VECTOR ALGEBRA I

WEEK 3: VECTOR ALGEBRA I

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In the world of engineering, physical quantities can be divided mainly into scalar and vector. These quantities
can be represented by numbers alone (i.e., magnitude only), with the appropriate units, and they are called
scalars. Another physical quantity with magnitude and direction are called vectors. Scalars and vectors are
the underlying elements in vector analysis.

Scalar vs Vector

Scalar Vector
Example Mass; length; Displacement;
temperature; voltage velocity; force;
acceleration
Unit of quantities kg; m; Degree; Volt m; ms-1; N; ms-1
Direction No Yes
Symbol/Notation 𝑎; 𝑏; 𝐴; 𝐵; 𝑃𝑄 → → →
𝑎̰ ; 𝑏̰ ; 𝑂𝐴 , OB , PQ

3.2 BASIC CONCEPTS

A scalar is a quantity that is determined by its magnitude. It takes on a numerical value, i.e., a number.
Examples of scalars are time, temperature, length, distance, speed, density, energy, and voltage.

A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. We can say that a vector is an arrow or a
directed line segment. For example, a velocity vector has length or magnitude, which is speed, and direction,
which indicates the direction of motion (Fig 3.1); a force vector points in the direction in which the force acts
and its length is a measure of the force’s strength.

A vector (arrow) has a tail, called its initial point, and a tip, called its terminal point. The length of the arrow
equals the distance between initial point and terminal point (Fig 3.1). This is called the length (or magnitude)
of the vector a and is denoted by |𝑎|. Another name for length is norm (or Euclidean norm). A vector of
length 1 is called a unit vector.
 Fig 3.1: The directed line segment ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 is called a vector

Fig 3.2: The velocity vector of a particle moving along a path (a) in the plane (b) in space.
The arrowhead on the path indicates the direction of motion of the particle.

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Equality of Vectors - Two vectors a and b are equal, written, if they have the same length and the same
direction as shown in Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3 (A) Equal Vectors. (B) – (D) Different Vectors

3.2.1 COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR

Let a be a given vector with initial point P: (x1, y1, z1) and terminal point Q: (x2, y2, z2). Then the three
coordinate differences

are called the components of the vector a with respect to that coordinate system, and we write simply

a = [a1, a2, a3]. See Fig 3.4 (a). The length |𝑎| of a can now readily be expressed in terms of components and
the Pythagorean Theorem we have

A Cartesian coordinate system being given, the position vector r of a point A: (x, y, z) is the vector with the
origin (0, 0, 0) as the initial point and A as the terminal point (See Fig 3.4 (b)).

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 a) b)

Fig 3.4 (a) Components of a vector (b) Position vector r of a point A: (x, y, z)

Example 3.1

Exercises

Let u= 3𝑖 − 2𝑗 and = −2𝑖 + 5𝑗 . Find the (a) component form and (b) magnitude (length) of the
vector.

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3.2.2 VECTOR ADDITION, SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

Two principal operations involving vectors are vector addition and scalar multiplication. A scalar is simply a
real number, and is called such when we want to draw attention to its differences from vectors. Scalars can
be positive, negative, or zero and are used to “scale” a vector by multiplication.

Geometrically, place the vectors as in Fig. 3.5 (the initial point of b at the terminal point of a); then a + b is
the vector drawn from the initial point of a to the terminal point of b. Fig. 3.5 also shows (for the plane) that
the “algebraic” way and the “geometric way” of vector addition give the same vector.

Fig 3.5 Vector Additions

Basic Properties of Vector Addition

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Properties (a) and (b) are verified geometrically in Fig. 3.6 and Fig 3.7, respectively. Furthermore, -a denotes
the vector having the length |𝒂| and the direction opposite to that of a.

Fig 3.6 Commutativity of vector addition Fig 3.7 Associativity of vector addition

Geometrically, if a ≠ 0 then ca with c > 0 has the direction of a and with c < 0 the direction opposite to a. In
any case, the length of ca is |𝑐𝒂| = |𝑐| |𝒂|, and ca = 0 if a = 0 or c = 0 (or both) (See Fig 3.8).

Fig 3.8 Scalar multiplication [multiplication of vectors by scalars (numbers)]

Basic Properties of Scalar Multiplication

From the definitions we obtain directly:

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Example 3.2

Exercises

3.2.3 UNIT VECTOR

A vector v of length 1 is called a unit vector. In this representation, i, j, k are the unit vectors in the positive
directions of the axes of a Cartesian coordinate system. The standard unit vectors are
𝑖 = 〈1, 0, 0〉, 𝑗 = 〈0,1,0〉 𝑘 = 〈0, 0,1〉

Any vector can be written as a linear combination of the standard unit vectors as follows:
𝑣 = 〈𝑣1,𝑣2, 𝑣3〉 = 〈𝑣1,0, 0〉 + 〈0,𝑣2, 0〉 + 〈0, 0, 𝑣3〉

= 𝑣1〈1,0,0〉 + 𝑣2〈0, 1, 0〉 + 𝑣3〈0, 0,1〉

𝑣 = 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑣2𝑗 + 𝑣3𝑘

From Figure 3.9, we call the scalar (or number) v1 the i-component of the vector v, v2 the j-component, and
v3 the k-component. In component form, the vector from P1(x1, y1, z1) to P2(x2, y2, z2) is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃2 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1)𝑖 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1)𝑗 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1)𝑘

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 Fig. 3.9 The vector from P1 to P2 is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃2
Whenever v , its length |𝑣| is not zero and
1 1
| 𝑣| = |𝑣| = 1
|𝑣| |𝑣|

That is, 𝑣⁄|𝑣| is a unit vector in the direction of v, called the direction of the nonzero vector v.

Example 3.3

In summary, we can express any nonzero vector v in terms of its two important features, length and direction,
by writing

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Example 3.4

***PROVE that the length of unit vector is 1.

3.3 VECTOR IN SPACE

3.3.1 Cartesian coordinates of a vector in 2D space & its polar expressions

(a) Definition of a 2D vector

Let 𝑂 be the origin and let 𝑂𝑥 and 𝑂𝑦 be two mutually perpendicular coordinate axes.
Then, the plane containing 𝑂𝑥 and 𝑂𝑦 is called the xy-plane or the xy-coordinate system and 𝑂𝑥 is called the
𝑥 axis and 𝑂𝑦 is 𝑦 axis.

The vector 𝑖̰̇ is the vector from the origin 𝑂 to the point (1,0).
The vector 𝑗̰̇ is the vector from the origin 𝑂 to the point (0,1).

