EE413

Sensors and Transducers

Module I
Lecture 10
2 Magnetic Transducers
 A sensor which is used to determine disturbances as well as changes within
a magnetic field such as strength, direction, and flux.

 Magnetic sensor readings (changes and variations in the magnetic field)

may be used to monitor object location, direction, revolution, and angle,
the existence of an electric current.
3 Magnetic Transducers
 Coils are the simplest magnetic sensors that can detect
changes of the magnetic flux density.

 When a magnet is brought close to the coil, the

magnetic flux density in the coil increases by ΔB.

 An induced EMF/induced current is generated in the

coil.

 Magnetic flux generated due to the induced current is

in a direction that hinders an increase in magnetic flux
density is generated in the coil.

 Lenz’s law: Induced magnetic fields oppose the

changing magnetic fields that cause them
4 Magnetic Transducers
 Moving the magnet away from the coil reduces the magnetic
flux density in the coil.

 Induced EMF and induced current will be generated in the coil

to increase the magnetic flux density.

 When magnet is not moved → No change in the magnetic flux

density → no induced EMF or induced current will be
generated.

 By measuring the direction and magnitude of this induced EMF,

it is possible to detect the change in magnetic flux density.

 Output voltage depends on the rate of change of the

magnetic flux.

 It may not be possible to use a coil to detect a fixed magnet or

magnetic flux that changes very slowly.
5 Magnetostriction
 Magnetostriction is a property of magnetic materials that causes them to
change their shape or dimensions during the process of magnetization.

 This change of dimension of magnetic materials during magnetization may

continue till the magnetic saturation of the material is attained.

 Magnetostriction can be calculated by the magnetostriction coefficient or

Joule’s magnetostriction coefficient (𝝀).

 λ is the fractional variation in length as the magnetization increases from zero to

saturation value.

 Let the length of a ferromagnetic rod be 𝑳 and after magnetizing it from zero to
saturation level, the change in length is 𝜹𝑳.

𝜹𝑳
 Joule’s magnetostriction coefficient, 𝝀 = 𝑳
6 Magnetostriction
 Structure of the ferromagnetic substances consists of
domains. Each domain is a region of identical magnetic
polarization.

 When the material is not magnetized, the domains are

randomly arranged. If the material is magnetized, the
domains are oriented with their axes approximately
parallel to one another.

 When a peripheral magnetic field is applied, the borders

linking the domains move and domains revolve. As a
result, there will be change in the dimension of the
material. This effect is the outcome of magneto
crystalline anisotropy. Thus, a strain is induced in the
material.

 As a result, the overall dimension of the material

changes (expands or contracts, depending on the
direction of the magnetic field applied).
7 Magnetostrictive effects
 Joules Effect: When a ferromagnetic substance is subjected to magnetic field, it
will alter in shape.

 Villari Effect: When a substance is subjected to a mechanical stress, the

susceptibility of that substance changes (magneto elastic effect i.e., inverse of
magnetostriction)

 Matteucci Effect: When a magneto-strictive material is subjected to a torque, a

helical anisotropy of the susceptibility of that material will be created.

 Wiedemann Effect: The twisting of a ferromagnetic rod through which an

electric current is flowing when the rod is placed in a longitudinal magnetic field
(reverse of Matteucci effect).

 Magnetostriction materials: Iron, nickel, cobalt, iron-aluminum alloy etc.

8 Magnetostrictive Position Sensor
 Consists of a magnetostrictive wire (or waveguide, serving as the measuring
element), a permanent magnet (PM) and a pickup coil (converting the
mechanical pulse into an electric signal). The pickup coil can be a single coil, a
dual coil, an FM recording tape, or a piezoelectric element.

 A current pulse (interrogation pulse) is applied to the ferromagnetic wire where it

generates a circular magnetic field around the wire. The permanent magnet
(rectangular or ring shape) is connected to a moving object whose position is to
be measured.
9 Magnetostrictive Position Sensor
 The PM’s magnetic field interacts with the magnetic field of the current pulse, resulting in
an elastic deformation of the waveguide in a form of mechanical pulse (strain wave or
sonic wave) (Joule effect). This sonic wave travels along the waveguide in both directions.

 At one end of the guide, a pickup coil detects this strain wave and converts the strain
change into either an electrical signal or a magnetic field change (Villary effect).

 At the other end of the guide, the unused pulse is attenuated by a damping module to
prevent interference from waves that would otherwise be returned or reflected from the
waveguide tip.

 Position of the object is accurately determined

by using the time elapsed, t, from emitting current
pulse to receiving the strain pulse

𝒗𝒔 𝒕
 Position of the Object =
𝟐

where 𝑣𝑠 = 340 m/s is the speed of sound

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R9CAmjVK3SI&ab_channel=SICKSensorIntelligence.
10 Magnetostrictive Level Sensor
 It consists of a magnetostrictive wire (held under tension inside a guide tube), a float
(fitted with permanent magnets) that can move along the guide tube as the liquid
level changes, and the sensor electronics.

 A current pulse is released to the wire and generates a circular magnetic field along
the length of the magnetostrictive wire. When the pulse reaches the float, the pulse’
circular magnetic field interacts with the float’s magnetic field, generating a torsional
stress pulse in the wire.
11 Magnetostrictive Level Sensor
 A piezoceramic converter at the end of the wire converts this stress into an electrical
signal.

