conforms to a perfect spherical geometry.
These two basic forms are interconnected by the extended edges of a regular
Archimedean form – a blunted icosahedron [85] – in such a way that the result-
ing spatial sculpture appears as an internally harmonious shape. This also means
that the structure, which is composed of pentagons and hexagons, has formal
similarities to the constructions of Richard Buckminster Fuller [86].

145
 In the first stage of the designing process, a parametric geometrical model was
constructed with the aid of the Rhinoceros/Grasshopper 3D modeling software.
This geometrical model allowed the base geometry for both the interior and the
exterior – a sphere and a block as space-enclosing volumes – and the various
interface surfaces that ultimately create the form of the body to be placed in
relation to one another. This 3D model, created to serve as a designing machine,
made it possible for a large number of variations on the basic idea to be pro-
duced quickly, evaluated, and compared. Varying the sections on the external
sides allows the pavilion to occupy seven different positions. As well as expand-
ing the possibilities for use, this also alters the appearance of the sculptural
structure in ways that are dependent on angles of perspective and on the con-
tact area selected.

Additional information relating to production was added to the parametric

model in order to prepare for production of the individual components using
CNC technologies. In addition to optimized cutting to size of the panels (known
as nesting), integrating the material thicknesses, and the required tolerances
for  assemblage, logistical aspects were a factor in the construction, decon-
struction, and reconstruction of the digital model. In addition to helping to
visualize the design spatially, a scale wood model created using the laser cutter
(1:10) assisted­in the preparation for and testing of the subsequent assemblage
process.

Because the prototypical structure can be developed in an idealized process,

allowing a fundamental understanding of the methods presented, the pavilion’s
typology presents a suitable field of experimentation for new spatial concepts.
The 90 different geometrical multiplex panel formats from which Sparkler is
composed are connected by more than 120 laser-cut force-fitted steel con-
nections. This means that the structure, which is based on a buckyball, shows
statically optimized load-bearing behavior, and also permits serial production
of the identically shaped steel connectors.

Innovation
Innovations that develop in other branches of industry frequently find their way
into architecture at a later date. As has been pointed out by Michael Hensel and
Achim Menges, the introduction of CAD/CAM applications exemplifies this phe-
nomenon in analogy to previous technological developments: “Long-standing,
traditional ways of seeing and thinking predominate, coupled with polarized
positions on how to respond to the new innovations” [87]. In spite of this ap-
parent reluctance, the influence of the digital revolution on architecture is al-
ready clearly visible. As well as changing the formal shape of our built environ-
ment and the way we perceive it, the use of the computer has also changed the
way the various parties involved in architectural construction operate. This
makes it all the more important to adopt an active and critical attitude in follow-
ing these developments.

146
In our twenty-first century, computer and information technology is funda-
mental. Digital information has become a basic requirement for the designing,
planning, construction, and maintenance of buildings, and for uniting all the
partners involved in the planning and realization of architecture. The real in-
novative potential of digital technologies for architecture lies in the possibility
of bringing together the different processes in a consistent building data mod-
el [88]. Against this background, BIM is a digital planning method that intercon-
nects all processes involved in the designing, planning, execution, and manage-
ment of a building. All information is entered into a databank, and is linked
associatively by means of a parametric system. Aside from graphical informa-
tion relating to the building’s geometry, this includes nongraphical information
such as quantitative measurements, materials, time values, usages, and costs.
Modifications made to any one of these levels – 3D levels, ground plan, or
building component lists – are directly reflected on all other levels. Aside from
comprehensively combining all information pertaining to the building for pur-
poses of architecture planning, BIM also provides a connection or interface with
other agencies involved in the planning process: for structural issues, for in-
house systems in relation to building physics and facility management. The
advantages of using this planning method include improvements to the plan-
ning proc­ess and to planning quality. The use of a shared database that is con-
tinually synchronized and immediate access to all current and relevant data
results in a significant improvement in information exchange between those
involved in the planning process.

At the designing phase, parametric models permit the investigation of different

variants on a single principle. Constructing a data model of this kind defines the
initial output situation, which can then be flexibly adapted as the process pro-
gresses. Knowledge of programming is indispensable for producing this model.
Algorithms are created for the design’s basic geometry; these permit the geom-
etry and other aspects of the model, such as the materials and the construction,
to be altered at a later stage. On this basis, the conditions for the design can be
individually defined and manipulated. This fundamentally changes the design-
ing method – and, consequently, the real-world implementation of the design.
The impact of knowledge from other disciplines on architecture – such as IT
and production technology – is increased. The really important issue will be the
level of priority that is given to these areas and the aesthetic and functional
results that are produced. As architects, it is incumbent on us to meet this chal-
lenge and to find an independent architectonic means of expression for our
digital age.

147
Optimizing and
Directing Processes
Xavier Ferrers
Thomas Braig
Jörn Tillmanns

Vision
The different architectural and engineering professions first took shape during
the nineteenth century. Since then, little by little, architects have started to deal
increasingly with form and engineers with building technology. During the
twentieth century the what and how of a building have virtually become sepa-
rated into different disciplines, Experts with specific training for each of the
different fields now have to cooperate and to develop a suitable form of col-
laboration.

However, a building remains tied to the way it is built and to the materials in use.
If the performance of buildings is to keep up with increasingly exacting eco-
logical, sociocultural, and economic demands, technological advancements
and new product developments are vital. Especially the facade of a building
must perform a variety of key functions: it must give a building character, relate
it to its surroundings, users, and function, and act as a complex membrane for
energy exchange. The latter is a key issue when considering the adoption of
light systems and materials, such as the curtain walls used for office and admin-
istration buildings. Current IT knowledge and tools allow us to assess these
functions in advance, using 3D modeling, rendering, and energy and material
performance simulations.

In the present day we have many innovative and high-performance technolo-

gies at our disposal; by intelligently combining and optimizing these modern
applications to respond to technical, ecological, and economic issues, we

148
 1

1  Concept sketch for double could potentially significantly exceed existing standards. This strategy is par-
skin envelope, New Masia FCB, ticularly efficient where there has been an integrative planning process using
Barcelona, 2010, MCM Group-
Ferrés AC
computer simulations of energy consumption and costs, with product and
planning experts and the future users and owners involved from the beginning.
Programs such as the EcoCommercial Building Program (ECB), run by Bayer
MaterialScience, offer precisely these services and this range of different types
of expertise. The program brings together product and planning experts, creat-
ing a sustainable construction network that can incorporate cooperation be-
tween professional construction industry decision makers and developers, in-
vestors, and planners. Another option is to establish clear design processes
under the direction of a specialist, in this case, the facade consultant.

Method
The basic requirement for clear design processes is the technical specification
for the building and the facade that define the user comfort is an important is-
sue in the architecture of buildings – especially when light-transparent facades
are used. High-performance glass and other transparent materials combined
with light and solar control systems can be used to create adaptable work-
spaces and living spaces capable of responding to a particular situation, orien-
tation, climatic condition, and the time of day or night. The quantity and qual-
ity of light and solar radiation can be monitored to control temperature,
humidity, and natural ventilation.