Note: 𝑖̰̇ and 𝑗̰̇ are unit vectors and also position vectors.

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Any vector 𝑣̰ in xy-plane can be represented by 𝑣̰ = 𝑎𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ or 𝑣̰ = ⟨𝑎, 𝑏⟩ where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are scalars. The
scalars 𝑎 and 𝑏 are called the components of the vector 𝑣̰ with respect to that coordinate system.

The vector ai and vector 𝑏𝑗̰̇ are called the vector components in the direction of 𝑖̰̇ and 𝑗̰̇, respectively.

Notation:
(i) The vector 𝑣̰ = 𝑎𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ can be denoted by 𝑣̰ = ⟨𝑎, 𝑏⟩
(ii) The point 𝑃 at (𝑎, 𝑏) can be denoted by (𝑎, 𝑏), 𝑃 (𝑎, 𝑏) or 𝑃 = (𝑎, 𝑏)
(iii) Note that (𝑎, 𝑏) ≠ ⟨𝑎, 𝑏⟩ to avoid confusion. (𝑎, 𝑏) represent coordinates of a point. ⟨𝑎, 𝑏⟩
represent components of a vector.

(b) Vector Algebra of a 2D vector

Let 𝑣̰ 1 = 𝑎1 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏1 𝑗̰̇ and 𝑣̰ 2 = 𝑎2 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏2 𝑗̰̇ be two vectors. Then
(i) 𝑣̰ 1 = 𝑣̰ 2 >> Then, 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 ; 𝑏1 = 𝑏2
(ii) 𝑣̰ 1 + 𝑣̰ 2 >> Then, (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )𝑖̰̇ + (𝑏1 + 𝑏2 )𝑗̰̇
(iii) 𝑣̰ 1 − 𝑣̰ 2 >> Then, (𝑎1 − 𝑎2 )𝑖̰̇ + (𝑏1 − 𝑏2 )𝑗̰̇
(iv) Let 𝛼 is a scalar, then 𝛼𝑣̰ 1 = (𝛼𝑎1 )𝑖̰̇ + (𝛼𝑏1 )𝑗̰̇

(c) Theorem of an arbitrary vector in 2D space

→
Let 𝑃 and 𝑄 be the points (𝑎1 , 𝑏1 ) and (𝑎2 , 𝑏2 ) respectively. Then, the vector 𝑃𝑄 is given by
→ → →
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝑃 = ⟨(𝑎2 − 𝑎1 ), (𝑏2 − 𝑏1 )⟩

Proof:
→ →
Let 𝑂𝑃 = ⟨𝑎1 , 𝑏1 ⟩, 𝑂𝑄 = ⟨𝑎2 , 𝑏2 ⟩
→ → →
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝑃 = ⟨(𝑎2 − 𝑎1 ), (𝑏2 − 𝑏1 )⟩

(d) Magnitude & Angle of a vector in 2D space

Let 𝑣̰ = 𝑎𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ be a 2D vector.

(i) The magnitude of 𝑣̰ is defined as |𝑣̰ | = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

𝑏
(ii) The angle between 𝑣̰ and a line parallel to the x-axis is defined as 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎

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Hint: Identify the quadrant; 𝜃 is positive if it is measured in the direction of anti-clockwise; 𝜃 is negative if it
is measured in the direction of clockwise.

(e) Transformation of Cartesian form of a 2D vector to polar form

By using magnitude and angle of a vector, the Cartesian form of a vector (i.e., 𝑣̰ = 𝑎𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ ) can be
transformed into polar form (i.e., 𝑣̰ = |𝑣
⏟̰ | (𝑐𝑜𝑠( ⏟
𝜃 )𝑖̰̇ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛( ⏟
𝜃 )𝑗̰̇)
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

Thus, we have 𝑣̰ = 𝑎𝑖̇

⏟ ̰ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ = |𝑣
⏟̰ |(𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜃)𝑖̰̇ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜃)𝑗̰̇)
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛

Exercise

(i) Let 𝑢̰ , 𝑣̰ and 𝑤̰ be position vectors of the points 𝑈 (2,3), 𝑉 (1,5) and 𝑊 (3, −4), respectively. Find
(a) 𝑧̰ = 𝑢̰ − 2𝑣̰ + 3𝑤̰

(b) the magnitude of 𝑧̰

(c) the angle between 𝑧̰ and 𝑂𝑥

(d) transform the vector 𝑧̰ from Cartesian domain into Polar domain

(e) compare the result in (a) and (d), explain your finding and relate this in the application of engineering.

(ii) Determine the unit vector in the direction of 𝑢̰ = 2𝑖̰̇ − 3𝑗̰̇

(iii) Find the unit vector from the point 𝑃 (1,4) to the point 𝑄 (3, −5)
(iv) Find a vector of magnitude 3 in the direction of 𝑣̰ = −𝑖̰̇ + 3𝑗̰̇

3.3.2 Cartesian coordinates of a vector in 3D space (Volume) & its polar expression

(a) Definition of a 3D vector

Let 𝑂 be the origin and let 𝑂𝑥 , 𝑂𝑦 and 𝑂𝑧 be three mutually perpendicular coordinate axes.
Then, the plane containing 𝑂𝑥 , 𝑂𝑦 and 𝑂𝑧 is called the xyz-plane or the xyz-coordinate system (Follow right
hand rule) and 𝑂𝑥 is called the 𝑥 axis, 𝑂𝑦 is 𝑦 axis and 𝑂𝑧 is 𝑧 axis.

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The vector 𝑖̰̇ is the vector from the origin 𝑂 to the point
(1,0,0).
The vector 𝑗̰̇ is the vector from the origin 𝑂 to the point
(0,1,0).
The vector 𝑘̰ is the vector from the origin 𝑂 to the point
(0,0,1).
Note: 𝑖̰̇, 𝑗̰̇ and 𝑘̰ are unit vectors and also position vectors.

Any vector 𝑣̰ in xyz-plane can be represented by 𝑣̰ = 𝑎𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ + 𝑐𝑘̰ or 𝑣̰ = ⟨𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐⟩ where 𝑎 , 𝑏 and 𝑐 are
scalars. The scalars 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐are called the components of the vector 𝑣̰ with respect to that coordinate
system.
The vector 𝑎𝑖̰̇ , vector 𝑏𝑗̰̇ and vector 𝑐𝑘̰ are called the vector components in the direction of 𝑖̰̇ ,𝑗̰̇ and 𝑘̰
respectively.