 By measuring the elapsed transit time from the starting point of the current pulse to
the receiving point of the resultant stress wave, the float position can be determined
with high accuracy. This system works only if the auxiliary column and chamber walls
are made of nonmagnetic material.
12 Magneto resistive effect
 Magneto-resistive effect is the change of the resistivity of a current carrying
ferromagnetic material due to a magnetic field.

 Current parallel to the magnetic field → Resistance increases

 Current flow is perpendicular to the magnetic field → Resistance decreases

 Observed in ferromagnetic metals – anisotropic magneto-resistive effect

(AMR)

 In semiconductors, this effect is known as geometrical magneto-resistive

effect.

 Magneto-resistive sensors measures the angle of a parallel magnetic field.

 Have wider detectable area, high sensitivity, higher output.

13 Anisotropic Magneto resistive effect
 If angle between the direction of internal magnetization 𝑴 and that of current
𝑰 in the sample is 𝝓, then resistivity of the material is given by
M
𝝆 𝝓 = 𝝆𝜶 + 𝝆𝜷 − 𝝆𝜶 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝝓

 𝜌 = 𝜌𝛽 when 𝜙 = 0𝑜
𝜙
 𝜌 = 𝜌𝛼 when 𝜙 = 90𝑜 I

 (𝝆𝜷 −𝝆𝜶 )/𝝆𝜶 specifies the magneto-resistive effect (+ve and quite large in
general)

 Consider a bar of length 𝒍, width 𝒘 and thickness 𝒕 with current 𝑰 flowing along
the length, resistance of the bar is

𝜌𝛼 𝑙 Δ𝜌𝑙
𝑅 𝜙 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜙 = 𝑅 + Δ𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜙
𝑤𝑡 𝑤𝑡
Δ𝜌 = 𝜌𝛽 − 𝜌𝛼
14 Anisotropic Magneto resistive effect
 When an external magnetic field H is applied, the internal magnetization
vector rotates by an angle 𝝍 which is formed between M and the axis of
lowest energy called the easy axis.

𝐻𝑦 = 𝐻 sin 𝛾 H

𝐻𝑥 = 𝐻 cos 𝛾
M
𝛾
𝐻𝑦 𝜓
sin 𝜓 =
𝐻𝑥 x
𝐻0 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜓

𝐻0 is the characteristic field

15 Anisotropic Magneto resistive effect
 Basic Magnetoresistive sensor: Thin film of appropriate alloy obtained by etching
to get a length 𝒍, width 𝒘 and thickness 𝒕 and electrodes attached at the
length ends. Usually, 𝑙 ≫ 𝑤 ≫ 𝑡.

 Current 𝑰 is allowed to flow along the easy axis.

 When an external magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the direction of

the current flow (𝐻𝑥 = 0), the internal magnetization vector rotates (Angle
between the new magnetization vector M1 and the easy axis is ψ).

Ferromagnetic material
M1
I Direction I
of external M
magnetic ψ
𝜙
field x
16 Magneto resistive sensor
 If 𝜙 = 𝜓 and 𝐻𝑥 = 0

 Sensor resistance, 𝑅(𝐻)

𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒚
𝑹 𝑯 = 𝑹 + 𝜟𝑹 𝟏 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝍 = 𝑹 + 𝜟𝑹 − 𝜟𝑹 = 𝑹𝟎 − 𝜟𝑹
𝑯𝟎 𝑯𝟎

 𝐻0 is the characteristic field

 𝐻𝑦 is the magnetic field along y-axis i.e., perpendicular to the direction of

current flow along x-axis y
H
𝐻
 If 𝐻𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝐻0 should be written as 𝐻0 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜓
𝑥

M
𝛾
𝜓
x
 y

17 Magneto resistive sensor H

M
 For current parallel to magnetic field i.e., 𝐻𝑦 = 0 𝛾
𝜓
 Sensor resistance, 𝑅(𝐻) x

2
2
𝐻𝑦
𝑅 𝐻 = 𝑅 + Δ𝑅 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜓 = 𝑅 + Δ𝑅 − Δ𝑅 = 𝑅 + Δ𝑅
𝐻0

 For current perpendicular to magnetic field i.e., 𝐻𝑥 = 0

 Sensor resistance, 𝑅(𝐻)

2
2
𝐻𝑦
𝑅 𝐻 = 𝑅 + Δ𝑅 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜓 = 𝑅 + Δ𝑅 − Δ𝑅
𝐻0

i.e., resistance reduces as compared to when the current was parallel to the
magnetic field.
18 Semiconductor Magnetoresistive
sensor (SMR)
 Semiconductor material exposed to magnetic field → resistance increases

 Magnetoresistive element utilizes the change in the resistance value caused by the Lorentz force.

 Lorentz force acts perpendicular to the velocity v of a free charge carrier and magnetic
induction B. The charge carrier collides with the crystal lattice and loses its velocity.

 Metal electrodes are placed on a semiconductor thin film in the structure of SMR. When a
clockwise current flows through the semiconductor thin film, electrons which are carriers of N-type
semiconductors flow counterclockwise with a velocity v.

 When applying a magnetic field B, electrons undergo Lorentz force and change in direction of
current or its rotation increases the path of current flow → resistance increases.