149
 2

2  Concept section for envelope, The use of light facades that ignore the user’s needs is unfortunately quite
EBROSA office building, Madrid, common­. It is as if there was a new search in progress for a “global wrapping
2005, Estudio Lamela Arquitectos
for buildings­” that overlooks the context, repeats models with very few varia-
tions, and fails to consider the user’s comfort or the construction’s viability. One
also frequently finds duplications and adoption of styles from a different latitude
without appropriate thought. Performance expectations, economic viability,
management models, and technical expertise are different for each project, and
must be assessed holistically.

Unfortunately, the path from the world of conceptual ideas to constructed real-
ity is long and arduous. There are many factors that determine the quality of the
finished product. To improve their materialization, constructive proposals must
be studied with special attention to detail. The design objectives at the start of
any project are determined by:

Requirements and expectations of the use and the users,

Knowledge of the design process and industrial procedure,
Material fabrications and transformation possibilities,
Basic knowledge of construction techniques.

A study for a proposed sustainable supermarket within Germany provides an

illustrative example of the successful application of this integrative planning
process as carried out in the EcoCommercial Building Program (ECB). Both of
the firms involved are founder members of the ECB-Program: the architecture
firm Planquadrat and the energy engineering firm Bayer Technology Services.

150
 3

3  Concept sketch and details, By combining innovative technologies that are already available and tested, this
EBROSA office building, Madrid, plan achieved annual energy savings of EUR 60,000 for a retail building with a
2005, Estudio Lamela Arquitectos
usable space of 3,500m2. The standard energy costs for a newly­built conven-
tional supermarket of EUR 23 per m2 per year were brought down to EUR 6 per
m2 per year. The environment benefits from the reduction by more than half of
carbon dioxide and nitric oxide emissions, and from the reduction by a half of
SO2 emissions, qualifying this study for the “Gold Certificate” of the German
Sustainable Building Council (DGNB).

This building study shows that integrative planning and a highly individual and
striking design are not mutually exclusive and that this design can also be real-
ized with light building materials if the holistic building concept is adapted to
that fact. In addition to making the sustainable character of the building clear to
users (and playing a role in the corporate identity of the operator), the green
roof helps to regulate the building’s internal climate and the retention of rain-
water. The northward orientation of the roof windows provides harmonious
lighting for the interior by means of sunlight without direct exposure to the sun.
At the same time, it allowed the surfaces to the rear to be used optimally for
photovoltaic systems. The multiwall polycarbonate glazing is filled with nano-
gel, combining rupture safety and light weight with a high degree of transpar-
ency and exceptional insulation properties. The building’s energy-efficient and
resource-efficient outer shell is a major factor in its sustainable construction
concept. Proven systems solutions based on heat-sealed plastic sheets ensure
the sealing off of the green roof. Polyurethane – a high-performance insulating
material – was used in all parts of the building shell. Lambda values of up to

151
4

4  Visualising the building: 0.024W/(m*K) were achieved in some application areas, enabling insulation
sustainable building planning performances up to 40% higher than those of other widely used insulation ma-
terials and allowing the superstructures to be slimmed down. Polyurethane
maintains insulation performance at the same level for decades, and does not
absorb water, meaning that even if a leak occurs there is no need to replace the
insulation material. A layer of polyurethane can be up to 40% thinner than min-
eral wool alternatives and still provide the same amount of insulation. Due to its
low specific weight, this material is also lighter by a factor of 7, enabling light
constructions that are inexpensive and make sparing use of raw materials. Poly­
urethane is also sufficiently pressure-resistant to allow the roof to be walked on.
The roof is supported by a framework system with a transverse orientation.
Time-efficient and cost-efficient wall-construction systems based on wood/
polyurethane and metal/polyurethane sandwich panels combine prefabricated
construction capability with energy efficiency.

A striking photovoltaic facade is deployed on the building’s entrance face. The

solar modules in the front facade are arranged at the optimal angle, as are the
other modules on the roof. The photovoltaic system is integrated into the poly-
carbonate light-construction plastic glazing, providing needed shade. The ef-
ficiency of the photovoltaics is further increased by the sunlight reflected from
the moat in front of the entrance. The specific weight of polycarbonate is 10
times lower than that of glass, meaning that it can often be worked without
heavy equipment and requires 30% less steel for its subconstruction – a saving
on raw materials that also pays dividends in economic terms.

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5

5  The building's construction An intelligent mixture of conventional heat sources and renewable energy cre-
system ates a comfortable, economic, and ecological building climate concept, with
heat pumps combined with building component activation playing a major role.
In spite of intensive utilization of daylight, artificial light sources are indispensa-
ble, as atmospheric accentuations or highly illuminated areas are necessary and
desired. High-quality LED technologies have already proved their worth in su-
permarkets, lowering energy use by 75% or more. Polycarbonate envelopes
make a significant contribution to ensuring the long usable life and efficient
functioning of LEDs.

Floors are key interior architecture elements both in function and in design
terms. No-joint systems based on polyurethane tolerate high loads and have a
long, useful life. This permits less frequent maintenance work and generally
simpli­fies cleaning. The environment benefits in total and over the life cycle
from low waste production in the course of the renovation and from reduced
use of cleaning materials.

Results
To obtain quality architecture, we must develop a design process featuring a
correct choice of suitable facade systems and technical detail solutions that are
consistent with a general building and building envelope concept. The pro-
posed process can be applied to the design of new facades for new buildings,
and also to existing building improvement:

153
6

6  Entrance side: Photovoltaic Development of an idea from defined user needs, shapes, volumes, and
facade with a belt of water space. Feasibility studies must be made to clarify these ideas.
located in front of it
Generation of a global architectural concept.
Development of a facade or envelope concept integrated with the global
architectural concept. Fundamentally, the quality of a building is very
much defined by the success of the envelope and its correlation with the
building concept. This includes form, color, texture, light, shadow, and
transparency but also energy concepts, basic sections, and typological
decisions are made and envelope surface area and budget studies are
finalized. Interactions with Heating Venting and Air Conditioning (HVAC)
systems and structural analysis coordination are essential.
Calculation of facade systems definitions and design details. This includes
the dimensions and therefore the mechanical and structural behavior of
facade elements, distances in relation to main structural elements, and
tolerances. We must also consider fireproofing regulations, fabrication
processes, assemblage, and maintenance. Diagrams and charts are used
to define the types of glass and other facade elements, compositions, and
performances.
Technical specification of profile brands or design modifications, glass
products, other materials and their transformations, joints and seams, and
product compatibility within the envelope and with other elements of the
building.
CAD detailing and drafting drawings are produced to verify the viability of
the facade and building concept. Complete drafting of all facade design
details is essential in order to minimize the element of risk occurring at the

154
7 8

7  Rendered image, Centre d’Alt execution stage. Often models in larger scale or 1:1 scale are necessary to
Rendiment Esportiu, Sant Cugat, prove the feasibility of the concepts.
Competition 2010, TAC, Taller
d’Arquitectes col·laboradors,
SantCugat, Competition 2010, Performance parameters are the reference point for every stage of the process.
TAC Eduard Gascónarquitectes Every decision must be made in relation to components’ technical behavior. To
further reduce uncertainty, we must allocate time and resources to computer
8  Pegaso Park office building,
under construction. Madrid, simulations and calculations, lab testing and on-site prototypes, and testing. If
2011, Estudio Lamela Arquitectos all these stages are applied consequently as done for the supermarket study, the
overall budget is highly favorable: the energy costs are consistently Change to:
approximately 75% lower than the values for a conventional building, and the
emissions are approximately 50–75% lower than the comparison benchmark
values. Integrative planning allows the sustainability of buildings to be improved
using construction systems solutions that are available today and based on in-
novative light construction materials. They make it possible to optimize various
building types to substantially exceed existing standards in terms of raw materi-
als and energy efficiency, sociocultural compatibility, and economy.