Notation:
(i) The vector 𝑣̰ = 𝑎𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ + 𝑐𝑘̰ can be denoted by 𝑣̰ = ⟨𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐⟩
(ii) The point 𝑃 at (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) can be denoted by (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐), 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) or 𝑃 = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐)
(iii) Note that (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ≠ ⟨𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐⟩ to avoid confusion. (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) represent coordinates of a point.
⟨𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐⟩ represent components of a vector.

(b) Vector Algebra of a 3D vector

Let 𝑣̰ 1 = 𝑎1 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏1 𝑗̰̇ + 𝑐1 𝑘̰ and 𝑣̰ 2 = 𝑎2 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏2 𝑗̰̇ + 𝑐2 𝑘̰ be two vectors. Then

(i) 𝑣̰ 1 = 𝑣̰ 2 >> Then, 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 ; b1 = b2 ; c1 = c2

(ii) 𝑣̰ 1 + 𝑣̰ 2 >> Then, (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )𝑖̰̇ + (𝑏1 + 𝑏2 )𝑗̰̇ + (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 )𝑘̰

(iii) 𝑣̰ 1 − 𝑣̰2 >> Then, (𝑎1 − 𝑎2 )𝑖̰̇ + (𝑏1 − 𝑏2 )𝑗̰̇ + (𝑐1 − 𝑐2 )𝑘̰
(iv) Let 𝛼is a scalar, then 𝛼𝑣̰ 1 = (𝛼𝑎1 )𝑖̰̇ + (𝛼𝑏1 )𝑗̰̇ + (𝛼𝑐1 )𝑘̰

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(c) Theorem of an arbitrary vector in 3D space
→
Let 𝑃 and 𝑄 be the points (𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 ) and (𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 ) respectively. Then, the vector 𝑃𝑄 is given by
→ → →
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝑃 = ⟨(𝑎2 − 𝑎1 ), (𝑏2 − 𝑏1 ), (𝑐2 − 𝑐1 )⟩

Proof:
→ →
Let 𝑂𝑃 = ⟨𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 ⟩, 𝑂𝑄 = ⟨𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 ⟩,
→ → →
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝑃 = ⟨(𝑎2 − 𝑎1 ), (𝑏2 − 𝑏1 ), (𝑐2 − 𝑐1 )⟩

(d) Magnitude & Angle of a vector in 3D space

Let 𝑣̰ = 𝑎𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ + 𝑐𝑘̰ be a 3D vector and let 𝛼, 𝛽, and 𝛾 be the direction angles of 𝑣̰ = 𝑎𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ + 𝑐𝑘̰

The magnitude and angle that define vector 𝑣̰ can be obtained as following:
(i) The magnitude of 𝑣̰ is defined as |𝑣̰ | = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
𝑎
(ii) The angle between 𝑣̰ and a line parallel to the x-axis is defined as 𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 |𝑣̰ |;
𝑏
The angle between 𝑣̰ and a line parallel to the y-axis is defined as 𝛽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 |𝑣̰ |;
𝑐
The angle between 𝑣̰ and a line parallel to the z-axis is defined as 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 |𝑣̰ |.

(e) Transformation of Cartesian form of a 3D vector to polar form

By using magnitude and angle of a vector, the Cartesian form of a vector 𝑣̰ = 𝑎𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ + 𝑐𝑘̰ can be
transformed into polar form 𝑣̰ = |𝑣̰ |(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑗̰̇ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 𝑘̰ ).

Thus, we have 𝑣 = 𝑣̰ = 𝑎𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ + 𝑐𝑘̰ = |𝑣| (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑖 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑗 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 𝑘 )

~ ~ ~

(f) Important remarks for polar form of a 3D vector

𝑣̰
(i) The unit vector 𝑣̰̂ is |𝑣̰ | = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑗̰̇ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 𝑘̰ ) or ⟨𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾⟩
(ii) Magnitude of a unit vector, 𝑣̰̂ is 1. Thus, we get 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛾 = 1

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 (iii) The direction angles of negative vector, -𝑣̰ are 𝜋 − 𝛼, 𝜋 − 𝛽, 𝜋 − 𝛾
(iv) Have a clear definition for the following term:

Direction cosines Direction ratio

Direction angles
𝛼 ,𝛽, and 𝛾are called the 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽, and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 are The ratios 𝑎: 𝑏: 𝑐 is called
direction angles of 𝑣̰ called the direction cosines of v the direction ratio of 𝑣̰
For Cartesian coordinate
For polar coordinate
𝑣̰ = 𝑎𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ + 𝑐𝑘̰
𝑣̰ = |𝑣̰|(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑗̰̇ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 𝑘̰ )

Additional remarks:
(i) If 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛾 ≠ 1, then there does exist a unit vector with the direction cosines
⟨𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾⟩.
Note: because unit vector has magnitude of 1.
(ii) Two vectors 𝑢̰ and 𝑣̰ have the same direction cosines if and only if they have the same
direction.
Note: Different direction cosines shows different directions.
(iii) Two vectors 𝑢̰ and 𝑣̰ have the same direction ratios if and only if they are parallel (i.e. 𝑢̰ and 𝑣̰
are in the same direction or in opposite directions).
Note: As explained by the scalar multiplication and parallel vector.

Exercise

Let 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑤 be position vectors of the points 𝑈 (2,3,1), 𝑉 (0, −5,1) and 𝑊(−3,0,0), respectively. Find
(i) 𝑧̰ = 𝑢̰ − 2𝑣̰ + 3𝑤̰
(ii) transform 𝑧̰ from Cartesian domain (i.e., 𝑎𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ + 𝑐𝑘̰ ) to Polar domain (i.e.,𝑟 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑗̰̇ +
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 𝑘̰ ) where 𝑟 is its magnitude.
(iii) the angle between 𝑧̰ and 𝑂𝑥
(iv) direction cosines of 𝑧̰ in three directions 𝑖̰̇,𝑗̰̇ and 𝑘̰ .
(v) unit vector of 𝑧̰
(vi) If given direction angle as following, can you identify whether the vector with the following direction
cosine (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑗̰̇ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 𝑘̰ ) is exist or not?

------ vector 𝑚̰ has direction angle 𝛼,𝛽, and 𝛾 of (𝜋/4,2𝜋/3, 𝜋/3).

------ vector 𝑛̰ has direction angle 𝛼,𝛽, and 𝛾 of (𝜋/2, 𝜋/3, 𝜋/3).

14
 (vii) Find the direction cosines of negative vector −𝑧̰ . Then find the relationship between the
direction cosines of vector 𝑧̰ and −𝑧̰ .

3.4 GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE, CURL OF VECTOR FIELD

3.4.1 GRADIENT OF VECTOR FIELD

Using scalar fields instead of vector fields is of a considerable advantage because scalar fields are easier to
use than vector fields. It is the “gradient” that allows us to obtain vector fields from scalar fields, and thus
the gradient is of great practical importance to the engineer. Gradients are useful in several ways, notably in
giving the rate of change of in any direction in space, in obtaining surface normal vectors, and in deriving
vector fields from scalar fields.

𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
𝑟𝑎 𝑓 = ∇𝑓 = [ , , ]= 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

The notation ∇𝑓 is suggested by the differential operator ∇ (read nabla) defined by

Example 3.5
If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 2𝑦3 + 4𝑥𝑧 + 3𝑥 , then 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒇 = [4𝑧 + 3, 6𝑦2, 4𝑥]

Exercises
Find the gradient of the following function at the given point.

(a) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = ln(𝑥2 + 𝑦2) at point (1, 1)

(b) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = √2𝑥 + 3𝑦 at point (-1, 2)

15
3.4.2 DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVES

From gradient we know that the partial derivatives give the rates of change of f(x, y, z) in the directions of
the three coordinate axes. It seems natural to extend this and ask for the rate of change of in an arbitrary
direction in space. This leads to the concept of directional derivative.

Fig. 3.10 Directional Derivative (Refer to above Equation)

The above equation can be derived into

16
The notation ∇𝑓 is read “grad ƒ” as well as “gradient of ƒ” and “del ƒ.” The symbol ∇ by itself is read “del.”
Another notation for the gradient is grad ƒ.

Example 3.6

Example 3.7

17
Exercises

Find the derivative of the function at Po in the direction of u

𝑥−𝑦
(a) (𝑥, 𝑦) = , 𝑃𝑜(1, −1),𝑢 = 12𝑖 + 5𝑗
𝑥𝑦+2

(b) ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = cos 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑒𝑦𝑧 + ln(𝑧𝑥) , 𝑃𝑜(1, 0, 1/2), 𝑢 = 1𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 2𝑘

(c) ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 3𝑒𝑥cos𝑦𝑧 , 𝑃𝑜(0, 0, 0), 𝑢 = 2𝑖 + 𝑗 − 2𝑘

3.4.3 DIVERGENCE OF VECTOR FIELD

From a scalar field we can obtain a vector field by the gradient. Conversely, from a vector field we
can obtain a scalar field by the divergence or another vector field by the curl.

To begin, let 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be a differentiable vector function, where x, y, z are Cartesian coordinates,
and let 𝑣1,𝑣2, 𝑣3 be the components of v. Then the function

𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣3

𝑖𝑣 𝑣 = 𝜕𝑥
+ 𝜕𝑦
+ 𝜕𝑧

is called the divergence of v or the divergence of the vector field defined by v. For example, if

18
 𝑣 = [3𝑥𝑧, 2𝑥𝑦, −𝑦𝑧2] = 3𝑥𝑧𝑖 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑗 − 𝑦𝑧2𝑘
Then
𝑖𝑣 𝑣 = 3𝑧 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑧

Another common notation for the divergence is

𝜕 𝜕𝑣1
With understanding that the “product” ( ) 𝑣1 in the dot product means the partial derivative , etc. This
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
is a convenient notation, but nothing more. Note that 𝛁.𝒗 means the scalar div v, whereas 𝛁𝒇 means the
vector grad f.
Example 3.8

*Div F is a scalar field.

Let us turn to the more immediate practical task of gaining a feel for the significance of the divergence. Let
f(x, y, z) be a twice differentiable scalar function. Then, its gradient exists

and we can differentiate once more, the first component with respect to x, the second with respect to y, the
third with respect to z, and then form the divergence,

Hence, we have the basic result that the divergence of the gradient is the Laplacian

19
Exercises
1) Find divergence from the gradient, div (grad f)

(a) 𝑓 = 𝑒𝑥𝑦𝑧

2) Find div v and its value at P

(a) 𝑣 = 𝑥2𝑖 + 4𝑦2 + 9𝑧2 at P (-1, 0, ½)

(b) 𝑣 = cos 𝑥𝑦𝑧 + sin 𝑥𝑦𝑧

3.4.4 CURL OF VECTOR FIELD

Let 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = [𝑣1,𝑣2, 𝑣3] = 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑣2𝑗 + 𝑣3𝑘 be a differentiable vector function of the Cartesian coordinates x,
y, z. Then the curl of the vector function v or of the vector field given by v is defined by the “symbolic”
determinant

This is the formula when x, y, z are right-handed. If they are left-handed, the determinant has a minus sign
in front. Instead of curl v one also uses the notation rot v or rotation of v.

Example 3.9

20
Example 3.10

*Curl F is a vector field.

Exercises
Compute the curl of the following vector field:
a) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) =< 𝑒𝑥 cos𝑦 , 𝑒𝑥 sin 𝑦, 0 >
2𝑥𝑦
b) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑧
𝑖 + 𝑥𝑒𝑥𝑦 𝑗 + cos(𝑥𝑦2)𝑘

c) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥𝑦𝑧)𝑖 + (𝑥2 + 2𝑦𝑧)𝑗 + (𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2)𝑘

21
VECTOR ALGEBRA II
WEEK 4: VECTOR ALGEBRA II
4.1 PRODUCT (MULTIPLICATION OF TWO VECTORS)

There are two types of product of vectors.

Dot product Cross product

- gives a scalar as the dot product of two - gives a vector as the dot product of two
vectors vectors
- also known as scalar/inner product - also known as vector product

4.1.1 Dot Product

Definition
The dot product 𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ (read “𝑎̰ ” dot “𝑏̰ ”) is defined by:
𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
Where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ ; 𝜃 is measured when the vectors have their initial point coinciding.