Innovation
Mies van der Rohe said: “If inspiration is the moment previous to creation, the
constructive detail is what makes it possible.” The presented diagram is a cyclic
process; a transit from the world of ideas to the executive project, from concept
sketches to constructive detail. This is a process that has to be undertaken many
times to ensure that the decisions made at each stage are consistent with

155
9 10

Energy costs Conventional Study sustainable

[€/m²] supermarket supermarket

Oil 1,64 --
Electricity 15,84 2,03 Emissions Conventional Study sustainable
[kg/m²] supermarket supermarket
Electricity -- 2,29
(heat pump) CO 2 79 35
Gas 6,97 1,70 SO 2 11 6
Total 22,99 6,05 NO X 24 10
11 12

9  Building during 10  Facade prototype, Pegaso 11  Energy costs balance sheet 12  Emissions values balance
construction, CMT 22@ office Park office building, Madrid, sheet
building, Barcelona, 2008, 2010, EstudioLamelaarquitectos
BatlleiRoigarquitectes

156
 Idea

Architectural concept

parameters and technical

Performance
Envelope concept

behavior
Facade systems definition

Components and materials definition

Technical details and drafting

13

13  Cyclic process of designing previous­stages and with the project as a whole. It can easily be demonstrated
that there is a direct relationship between the quality of a constructed envelope
and an accurate design process. If the proposed cyclic design process is intro-
duced correctly, it can lead to further innovations within architecture and build-
ing technology. For successful results, interdisciplinary technical collaboration
is essential. Innovations that take place within each design aspect – e.g., com-
ponents and materials – will be reflected in more innovative systems solutions.

157
Transfering
Technologies
The Printed Building Envelope
Holger Strauß

Vision
If we take advantage of the freedoms offered by Additive Manufacturing or AM
for creating fine-detail construction components for the future, new approaches­
and fundamental ideas automatically present themselves [89]. The goal of the
cooperative research project “Einfluss additiver Verfahren auf die Entwicklung
von Fassadenkonstruktionen” (Influence of additive processes on the develop-
ment of facade constructions), run jointly by the Hochschule Ostwestfalen-
Lippe and the firm Kawneer-Alcoa (henceforth referred to as Kawneer) was to
refine the results produced by these new freedoms through consultations with
an industrial partner and to make them available for real applications.

The fundamentally different principles of manufacturing involved in Additive

Manufacturing – also known as rapid prototyping, rapid manufacturing, solid
free-form fabrication, layered fabrication, and by a number of other terms –
permit the generation of closed geometries and free forms from 3D computer
data. Its layer-by-layer production of components is in direct contrast to the
subtractive process that has characterized our way of thinking as engineers –
and by extension, the form and function of the technology we have devel-
oped  –  for the past 150 years. The AM process is already a tried and tested
(production) tool in some parts of industry, but for architecture and construc-
tion technology, they are still undiscovered territory. It is in this area that the
research project presented here aims to demonstrate the potential of these 
technologies. New ­lateral connections and new product approaches can be
created only where there is the possibility of finding the right processual

159
 1 2

1  Standard connector, technology­for the appropriate application and of putting an interdisciplinary

rendering specialist team to work on it. The facade is a sensitive area in a building’s over-
2  Standard connector,
all concept, and is therefore open to a large number of development approach-
photograph es. In this project, possible ways of using AM for an industrial facade system
were considered for the first time [90]. In this text, Additive Manufacturing (AM)
will be used as a synonym for additive fabrication processes.

Methods
Starting points

How does one begin to formulate a research approach for such a new area of
application? In order to impose realistic limitations on the expectations, the
following timeframe-related groups were used:

1. applications that could be implemented within one to five years, with

results that could be directly realized using currently available technolo-
gies (at component level);
2. projects with a timeframe of five to ten years, with the intended results
appearing to be attainable in the near future (subassembly and compo-
nents level);
3. projects with a timeframe of twenty-five to thirty years, involving applica-
tions for which technologies available today were known to be inadequate
(systems level).

160
 3 4

3  Standard free-form connector­. This system of graduated timeframes allows the current state of production to
Firm: Kolf & Molijn, the Nether- be directly related to the requirements of a changed design ethos. Those in-
lands
volved in the project calculate that a process that begins with simple changes
4  Standard free-form to standard components will develop into a unified approach, culminating in
element. Firm: Kolf & Molijn, the “printed” building envelope.
the Netherlands

Potential changes and improvements were arrived at by analyzing the compo-

nents used in a standard facade system and by looking at the frequency of their
use. The research project examined the use of materials, the reductions placed
on geometries by the extrusion press production process, and the storage and
the assembly of components. The overriding goal of the development work,
however, was to produce a facade junction element (subassembly level).

From the very beginning of the project, it became clear that AM would have a
considerable influence on the innovative development of components in con-
struction technology. Additionally, it became clear that bringing the actual de-
sign of such parts to an adequate state of advancement would require signifi-
cantly more time than had originally been envisaged, and that the quality of the
end result would depend on the diversity of the specialists contained in the
project team [90].

161
 5 6

5  3D connector, rendering Results

6  3D connector, photograph
The first result to be obtained that was viable given the current state of technol-
ogy was an improved facade connector for Kawneer’s standard AA-100 post-
and-beam system. It incorporated digital planning tools, an individualization of
the facade geometry and a structural improvement to the post-and-beam con-
nections.

Today’s “AA-100 System” incorporates a connector profile for nonorthogonal

splices. Due to the geometrical restrictions imposed by the extrusion process,
however, this component does not satisfy all requirements for a connector of
this type. The extrusion tools are optimized for the process in the first stage, and
are not optimized for the actual profile use as a component until the second
phase. The manufacture process, then, places constraints on the geometry of
the extruded profiles, but also on the minimum quantity that must be provided
for, and therefore also places constraints on storage and on throughput values.

In the specific case of the post-and-beam connector, the angle at which the
post lies atop the beam can be varied. However, the low contact area and the
nondefined position of the screw channels result in a load transfer in the con-
nection that is many times smaller than in the equivalent orthogonal system.

The AM design for an improved connector integrates all angles and drilled holes
digitally. This allows precisely gauged connections for every facade junction
point to be planned by means of a parametric model and manufactured using

162
7 8

7  3D connector, detail AM. In the case of the component presented here, the shape was optimized
through the “digital” removal of material not required for functionality, saving
8  DMLS construction
component in beam profile
25  percent of materials compared to the standard component (defined by
Mattheck­as  the “soft kill option” [91]). The AM process will produce only the
quantity of connectors that is required (on-demand production). The “digital
connector” can be installed using the standard post-and-beam system compo-
nents, in a similar manner to the orthogonal construction style. As the installation
situation remains unchanged, the same tools and additional parts are used for
the modified facade as for a standard one. The beam profiles are processed using
the CNC lathe to create the precise angle, using information from the deforma-
tion data.