Proof:
Law of Cosines: |𝑎̰ − 𝑏̰ |2 = |𝑎̰ |2 + |𝑏̰|2 − 2|𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ---- (a)
|𝑎̰ − 𝑏̰ |2 = (𝑎̰ − 𝑏̰ ). (𝑎̰ − 𝑏̰ )
= |𝑎̰ |2 − 2𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ + |𝑏̰|2 ---- (b)
So when Eqn. (a) = Eqn. (b),
|𝑎̰ |2 − 2𝑎̰ 𝑏̰ + |𝑏̰|2 = |𝑎̰ |2 + |𝑏̰|2 − 2|𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
|𝑎̰ |2 − 2𝑎̰ 𝑏̰ + |𝑏̰|2 = |𝑎̰ |2 + |𝑏̰|2 − 2|𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

Properties of the dot product of vectors

Let 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ be two vectors and let 𝛼 be a scalar. Then
i. 𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ = 𝑏̰ . 𝑎̰ (commutative law)
ii. 𝑎̰ . (𝑏̰ + 𝑐̰ ) = 𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ + 𝑎̰ . 𝑐̰ (distributive law)
iii. 𝛼(𝑏̰ . 𝑐̰ ) = (𝛼𝑏̰ ). 𝑐̰ or 𝑏̰ . (𝛼𝑐̰ ) where 𝛼 is a scalar
iv. The dot product of two vectors (i.e., 𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ ) is a scalar.

Precaution: The dot product cannot function between scalar and vector (i.e., 3. 𝑏̰ or 𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ . 𝑐̰ or 𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ . 𝑐̰ . ̰ . 𝑒̰ )

22
Orthogonal vector (Also known as perpendicular or normal vector)
We have dot product,𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, orthogonal vector has 𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ = 0

To let 𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ = 0, (i) 𝑎̰ or 𝑏̰ are zero vectors

(ii) 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ are orthogonal vectors (𝑎̰ ⊥ 𝑏̰ ), because 𝜃 = 90°; 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 0

i.e., in the 3D system, 𝑖̰̇ ⊥ 𝑗̰̇, 𝑗̰̇ ⊥ 𝑘̰ , 𝑖̰̇ ⊥ 𝑘̰ , therefore the dot products between them are zero (i.e., 𝑖̰̇. 𝑗̰̇ = 0 ;
𝑗̰̇. 𝑘̰ = 0 and 𝑘̰ . 𝑖̰̇ = 0)

Parallel Vector
We have dot product,𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, parallel vector has 𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰|
To let 𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰|, we need to have 𝜃 = 0°; 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 1
(i) Dot product of two similar vectors 𝑎̰ . 𝑎̰ = |𝑎̰ |2
2
(ii) Dot product of unit vector 𝑎̰̂. 𝑏̰̂ = |𝑎̰̂|2 or |𝑏̰̂| = 1
i.e., in the 3D system, 𝑖̰̇,𝑗̰̇,𝑘̰ are unit vectors, therefore the dot products between them are one
(i.e., 𝑖̰̇. 𝑖̰̇ = 1 ; 𝑗̰̇. 𝑗̰̇ = 1 and 𝑘̰ . 𝑘̰ = 1)

Dot product in coordinates

Let 𝑎̰ = 𝑎1 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑎2 𝑗̰̇ + 𝑎3 𝑘̰ and 𝑏̰ = 𝑏1 𝑖𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏2 𝑗𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏3 𝑘̰
Then, 𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3

Proof:
a.b = (a1i + a2 j + a3k ).(b1i + b2 j + b3k )
= a1b1 ( i .i ) + a2b1 ( j.i ) + a3b1 (k .i ) +

a2b1 ( j.i ) + a2b2 ( j. j ) + a2b3 ( j.k ) +

a3b1 (k .i ) + a3b2 (k . j ) + a3b3 (k .k )

= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3

Exercise
(i) Let 𝑎̰ = 𝑎1 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑎2 𝑗̰̇ + 𝑎3 𝑘̰ and 𝑏̰ = 𝑏1 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏2 𝑗̰̇ + 𝑏3 𝑘̰ , what is the results for the following dot product?
(a) 𝑎̰ . 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏̰ . 𝑗̰̇ + 𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ + 𝑎1 𝑏̰ + 𝑏1 𝑎̰
(b) 𝑎1 . 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏2 . 𝑗̰̇ + 𝑎3 . 𝑘̰
(c) 𝑎̰ . 𝑖̰̇. 𝑎1 + 𝑏̰ . 𝑗̰̇. 𝑏2 + 𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ . 𝑖̰̇. 𝑗̰̇ + 𝑎1 𝑏̰ . 𝑘̰ + 𝑏1 𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ . 𝑘̰ . 𝑘̰

23
(ii) Let 𝑎̰ = ⟨1,2,3⟩ and 𝑏̰ = ⟨2,0,4⟩. Find
(a) 𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰
(b) the angle between 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰
(iii) Let 𝑎̰ = ⟨2, −1⟩ and 𝑏̰ = ⟨−1/2,1/4⟩. Determine if the following vectors are parallel, orthogonal or
neither.

Projection of vector
Let 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ be two nonzero vectors and let 𝑎̰̂ be the unit vector in the direction of 𝑎̰ .
𝑎̰
Then the projection of 𝑏̰ onto 𝑎̰ is defined as 𝑏̰ . 𝑎̰̂ = 𝑏̰ . |𝑎̰ |

The component of 𝑏̰ in the direction of 𝑎̰ is defined as (𝑏̰ . 𝑎̰̂)𝑎̰̂

Geometric Interpretation
Let the angle between the vectors 𝑏̰ and 𝑖̰̇ be 𝜃
𝜃

Then, the projection of 𝑏̰ onto 𝑖̰̇ = 𝑏̰ . 𝑖̰̇̂

= |𝑏̰||𝑖̰̇̂| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
= |𝑏̰| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ∵ |𝑖̰̇̂ | = 1

= 𝑂𝑁 = the length of the orthogonal projection of 𝑏̰ on a straight line parallel to 𝑖̰̇̂

The component of 𝑏̰ in the direction of 𝑖̰̇, (𝑏̰ . 𝑖̰̇̂ )𝑖̰̇̂
= (|𝑏̰ | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)𝑖̰ ∵ 𝑖̰̇̂ = 𝑖̰̇ (both also unit vector)
→
= 𝑂𝑁
→ →
Note: 𝑂𝑁 is parallel to 𝑖̰̇. The projection of 𝑏̰ onto 𝑖̰̇ takes the negative sign if 𝑂𝑁 is in the opposite direction
of 𝑖̰̇ and vice versa.

24
Theorem
If 𝑎̰ is a given vector, then any vector 𝑏̰ (i.e., 𝑏̰ = 𝑏̰ 1 + 𝑏̰ 2 ) can be expressed as the sum of a vector parallel
to 𝑎̰ (i.e., b1 || a 𝑏̰ 1 ∥ 𝑎̰ ) and a vector perpendicular to 𝑎̰ (i.e., 𝑏̰ 2 ∥ 𝑎̰ ).
~ ~

>>>>>>

Proof
→ → →
From the diagram, 𝑂𝑀 = 𝑂𝑁 + 𝑁𝑀 ------------------ (a)
→
Previously we got 𝑂𝑁= (𝑏̰ . 𝑖̰̇̂ )𝑖̰̇̂ for projection of vector 𝑏̰ onto vector 𝑖̰̇
→
In this case, 𝑂𝑁= (𝑏̰ . 𝑎̰̂)𝑎̰̂ for projection of vector 𝑏̰ onto vector 𝑎̰
→ 𝑏̰ .𝑎̰ 𝑎̰ 𝑏̰ .𝑎̰ 𝑏̰ .𝑎̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏̰ ;
𝑂𝑁= (𝑏̰ . 𝑎̰̂)𝑎̰̂ = ( |𝑎̰ | ) |𝑎̰ | = (|𝑎̰ |2 )𝑎̰ = (𝑎̰ .𝑎̰ )𝑎̰ ; 𝑂𝑀 ------------------ (b)

→ → → 𝑏.𝑎
Thus, 𝑁𝑀 = 𝑂𝑀 − 𝑂𝑁 = 𝑏 − (~ ~ ) 𝑎 ------------------ (c)
𝑎 .𝑎 ~
~~

Subs. Eqns. (b) and (c) into Eqn. (a):

→ → →
𝑂𝑀 = 𝑂𝑁 + 𝑀𝑁
𝑏̰ . 𝑎̰ 𝑏̰ . 𝑎̰
𝑏̰ = ( ) 𝑎̰ + {𝑏̰ − ( )𝑎̰ }
⏟𝑎̰ . 𝑎̰ ⏟ 𝑎̰ . 𝑎̰
𝑏̰ 1 ∥𝑎̰ 𝑏̰ 2 ⊥𝑎̰

Exercise
Let 𝑎̰ = 3𝑖̰̇ − 𝑗̰̇ and 𝑏̰ = 2𝑖̰̇ + 𝑗 ̰̇ − 3𝑘̰
(a) Find the projection of 𝑏̰ onto 𝑎̰
(b) Find the projection of 𝑎̰ onto 𝑏̰
(c) Express the 𝑏̰ as the sum of a vector parallel to 𝑎̰ and a vector perpendicular to 𝑎̰ for case (a)
(d) Express the 𝑎̰ as the sum of a vector parallel to 𝑏̰ and a vector perpendicular to 𝑎̰ for case (b)

25
4.1.2 Applications of dot Product in Geometry

We can use dot product to find the line equation and extend it to plane equation. Besides, we will use it to
find distance between point-line, point-plane, parallel-lines, parallel-planes. Furthermore, we can use it to
find angles between intersecting lines and intersection planes.

(a) The equation of line (2D) and plane (3D) perpendicular to a given vector

(i) Equation of line

Let 𝐿be a line passing through to the point 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) and perpendicular to the vector 𝑛̰ = 𝑎𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ . Let
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be any point on the line 𝐿.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Then the vector𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑜 𝑃 is along the line 𝐿 and hence 𝑃𝑜 𝑃 ⊥ 𝑛̰

This is known as Cartesian equation of the line L (for 2D space use only).

Note: The components of 𝑛̰ are the coefficients of the line equation, 𝑎 and 𝑏. From the Cartesian equation,
we can know the information of the vector normal to the line, 𝑛̰ .

Additional remarks: Note that the Cartesian equation of line L is restricted for plotting 2D line only. We need
to use Vector or Parametric Eqn. of line L learned in Section 4.1.3 for both 2D and 3D line plotting purpose.

26
(ii) Equation of Plane
Let 𝑆 be a plane passing through to the point 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) and normal to the vector 𝑛̰ = 𝑎𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ + 𝑐𝑘̰ . Let
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be any point in the plane 𝑆.

Then the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑃𝑂 𝑃 is in the plane S and hence ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑂 𝑃 ⊥ 𝑛̰ .

27
This is known as Cartesian/plane equation of the plane 𝑆.

Note: the components of 𝑛̰ are the coefficients of the plane equation, 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐. From the Cartesian/plane
equation, we can know the information of the vector normal to the line, 𝑛̰ .

Precaution: You might think single equation such as ax + by + cz = d would be the general equation of a line
in 3 dimensions. However, such an equation defines a plane in R3, which geometrically is a flat surface which
carries on forever in the space.

Orthogonal vectors in 2D space Orthogonal vectors in 3D space

In 2 dimensions the orthogonal vector is unique and In 3 dimensions, a vector has infinitely many
forms a unique 2D line. orthogonal vectors, which sweep out around it
forming a plane.

Think: So how is a line defined in 3 dimensions? You will learn this after knowing the cross product.

Exercise:
(i) Find the Cartesian equation of the line 𝐿in the plane passing through the point 𝐴(2,3) and
perpendicular to the vector 𝑛̰ = 𝑖 ̰̇ − 3𝑗̰̇
(ii) Find the Cartesian equation of the plane 𝑆passing through the point 𝐴(1,1, −1) and normal to
the vector 𝑛̰ = −2𝑖̰̇ + 2𝑗 ̰̇ − 5𝑘̰

28
(b) The Distance from a Point to a Line or to a Plane

(i) Distance of point-to-line

Let 𝐿 be a line with the Cartesian equation𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐 and let 𝑃 be a point on the line 𝐿. From the Cartesian
equation of the line 𝐿, the vector𝑛̰ = 𝑎𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ is perpendicular to 𝐿.

𝑎̰
Previously you learnt the projection of 𝑏̰ onto 𝑎̰ is defined as 𝑏̰ . 𝑎̰̂ = 𝑏̰ . |𝑎̰ |
→
Thus, distance of point 𝑄 to the line 𝐿 = projection of the vector 𝑃𝑄 onto the vector 𝑛̰
→ → 𝑛
~
= |𝑃𝑄 . 𝑛̰̂| = |𝑃𝑄 . |
|𝑛|
~

(ii) Distance of point-to-plane

Let 𝑆 be a plane with the equation𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = and let 𝑃 be a point on the plane 𝑆. From the Cartesian
equation of the plane 𝑆, the vector𝑛̰ = 𝑎𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏𝑗̰̇ + 𝑐𝑘̰ is normal to 𝑆.

Then, the distance from the point 𝑄 to the plane 𝑆 is the projection of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 onto the vector 𝑛̰ .