The optimization potential for this connector is good because the component
geometry is changed to reflect deformations in the facade. The digital pro-
gramming of the angles required combined with the reduction in materials
consumption and the improvement in performance properties demonstrate the
added value associated with AM. This “digital” connector is the first prototype
to be manufactured additively in stainless steel. Although it has not progressed
past the first stage of development, it demonstrates the potential and the ways
in which drafts and performance can be changed.

These first optimized components yielded a second approach to fulfilling the

predefined goals of the project: a “one-off” solution for a deformed beam-
and-post facade which demonstrates the current state of advancement in
“Direct­Metal Fabrication” (DMF) – the use of additive processes to manufacture

163
 9

9  Nematox II, rendering components­in metal [92]. This initiative led to the development and realization
of a digitally planned and additively manufactured facade node – the Nematox.

This component took all the advantages of the previously developed connector
a step further, resulting in a node point that can be directly manufactured with
the correct dimensions and to possess the advantages described above in
greater measure. The merging of the post and the beam profile means that only
perpendicular saw cuts are necessary for the assemblage of the facade. This
optimizes the cutting on the profile, thus easing assembly. This also makes the
water conduits’ transit from the beam into the post’s channels easier, improving
the system technically. All the additional parts from the existing system can also
be used for the deformed facade [90].

Project evaluation

The use of an additive process as a production strategy adds a further branch to

the digital process chain (“file-to-factory”). AM facilitates the ideal situation for
CAD/CAM production by making it possible to incorporate information directly
from the digital design process into the design component. For a construction
assignment concerning an existing building, this might involve measurements
that take account of deformation, but for a new building plan, it could also be
a free geometry that deviates from the orthogonal system [93]. A direct – i.e.,
automated – implementation allows free-form components to be manufac-
tured to the same quality as an orthogonal system, including all angles and the
necessary connecting elements. In the case of the AA-100 facade recorded

164
 10 11

10  Nematox II, photograph here, the digitally adapted connectors between post and beam would opti-
mally transmit all loads from the beam to the post, while accepting all seals and
11  Nematox II, mock-up
bonding agents to the same standard as the orthogonal system. The Nematox
node also allows curved facades to be optimized in terms of cutting and a
secure­system to be implemented. The risk of faulty connections and sealing
layers is minimized. Digital planning and manual implementation enter into a
new relationship – a kind of digital craftsmanship.

Innovation
Potential applications in facade construction

Of itself, Additive Manufacturing offers designers and engineers many possi-

bilities for reinterpreting existing objects. The projects described here extend
this to facades – a whole new area of application for AM. In addition to the
results of the project, a clear picture has been created for how research into this
area might be continued. Development of the presented AM facade prototypes
to a point at which they can be used in a project for the first time would repre-
sent a true milestone in construction technology. The project made it clear that
intensive engagement with the new technologies is needed to highlight the
important questions and to bring highly specific options for further research to
light. Knowledge of technical possibilities and limitations is essential to further
development – especially of applications in building envelopes. For those con-
sidering deploying these methods in the facade industry, the available DMF

165
 metals are interesting potential building materials because their material prop-
erties are sufficiently known. The ability to import established facts creates a
greater degree of confidence for the developer in terms of dimensions and
stability. The benefits that first recommended this technology for use and that
originally led to the project’s being conceived (light construction, free forms,
savings on materials, integrated functions etc.) make existing drafting strategies
and thought models obsolete. They could lead to a radical reinterpretation of
existing systems, components, details, and design approaches.

By contrast, when rapid technologies were invented in the 1980s, they were
initially used purely for manufacturing demonstration models – a process
known as rapid prototyping. All the work within the market today, however, is
geared toward manufacturing products that support actual use, and not the
manufacture of prototypes.

There are currently no official regulations or quality standards for AM technol-

ogy products. If standardized production is envisaged, a general building super-
vision approval is required for the materials and products used. In the area of
construction technology in particular, standardized components and load
cases­ are defined with reference to standardized construction components. As
construction is always concerned with the safety of the user, certification and
assessable material properties – and therefore assured accountability – is a
priority goal of the development process [90], [94].

166
12

12  “Zero Tolerance The end result of the research and theory can be summed up by saying that
Refurbishment­ Facade” there is the prospect of a broad field of applications beyond the current limita-
principle, from
“Imagine RAPIDS”
tions. The corresponding change in our thinking began long ago – CAD/CAM,
file-to-factory, and digital materials are becoming established as current key-
words, and the first solid results are now being demonstrated. The evolution of
the technologies is extremely rapid, making a more intuitive use of AM a real
prospect. It has also become clear that there are still hurdles to be overcome
on the road to “real” application of AM if the technology is to be exploited to its
full potential. These hurdles, however, are largely technical in character and are
not limitations that are inherent in the AM system.

In future, the constructs of planners and architects will have to be “fit for func-
tion rather than fit for production” (Wilhelm Meiners, Fraunhofer Institute for
Laser Technology [95]).This turns the well-known, secure framework of engi-
neering knowledge and the architectural doctrines of the past hundred years
on its head.

167
D
  irect Glass Fabrication
Lisa Rammig

Vision
Digital technologies largely determine contemporary lives, and their impor-
tance continues to grow in various sectors. Starting in the 1970s with the first
personal computers, these technologies have significantly influenced economy
and society. Computer technologies provide the possibility of mass-production
processes, where manual labor is not required and accuracy and optimization
can be guaranteed. The development of digital fabrication moves from mass-
production to more customized and individualized fabrication. It is possible to
create the perfect product without reverting to single-piece – handcraft –
manufacturing. The customer becomes part of the production again; the prod-
uct grows to their taste.

While the direct fabrication of materials such as plastics or metals are now a
sophisticated technology (known as Additive Manufacturing, or AM), the direct
fabrication of glass, perhaps one of the most fascinating building materials, is
almost unexplored. Glass is strong but brittle, heavy yet looks lightweight, and
it is transparent. These properties have made glass an important component of
our built environment. Several types of glass, such as laminated and insulated
glazing, coated, curved, and free-formed glass panes were developed rapidly
after the float glass process was invented. Besides the progress in glass produc-
tion, structures have also been further developed to increase a transparent ar-
chitectural appearance. Current architecture is strongly influenced by digital
media and 3D modeling software, giving us the possibility to create almost
anything. In turn, this has developed the need for better-performing glass ele-

168
 melt

float

cut

grind drill

clean

bend

join weld temper coat ablate

laminated point line plane toughen glass screen-printed sand blast

point fixed facade canopy planar connection

smart glass colored etched
curtain wall facing stair rigid joint
liquid crystal
smart glass
electrochromic photovoltaic
holographic
thermotropic
phototropic
thermochromic

insulation units
1

1  Schematic diagram: ments and connections. Free-formed glass panes, each one different to the
glass processing other, might fit perfectly together, but are produced individually. At this point
the question arises: why not use AM for glass production? Direct glass fabrica-
tion (DGF) would give the possibility to produce free-formed transparent build-
ing parts, without the complexity of the conventional steps of production.

This article discusses the opportunities and limitations of technology with re-
spect to material properties, current technologies, design parameters, recent
developments, practical testing, and possible areas of further research.

Method
Glass: the material

Glass can be described physically as a rigid inorganic silicate product of amor-

phous nature. In contrast to crystalline materials it is characterized by its isot-
ropy, which means that all properties or measured values are the same in each
direction of the structure. Conventional glass such as soda-lime glass consists
of silica sand, lime, and soda. Properties such as stiffness and color can be
adapted by the addition of other materials.

Compared to other substances like metal or plastics, which are defined by their
chemical affinity, glass is described by its structural composition, which must
be seen irrespective of the chemical composition. The advantageous properties

169
 Si Si
O O

2 3
Si
O

2  Soda-lime glass of glass such as light transmittance, thermal behavior, and solidity result from its
Si molecular structure. Silica glass has the simplest structure, as it consists solely­
3 SiO2 crystal, 2D
O of silicon dioxide. While the structure of a silica crystal is sorted, the molecular
composition in its glass state is unsorted, and therefore it is not a crystalline
structure. The material seems to be liquid but does not tend to creep or flow.

The high proportion of silica sand (around 75 percent) expresses the hardness,
strength and brittleness of the material. A brittle material fails or breaks after
minimal deformation. The composition of the glass is a fundamental factor of
the viscosity of the melt and the properties of rigid glass. As described, pure
silica glass tends to crystalize but has a very low coefficient of linear thermal
expansion, which makes it resistant to temperature differences and thermal
shocks.

Technical parameters for DGF

The technical parameters governing the development of direct glass fabrication

(DGF):

The coefficient of linear thermal expansion is an important value for the

applications of glass, especially for analyzing the material with respect to
additive manufacturing processes.
The theoretical strength of the glass expresses stiffness as a result of the
bond strength of individual components, which unrealistically assumes a
crack-free glass.

170
4


Na Al Si

 
Ca O O


Na Al Si

 
Ca O O

4 SiO4, 3D The practical strength takes into account such cracks and is therefore
significantly lower. This strength value is crucial for the dimensioning of
5 SiO2 glass, 2D
components.

Borosilicate glass is primarily used in the chemical and pharmaceutical indus-

tries because it offers better chemical resistance and a lower coefficient of lin-
ear thermal expansion, which is important to be able to heat contained liquids
with a burner. This significantly enhances its resistance to large temperature
differences induced by the additive fabrication process.

Another important factor is the viscous performance of the material. When a

crystalline substance is heated, it will melt at a particular temperature, and be-
come liquid. In contrast, glass does not have a melting point; it softens continu-
ously under the influence of temperature. The organized molecular structure of
a crystal produces a hard solid material, while glass has an irregular structure
and therefore behaves like a cooled liquid. For a DGF addition onto a conven-
tional fabricated glass sheet, the whole pane of glass must be heated to a uni-
form temperature, which is limited by the thermal shock resistance of the glass.

Practical application

A practical test was carried out to evaluate the possible processes of AM glass
technology. The material layer arrangement, related to temperature, is fabri-
cated using a welding process. To verify the quality of jointing, tubes and rods
were welded to glass panes, followed by panes, layers, and points. These were

171
6 7

6  Manual welding process made by heating a glass rod, elongating it to a thin wire and then welding it onto
a pane of glass. The connected layers must have a constant high temperature
7  Connection after
mechanical testing
such that bonding with the next layer is possible. Borosilicate glass was used, as
its properties are suitable for welding processes.

To simulate the process of AM, the glass panes were laid in a fire-resistant box
and preheated using a burner. The joints were welded with this same burner.
After joining the glass, the panes were then annealed in a ceramic oven, where
the material can be cooled slowly from working temperature to room tempera­
ture, from 800°C down to 20°C within twenty hours.

Results

Different types of connections were manufactured to compare and evaluate

atomic bonding. Firstly, the behavior of glass-glass connections was tested and
the degree of precision to which they could be made. The applications of layer-
by-layer fabrication were then completed to simulate an industrial additive
manufacturing process.

Testing of the welded connections showed that the failure of the material gen-
erally occurs within the region of the original material, confirming that the con-
nections are stiffer than the original material.

The implementation verifies that it is possible to manufacture glass-glass con-

nections with AM processes layer by layer, generating stiff connections. The

172
 8

8  Manual process of question arises of how such a production method could be used in architecture
layer glass welding or the facade industry and what products it could develop.

To develop architectural applications from basic production principles, a glass

point fixing was designed such that it can be attached to the glass pane by an
additive process. This was then fabricated and tested for numerous connections.

When compared to conventional point fixations, one of the main advantages is

that the quantity and size of fixings can be determined individually for each
pane. Attachments are optimized based on the dead load, wind load, and other
influences. The most important advantage of the point fixing however, is the
removal of the need to drill the glass panes, so that no stresses are induced, and
thermal losses are reduced as there is no thermal bridging. The penetration of
the outer pane is avoided, which means that the thermal separation of the fa-
cade is uninterrupted. This is of significant importance for the Northern Euro-
pean climate, now more than ever with current energy-saving regulations and
sustainability considerations.

Innovation
Developments in AM technologies for glass, one of the most aesthetically
pleasing materials, are still in the early stages. Examining material properties,
common technologies, and analyzing the parameters governing DGF the fol-
lowing conclusions can be made:

173
 Fabrication technologies are available but must be adapted for the properties of
glass. This research tries to show these fabrication abilities by moving away
from computer-controlled additive processes to a manual process.

The major problem when dealing with larger panes of glass is that they have to
be heated carefully to avoid breakage of the material. The behavior of the glass
can be customized by modifying properties such as viscosity, thermal linear
expansion coefficient, and the resulting maximum thermal shock resistance. For
the fabrication of large products, special heating and cooling components are
required to provide the object with uniform heat. Partial heating of the glass
would result in material breakages caused by thermal stresses.

The developed point fixing technique highlights the applicability of DGF to

facade­design. Producing a fixing that connects the glass panes to the primary
facade without penetration of the outer pane can lead to new opportunities
in facade construction. It would be possible to construct facades without ther-
mal breaks and without the visual disturbance of conventional point fixings. It
has been shown that the additive manufacturing process for producing glass is
feasible. The results also encourage further research to be undertaken within
the field so that products can be developed that are truly representative of the
technological advances.

174
 3 4

2 5

1 glaspane with pointfixation

2 clamping ring
3 elastomer gasket
4 clamping piece
5 mullion
9 10

9  Glass point fixing

10  Detail of glass point fixing

175
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Materials, Processes, and Systems. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
[61] Pricken, Mario: Kribbeln im Kopf. Mainz: Verlag Hermann Schmidt,
Prentice Hall, 1996.
2007.