Distance point Q to the plane 𝑆

→ → 𝑛
= |𝑃𝑄 . 𝑛̰̂| = |𝑃𝑄 . ~ |
|𝑛|
~

29
Exercise:
(i) Find the distance from the point 𝑄 (4,4) to the line L : 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 6

(ii) Find the distance from the point 𝑄 (3,2, −1) to the plane 𝑆: −2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 2

(c) Distance between two parallel lines or two parallel planes

(i) Distance of two-parallel-lines

The projection method is also used to find the distance between two parallel lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 . Let us choose
one point 𝑃 from the line 𝐿1 and another point 𝑄 from the line 𝐿2 .
For two parallel lines, the perpendicular vectors, 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 for lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are equal: 𝑛1 = 𝑛2 = 𝑛.
~ ~ ~ ~ ~

→ 𝑛
~
Distance between parallel lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 = |𝑃𝑄 . |
|𝑛|
~

(ii) Distance of two-parallel-planes

The projection method is also used to find the distance between two parallel planes 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 . Let us choose
one point 𝑃 from the plane 𝑆1 and another point 𝑄 from the plane 𝑆2 .

For two parallel planes, the perpendicular vectors, 𝑛1 and 𝑛2

~ ~

for planes 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are equal: 𝑛1 = 𝑛2 = 𝑛.

~ ~ ~

→ 𝑛
~
Distance between parallel planes 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 = |𝑃𝑄 . |
|𝑛|
~

30
Exercise:
(i) Find the distance between line 𝐿1 : 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = −2 to the line 𝐿1 : 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 6
(ii) Find the distance between plane 𝑆1 : −2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 2 to the plane 𝑆2 : 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = −15
(iii) Find the constant distance between plane 𝑆1 : −2𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 2 to the plane 𝑆2 : −2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 =
15 if exist/possible.

(d) Find the angle between two intersecting lines or two intersecting planes

(i) Angle of two-intersecting-lines

Let 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 be two lines with the perpendicular vectors, 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 , respectively. If 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 intersect, then
~ ~

the angle between 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 is equal to angle between

𝑛1 and 𝑛2 .
~ ~

Therefore, 𝑛1 . 𝑛2 = |𝑛1 | |𝑛2 | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

~ ~ ~ ~
𝑛1 . 𝑛2
−1 ~ ~
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠
|𝑛1 | |𝑛2 |
~ ~

(ii) Angle of two-intersecting-planes

Let 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 be two planes with the perpendicular vectors, 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 , respectively. If 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 intersect,
~ ~

then the angle between 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 is equal to angle between 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 .

~ ~

Therefore, 𝑛1 . 𝑛2 = |𝑛1 | |𝑛2 | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

~ ~ ~ ~

𝑛1 . 𝑛2
−1 ~ ~
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠
|𝑛1 | |𝑛2 |
~ ~

Exercise:
(i) Find the angle between the lines 𝐿1 : 3𝑥 − 6𝑦 = 15 and 𝐿2 :2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5

(ii) Find the angle between the planes 𝑆1 : 3𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 15 and 𝑆2 : 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 5

31
4.1.3 Application in geometry: Equations of lines in 2D and 3D spaces

Problems in space (in 2D and 3D space)

1. Find the equation of a line passing through a given point and parallel to a given vector (all in 2D &
3D space).
2. Determine whether two lines intersect in three dimension space and find the point of intersection
if they intersect.

(i) Definition (Equation of a line in 2D or 3D space)

→
Let 𝐿 be a straight line passing through the point 𝐴 and is parallel to a given vector 𝑣̰ (i.e.,𝐴𝑅 ||𝑣 ). Suppose
~

that 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦) or 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is any point on 𝐿. Find the vector equation, parametric equation and Cartesian
equation of line 𝐿.

(a) Vector equation of line

→ →
(i) Let (𝑂𝐴) = 𝑎 and (𝑂𝑅 ) = 𝑟 be the position vectors of 𝐴 and 𝑅 respectively.
~ ~
→ →
(ii) Since(𝐴𝑅 ||𝑣 ), then(𝐴𝑅 ) = 𝑡𝑣 , where 𝑡 ∈ ℜ.
~ ~

Note: as 𝑡 changes, we have all the points on the line 𝐿.

→ → →
(iii) Now following head-to-tail method, 𝑂𝑅 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝑅
Then, we get 𝑟̰ = 𝑎̰ + 𝑡𝑣̰ ----------------------------------------------------------------- (1)

This is called the vector equation of the line 𝐿.

The vector 𝑣̰ is called a direction vector of the line 𝐿.

Note: The Eqn. (1) can be applied for problem in 2D or 3D space. Since the computation and derivation for
2D and 3D space are similar. We will give the example in 3D one for the demonstration.

32
(b) Parametric equation of a line in 2D and 3D space
Now, let position vector of an arbitrary point on line 𝐿, 𝑟̰ = 𝑥𝑖̰̇ + 𝑦𝑗̰̇ + 𝑧𝑘̰ , position vector of a point passing
through line 𝐿, 𝑎̰ = 𝑎1 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑎2 𝑗̰̇ + 𝑎3 𝑘̰ and direction vector parallel to line 𝐿, 𝑣̰ = 𝑣1 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑣2 𝑗̰̇ + 𝑣3 𝑘̰

From Eqn. (1) we have

𝑟̰ = 𝑎̰ + 𝑡𝑣̰ >> ⟨𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧⟩ = ⟨𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ⟩ + 𝑡⟨𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ⟩
𝑥 𝑎1 𝑣1
>> (𝑦) = (𝑎2 ) + 𝑡 (𝑣2 ) (Matrix form of vector equation of line)
𝑧 𝑎3 𝑣3
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

By comparing the components of 𝑖̰̇, 𝑗̰̇, and 𝑘̰ , we have

𝑟̰ = ⟨𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧⟩
𝑥 = 𝑎1 + 𝑡𝑣1
𝑦 = 𝑎2 + 𝑡𝑣2 }, 𝑡 ∈ ℝ …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… (2)
𝑧 = 𝑎3 + 𝑡𝑣3

This system of equations (2) is called the parametric equations of the line L .
The variable/scalar t is called the parameter of the system of equations.

Note: The Eqn. (2) can be applied for problem in 2D or 3D space in the same manner.

(c) Cartesian equation of a line in 2D and 3D space

By equal the parameter 𝑡 in the Eq. (2), we have

𝑥−𝑎1 𝑦−𝑎2 𝑧−𝑎3
𝑡= 𝑣1
= 𝑣2
= 𝑣3
……………………………………….………………………………………………..……….. (3)

The Eqn. (3) is called the Cartesian equation or symmetric form of the line 𝐿.
Precaution Zero denominator leads to zero numerator as shown in Eqn. (3).
Proof: From Eqn. (2), if 𝑣1 = 0, then 𝑥 − 𝑎1 = 0. This also apply to 𝑣2 and 𝑣3 .