177
Notes

Digital Design and Construction Footnote to [90]: cf. Holger Strauß, internal concluding report “Influ-
ence of Additive Processes on the development of Facade Construc-
[77] Schmitt, Gerhard: Architektur mit dem Computer. Braunschweig:
tions,” Hochschule OWL – Kawneer-Alcoa third-party project; pres­
Vieweg, 1996, pp. 28–31.
ented in October 2010.
[78] On this, see also: Hauschild, Moritz; Karzel, Rüdiger: Digitale
Prozesse. Munich: Detail Verlag, 2010. Project partners:
Kawneer-Alcoa Europe Commercial SAS, La Plaine, France; Kawneer-
[79] Supervised by: Prof. Marco Hemmerling and Prof. Ulrich Nether,
Alcoa Aluminium Deutschland, Inc., Iserlohn, Germany; Alcoa Architec-
2009.
tuursystemen, Harderwijk, the Netherlands
[80] SunSys was awarded the Studienpreis BDA Masters 2009.
[81] Supervised by: Prof. Marco Hemmerling and Prof. Swantje Kühn,
2008.
[82] www.rhino3d.com, www.grasshopper3d.com.
[83] Schindler, Christoph: “ZipShape – A Computer-Aided Fabrication
Method for Bending Panels without Molds,” in Architecture “in
computro” [26th eCAADe Conference Proceedings], Antwerp
17–20 September 2008.
[84] Supervised by: Prof. Marco Hemmerling, Prof. Holger Hoffmann
and Prof. Matthias Michel, 2011.
[85] On this, see also: Pottmann, Helmut; Asperl, Andreas; Hofer,
Michael; Kilian, Axel: Architectural Geometry. Exton, PA: Bentley The contribution and the project “The Printed
Press, 2007. Building­Envelope” has been supported by:
[86] Buckminster Fuller, Richard: Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth.
Zurich: Lars Müller, 2008.
[87] Hensel, Michael; Menges, Achim: “Form- und Materialwerdung,”
ARCH+, no. 188 (2008): p. 18.
[88] Hemmerling and Tiggemann, Digital Design Manual (see note 25).

The Printed Building Envelope

[89] ASTM, Typologies for layered fabrication processes, in ASTM F2792,

A. USA, Editor. 2009, ASTM International Committee F42 on
Additive Manufacturing Technologies: Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Volume 10.04.
[90] Strauß, Holger: AM Facades – Influence of additive processes on
the development of facade constructions. Detmold: Hochschule
OWL - University of Applied Sciences, 2010: p. 83. The contribution and the project “Connections and
[91] Mattheck, Claus: Verborgene Gestaltgesetze der Natur: Optimal- Coatings” has been supported by:
formen ohne Computer. Karlsruhe: Karlsruhe Institute of Technol-
ogy, 2006, p. 116.
[92] Hopkinson, Neil; Hague, Richard and Dickens, Philip: Rapid
Manufacturing. An Industrial Revolution for the Digital Age. Chich-
ester, England: John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., 2006.
[93] Knaack, Ulrich; Bilow, Marcel; Strauß, Holger: Imagine 04 –
Rapids: Layered Fabrication Technologies for Facades and Building
Construction. Rotterdam: 010 Publishers, 2010, p. 128.
[94] Wohlers, Terry T.: “Review of Current US AM Market,”
TCT Magazine, April 2011.
[95] Honsel, Gregor: “Drucken in 3D,” Technology Review (2006).
The contribution and the project WohnVision-2020”
Picture credits: has been supported by:
All illustrations reproduced here are the property of the author.
References:
Footnote to [89]: ASTM International Committee F42 on Additive
Manufacturing Technologies: AM: ~ process of joining materials to
make objects from 3D model data. Additive Manufacturing (AM) as
opposed to subtractive manufacturing methodologies. Usually with AM,
parts are processed layer upon layer. Synonyms: additive fabrication,
additive processes, additive technologies, additive layer manufacturing,
layer manufacturing, and free-form fabrication.]

178
Authors

Daniel Arztmann  Director of technical development for growth markets Eckard Foltin  Director of the new business creative centre at Bayer Ma-
at Schüco International KG, Bielefeld since 2011. 2010 team leader and terialScience AG since 2003, since 2008 within global­corporate devel-
project engineer in Schüco’s Engineering Europe department. 2010 Mas- opment. Since 1984 various positions from application­technology to
ter’s in facade engineering, Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe, Detmold. marketing in the plastics field in various regions for Bayer AG. 1984 Di-
2003 Diploma in architecture, specializing in metal construction, Hoch- ploma in mechanical engineering / process technology.
schule für angewandte Wissenschaft und Kunst Hildesheim-Holzmind-
en-Göttingen (HAWK). Since 2010 master’s course lecturer for Interna- Christian Grabitz  Director of marketing and communication for the WIB
tional Facade Design and Construction (IFDC). Member of the European Wirtschaftsvereinigung Industrie- und Bau-Systeme e.V. (Commercial As-
Facade Network (EFN). sociation for Industrial and Building Systems) since 2009, responsible for
publicity for the WIB’s specialist building associations – and also for the
Jan Bieniek  At the Detmold Schule für Architektur und Innenarchitektur, steel profile grids working party. General secretary of the European Door
Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe since 2006. 2010 Bachelor of architec- and Shutter Federation e.V. 2006–2009 assistant director and later head
ture and interior design, since his MA interior design and architecture. of quality in the motor car supply industry. 1997–2001 studied econom-
Student or academic assistant in the model-making and prototype man- ics and organization sciences specializing in marketing and logistics at
ufacturing department since 2007. the Universität der Bundeswehr, Munich, and the University of Texas, Aus-
tin.
Thomas Böhm Architect, project director, and member of the Böhm
Gruppe research department, Potsdam, Germany, since 2009. 2009 ar- Marco Hemmerling  Professor of computer-aided design and director of
chitecture diploma at the Hochschule RheinMain University of Applied the postgraduate master’s course on computational design and con-
Sciences Wiesbaden Rüsselsheim Geisenheim, long stays in the USA, struction at the Detmold Schule für Architektur und Innenarchitektur,
Austria, and Spain. Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe. Architecture diploma at the Bauhaus-
Universität Weimar and the Politecnico di Milano. Postgraduate MA in
Jens Böke MA Since 2012 coordinator of the postgraduate Master – architecture media management at the Hochschule Bochum. Member of
Computational Design and Construction” and since 2013 project director the Bund Deutscher Architekten and the Deutscher Werkbund.
and research associate in the ConstructionLab at the HS-OWL in Det-
mold. 2012 Start of studies for a doctorate in the field of CAAD at the TU Thomas Henriksen  Thomas Henriksen  works for  Waagner- Biro as Re-
Delft. 2009 BA at the HS-OWL, Detmold School of Architecture and Inte- search & Development Director, responsible for the R&D department.
rior Architecture. 2012 MA at the msa, münster school of architecture. Developing new structural concepts and researching the use of new ma-
2008 traineeship in the dutch architectural design office UNstudio. terials in facades. He has gained a high level of experience in design
across a wide range of buildings and infrastructure projects. He has been
Dr. Thomas Braig  Since 2009 head of Bayer MaterialScience’s EcoCom- working as a project manager on several big projects including the facade
mercial Building Program in Europe, Middle East, and Africa (EMEA). works for the Harpa concert hall in Reykjavik and recently the Sowwah
2005–09 Asia Pacific regional marketing director for Diversified Indus- Gallaria in Abu Dhabi. Thomas Henriksen is currently attached to the TU
tries in the Polyurethanes business unit, Bayer AG, Hong Kong. 2002–05 Delft as a guest researcher.
management assistance and personal assistant to various executives.
2000–02 laboratory head for semicrystalline thermoplastics in the re- Dr. Winfried Heusler Since 1998 technical director for Alumin­ium and
search & development department of the plastics group at Bayer AG. CTO (Chief Technical Officer) at Schüco International in Bielefeld, Ger-
2000 PhD in polymer chemistry from the TU in Munich, Germany. many. 2004 Professor at the architectural faculty­of the University of Kiev,
Ukraine. 2002–04 lecturer at the University of Stuttgart, Germany. 1981–
Xavier Ferrés Padró Diploma in architecture at Escola Superior 98 facade construction company GARTNER, Germany. 1991 doctorate at
d’Arquitectura del Vallés (Polytechnic University of Catalonia), master’s in the Technical University of Berlin, Germany. 1976–81 diploma in me-
construction technology from UPC. Since 2006 assistant academic co- chanical engineering at the Technical University in Munich, Germany.
ordinator and teacher of the Master de Arquitectura de Fachadas at the
University of the Basque Country (EHU). Head of Ferrés Arquitectos & Linda Hildebrand  Studying for a doctorate on gray energy in the building
Consultores, consulting office in Spain related to facade building and sector at Delft University of Technology since 2008; academic teaching
technology for more than twenty-five years. and research assistant at the Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe (HS OWL),
Detmold, Germany. 2008 Architecture diploma, HS OWL, architecture
Dr. Mark Fleischhauer  Since 1998 researcher at the TU Dortmund Univer- and interior design faculty. Career launch into pilot certification work with
sity at the Department of Regional and Urban Economics, Faculty of Spa- the DGNB (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Nachhaltiges Bauen; German As-
tial Planning (1998–2003), the Institute of Spatial Planning (IRPUD, since sociation for Sustainable Building). Active in several research projects and
2003) and the Institute of Environmental Research (INFU, 2007–11). 1997 publications.
diploma in spatial planning at the University of Dortmund, 2003 doctorate
thesis.

179
Authors

Christoph Kirch Academic assistant and project director in the Con- in the master’s program in light facade architecture and sustainable con-
structionLab research department at the Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe struction, soil mechanics, foundations, architecture law and project con-
(HS OWL), Detmold, Germany, since 2008. 2008 examination for author- struction. Since 2007 scientific committee of the master’s program in
ization to present building documents for interior designers. 2007 Di- light facades. Since 2007 member of M-etxea research team. 2005–08
ploma in interior design, HS OWL, faculty of architecture and interior researcher of the Modern Movement in the Basque Country for DOCO-
design. Before studying he trained as a cabinetmaker. He specializes in MOMO Ibérico.
the field of measurement technology for the perception of architecture
(Eye Tracking System) and acoustics. Ulrich Nether  Professor of product design and ergonomics in the archi-
tecture and interior design department at the Hochschule Ostwestfalen-
Dr. Ulrich Knaack  Chairman of the architectural engineering and tech- Lippe (HS OWL), Detmold, Germany, since 2006. Since 2008 founder
nology department in the architecture faculty, TU Delft, Holland, and member and spokesman for the PerceptionLab research department at
professor in the construction design department since 2009. Founder of the college. 1998–2005 First partner, then board chairman for the Hadi
the facade research group at the TU Delft and at the HS OWL. Director of Teherani, Hamburg, product design brand. Independent interior architect
the international facade design and construction M.Eng. program at the and designer with Jeanette Faust in Düsseldorf since 1992. 1989 Diploma
Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe (HS OWL), Detmold, Germany, since in interior design at the PBSA, Düsseldorf. Numerous national and inter-
2008. Has worked there since 2004 as professor of design and construc- national prizes such as the gold BR Deutschland design prize 2004, the
tion, dean of the department in 2011/12. 1998–2005 worked as architect Neocon Gold Award, various Red-Dot and IF-Awards for product design
and general planner in various studios in Düsseldorf, including RKW. 1998 and the IF-Communication Award. Member of the Deutscher Werkbund.
doctorate at the RWTH Aachen on structural glass building.
Dr. Uta Pottgiesser  Since 2012 dean of the faculty of architecture and
Dr. Lorenz Kramer  Since 2008 innovation manager in the Creative Cent- interior design at the Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe (HS OWL), Det-
er within New Business at Bayer MaterialScience AG. Representative of mold, Germany. Since 2008 course director of the M.Eng. program in
Bayer MaterialScience in the open innovation network future_bizz, where international facade design and construction at HS OWL. 2006–11 Vice
new business ideas and business models are developed together with president of research, development, and internationalization. Since 2004
other companies along the value chain. Doctorate in physical chemistry. professor of building construction and materials at HS OWL, faculty of
Studied chemistry at the University of Cologne. architecture and interior design. 2002 Doctorate from the department of
civil engineering, TU Dresden. 1991 Diploma in architecture, TU Berlin.
Christina Kröger  Since 2008 companion in the architectural office Stell- Since 2005 organization of the annual conference facade200x at HS
werkstatt in Detmold, Germany. 2005–08 architect at Fritzen+Müller- OWL. Since 2010 member of the Docomomo International Scientific
Giebeler, Ahlen. 2005 worked for ASTOC Architects and Planners, Co- Committee of Technology (ISCT).
logne. Participating in architectural competitions as well as planning and
building construction. 2000–2005 Studied architecture at the Hochs- Frank Püchner  Freelance worker since 2010 in the digital design depart-
chule OWL, Detmold. Student assistant for the chair of urban and city ment, training for 3D modeling, visual representation and desktop pub-
planning. 2004 Practical semester at Stephen Varady Architecture Sydney, lishing. 2010 Diploma in architecture, Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe,
Australia. Detmold, Germany. Trained as a carpenter before studying.

Aitor Leceta Murguzur  Since 2010 research assistant of José Miguel Mar- Lisa Rammig Since 2012 facade engineer at Inhabit Europe, London.
tínez Rico at the Architecture School of San Sebastian. Since 2009 de- 2010–11 ConstructionLab, Detmold School of Architecture, HS-OWL.
signer in Samazuzu Arquitectos office. Since 2008 freelancer on archi- 2010 Facade Research Group, TU Delft. 2010 MA in architecture and
tectural visualization. Since 2007 member of M-etxea research team, MEng IFDC at Detmold School of Architecture, HS-OWL. 2008 BA in ar-
being responsible for Kimu workshops about digital fabrication and para- chitecture at Detmold School of Architecture, HS-OWL.
metric design­. He studied architecture at the University of the Basque
Country­. Sergio Saiz  Since 2008 manager of thermal energy area of TECNALIA
and energy engineer at the University of Basque Country (UPV/EHU).
Dr. Steve Lo  Senior lecturer in sustainable environmental engineering Since 2011 member of the Energy Efficiency Enterprises Association
and director of studies for the postgraduate diploma/MSc in facade engi- Steering Committee and LEED AP for new buildings and major renova-
neering at University of Bath, England, since 2009. Worked for the Envi- tions. Since 2004 master’s degree in thermal engineering.
ronmental Section of the R&D department of Wimpey Homes and at the
Rutherford-Appleton Laboratory of the UK Science and Engineering Re- Dr. Christoph Schindler   Since 2002 partner at schindlersalmerón furni-
search Council. 1990 Doctorate at Cranfield University. 1985 Gained MSc ture architecture, since 2010 lecturer at Zurich University of Applied Sci-
in energy conservation and the environment at Cranfield University. ences (ZHAW). 2009 Doctorate at Ludger Hovestadt’s chair of CAAD at
ETH Zurich. 2000 Diploma in architecture, TU Kaiserslautern, Germany.
José Miguel Martínez Rico  Since 2006 PhD researcher at the University He held workshops at the Detmold School of Architecture and Interior
of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). Since 2007 teaching at the UPV/EHU Design (2011), Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Copenhagen (2010, 2012),

180
Fachschule für Holztechnik Hamburg (2009), NTNU Trondheim (2006,
2007) and Hochschule Liechtenstein (2006). He is lecturing and publish-
ing on a regular basis.

Dr. Holger Strauß  Researcher and member of the facade research group
at the TU Delft, Netherlands. Course manager of the M. Eng. program
“International Facade Design and Construction” at Hochschule OWL, Det-
mold, Germany. Project leader in research and development. Diploma in
architecture at HS OWL. Freelance architect. Certified engineer for care
and conservation of historical buildings. Degree as master cabinetmaker.
Certified log cabin builder.

Jörn Tillmanns  Trained as a stonemason/stone sculptor and then

worked as an artist-smith. He concluded his subsequent architecture
studies with a diploma and has been a member of the Architektenkammer
Hessen since 2011. He has worked for Planquadrat Elfers Geskes Krämer
Part.G. since 2000, since 2004 as project manager specializing in design
and sustainability­.

Verena Wriedt  Since 1989 chair of furniture and product design at Hoch-
schule Ostwestfalen-Lippe (HS OWL), Detmold, Germany. 2008–2009
Dean, faculty of architecture and interior design at HS OWL. 2004–2006
Vice dean, faculty of architecture and interior design at HS OWL. Since
2001 head of the school’s workshop for experimental modeling. 1981–
2001 Freelance with workshop for designing and making wood furniture­,
Hamburg. 1981 Finished her education at John Makepeace School for
Craftsmen in Wood, England. Until 1979 was trained as a cabinetmaker,
studied fine and applied art, archaeology, and history in Munich, Berlin,
and London.

Dr. Jan Wurm  Since 2008 leader of the Europe Region Materials Group
of ARUP, Berlin. Being an architect with a deep technical understanding
of the building process and products, Jan has steered a number of suc-
cessful product developments and innovations together with industry
partners. 2005–08 Arup Materials Consulting and Arup Facade Engineer-
ing, London. 2005 Doctorate in structural glass, RWTH Aachen, Germany.
1999–2005 Leader of glass research group, RWTH Aachen. 1999 Diploma
in architecture, RWTH Aachen.

181
Index

3D model  46, 136ff, 144ff, 168 facade system  153ff, 160ff recycling options  129ff
fire resistance  79ff recycling passport  130
absorption 95ff recycling potential of an element facade  127
acoustic 95ff geometrical  53ff, 136ff, 146 recycling properties  128ff
additive fabrication  160, 171 geometry  46ff, 53ff, 65, 133ff, 144ff, 159ff Renewable energy  74, 115ff, 127, 153
Additive Manufacturing (AM)  159ff, 168 glass  36ff, 74ff, 78ff, 96ff, 168ff research process  96
analysis  18ff, 45, 71ff, 95, 124ff, 135ff, 142ff glass mounting  39 resources  74ff, 107, 124ff
anchorage system  102ff gray energy  125 road map  34ff
art 78ff roof  36ff, 78ff, 122, 151ff
human-centered design  9ff, 74
Blechprofilroste 60 samples 66
break 83 increased efficiency  126ff Simulación lumínica  138
building automation  69 innovation in construction  34, 48 simulation  135ff, 140, 148ff
building envelopes  60ff, 75ff, 165 innovation processes  49 solar factor  134ff
insulating  81, 88ff solar radiation  118, 135ff, 149
Cable net  40 integrating 98 solar thermal effect  117ff
CAD-CAM 26 interaction  26ff, 79, 140, 154 sound absorption  94ff
class A fire protection  95 interdisciplinary  12, 63ff, 73, 92, 95ff steel  46ff, 63, 79ff, 146
CNC hot wire cutter  56ff invention  34, 48ff stiffening 79
combinations 128 strength  81, 170ff
comparative measurements  98 laminated  54ff, 81ff,168 structural element  78, 154
component facade  42ff lattice shell  36ff structural glass  80ff
composition  82ff, 169ff LED backlighting  64 structure model  143
computer technology  24, 140 load-bearing capacity  63, 79 surface  18ff, 55ff, 95ff, 143ff
conceptual phase  27 luminous transmittance  135 sustainability  31ff, 71, 111, 124
construction  21ff, 25ff, 34ff sustainable network  77
construction types  34 manufacturer’s capabilities  79
curved forms  53ff manufacturing process  29, 136, 142, 162 technology-related production implemen­
curved glass  79ff market  16ff, 34, 48, 58ff, 60ff, 87ff, 94ff tation 64
materials analysis  128 thermal  74, 117ff, 134ff, 170ff
designing process  146 materials databanks  97 thermal breakage  82
design principles  64ff media technologies  24
design tools  73ff, 134 metal  60ff, 99ff, 134ff, 164, 168ff user acceptance  103
development  10ff, 24ff, 34ff, 64ff, 87ff, 95ff, metal meshes  134ff user groups  63
114, 140ff, 159ff, 170 models  79, 136
digital design  27ff, 140ff ventilation and exhaust processes  43
digital design process  164 operating energy  125
digital form development  25 wood  54ff, 144
digital planning instruments  46 parameters  27ff, 36, 48, 94ff, 135ff, 142ff, 169ff
digital planning method  147 Parts Distribution  39 ZipShape 53ff
digital process chain  145, 164 plastic  128ff, 151ff
digital tools  24ff, 141ff polyvalent wall  42, 71
drafting process  24ff post-and-beam connector  162
potential changes  161
energy and materials efficiency  71 practitioner 73
energy consumption  42, 115, 124ff, 149 product-centered design  74
energy flow  133 product design  58
envelope 133 product development  30, 63ff, 94, 130ff
environment 137 production  82, 159
environmental impact  112, 125ff production process  26ff, 108, 125, 143
expanded metals  135ff production technique  31, 58, 114
profile  102, 162ff
fabrication  140ff, 159ff, 168ff programmed parametric models  28
facade construction  102, 129, 165 prototype  29, 54, 109, 143, 163
facade design  66, 134 public  37, 95
facade elements  94ff, 117ff, 154
facade functions  42 Radio-frequency identification (RFID)  130
facade node  164 radius-to-material thickness ratio  58
facades  34ff, 60ff, 70ff, 115ff, 124ff, 134ff, rapid prototyping  26, 159, 166
148ff, 159ff raw materials  97, 124ff, 152

182
Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all authors and partners involved

for their support of the publication with texts and images.
The critical and constructive examination of the drawings
was done by Gabriela Lucia Cadena Salgado and Andrea
Peitz. Anne Rotter and Danny Smith helped work on the
texts.

The publication has been supported by: 

183
Product Development and Architecture
Visions, Methods, Innovations

Uta Pottgiesser, Holger Strauß (eds.)

Project management
Annette Gref, Katharina Kulke

Copy editing
Monica Buckland

Translation German – English

Alison Kirkland

Layout, cover design and typography

Miriam Bussmann, Berlin

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