(ii) Intersection between a line to a plane or between two lines

(a) Intersection of a line to a plane

If we know the information of a plane and the line equation are given either in format of Vector
Eqn./Parametric Eqn./Cartesian Eqn., for example:

33
Information of a plane

(i) The line intersects at a specific plane, i.e., yz-plane at coordinate (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (0, 𝑦, 𝑧)

Let say Parametric Eqn. have been derived from a given information of point 𝐴 passing through
the line, and the vector direction of the line 𝐿, 𝑣 are given as well. Then, we can use Parametric
𝑥 = 𝑎1 + 𝑡𝑣1
Eqn. 𝑦 = 𝑎2 + 𝑡𝑣2 }, t ∈ ℜ to solve for 𝑡,𝑦 and 𝑧.
𝑧 = 𝑎3 + 𝑡𝑣2

Then the point of intersection at yz-plane, (0, 𝑦, 𝑧) can be obtained.

(ii) The plane of eqn. of the intersection plane is given, i.e.,𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑘

The step is similar to procedure above. Given the 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑘, substitute the Parametric Eqn.
into the eqn. of intersection to solve for 𝑡. Then, you can get the point of intersection (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) by
substitute 𝑡 into Parametric Eqn.

Precaution: There are three possibilities of the intersection: (i) line intersects the plane in a point;
(ii) line is parallel to the plane (no point of intersection); (iii) line is in the plane.
Note: You will know how to derive the equation of plane after you learn about product of vectors.

(b) Intersection between two lines

Let us have line 𝐿1 : 𝑟̰1 = ⟨𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ⟩ = ⟨𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ⟩ + 𝑡⟨𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ⟩ and line 𝐿2 : 𝑟̰2 = ⟨𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ⟩ =
⟨𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ⟩ + 𝑠⟨𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ⟩ where 𝑡 and 𝑠 are the parameters, 𝑎̰ = ⟨𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ⟩ , 𝑏̰ = ⟨𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ⟩ are the
position vectors specified at line 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 respectively. 𝑣̰ = ⟨𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ⟩,𝑢̰ = ⟨𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ⟩ are the vectors
parallel to line 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 .

34
If the line L1 and line L2 intersect each other, then:
𝑟̰1 = 𝑟̰2
𝑥1 = 𝑥2 >> 𝑎1 + 𝑡𝑣1 = 𝑏1 + 𝑠𝑢1 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (a)
𝑦1 = 𝑦2 >> 𝑎2 + 𝑡𝑣2 = 𝑏2 + 𝑠𝑢2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (b)
𝑧1 = 𝑧2 >> 𝑎3 + 𝑡𝑣3 = 𝑏3 + 𝑠𝑢3 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (c)

This means that all the three Eqns. (a), (b) and (c) must be satisfied if the two lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿1 are intersecting
with each other. In the other words, if the parameter 𝑡 obtained from Eqn. (a) and parameter 𝑠 obtained
from Eqn. (b) will not satisfy Eqn.(c) if there is no point of intersection.

It intersection exist, the point of intersection is as following:

(𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒚𝟐 , 𝒛𝟏 = 𝒛𝟐 ) or ((𝒂𝟏 + 𝒕𝒗𝟏 ), (𝒂𝟐 + 𝒕𝒗𝟐 ), (𝒂𝟑 + 𝒕𝒗𝟑 )) or (𝑏1 + 𝑠𝑢1 , 𝑏2 + 𝑠𝑢2 , 𝑏3 + 𝑠𝑢3 ).

(iii) Linear combination and linear dependence

(a) Linear combination

A linear combination of two or more vectors is the vector obtained by adding two or more vectors (with
different directions) which are multiplied by scalar values.

𝛼𝑛 𝑎̰ 𝑛

𝑣̰ ……
…
𝛼3 𝑎̰ 3
𝛼1 𝑎̰ 1
𝛼2 𝑎̰ 2
𝑣̰ = 𝛼1 𝑎̰ 1 + 𝛼2 𝑎̰ 2 + 𝛼3 𝑎̰ 3 +. . . +𝛼𝑛 𝑎̰ 𝑛

(b) Linear dependent

Vectors are linearly dependent if there is a linear combination of them that equals the zero vector, without
the coefficients of the linear combination being zero.
𝛼1 𝑎̰ 1 + 𝛼2 𝑎̰ 2 + 𝛼3 𝑎̰ 3 +. . . +𝛼𝑛 𝑎̰ 𝑛 = 0̰ , where scalar 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , . . . , 𝛼𝑛 ≠ 0
Note: The vectors are linearly dependent if the determinant of the matrix is zero, meaning that the rank of
the matrix is less than its full rank.
(Hint: In a matrix system, zero determinant helps to indicate an infinite or no solution system)

35
 |𝑎̰ 1 + 𝑎̰ 2 + 𝑎̰ 3 +. . . +𝑎̰ 𝑛 | = 0 |𝑎̰ 1 + 𝑎̰ 2 + 𝑎̰ 3 +. . . +𝑎̰ 𝑛 | ≠ 0
(c) Linear independent

Vectors are linearly independent if none of them can be expressed as a combination of others
𝛼1 𝑎̰ 1 + 𝛼2 𝑎̰ 2 + 𝛼3 𝑎̰ 3 +. . . +𝛼𝑛 𝑎̰ 𝑛 = 0̰ , where scalar 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , . . . , 𝛼𝑛 ≠ 0

Note: The vectors are linearly dependent if the determinant of the matrix is non-zero, meaning that the rank
of the matrix is equal to its full rank.
(Hint: In a matrix system, non-zero determinant helps to indicate a unique solution system)

4.1.4 Cross Product

(a) Definition

The cross product 𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ (read “a” cross “b”) of two nonzero vectors 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ is defined by

|𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑛̰

𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ = ⏟
𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟

where
(i) the angle 𝜃 between 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰
(ii) vector 𝑛̰ is parallel to direction of 𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ and it is perpendicular to both
vectors 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ (i.e. 𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ ⊥ 𝑎̰ and and 𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ ⊥ 𝑏̰ )

(b) Properties of the cross product of vectors

Let 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ be two vectors and let 𝛼 be a scalar. Then

i. 𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ = −𝑏̰ 𝑥𝑎̰ (Anti-commutative Law)
ii. 𝑎̰ 𝑥(𝑏̰ + 𝑐̰ ) = (𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ ) + (𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑐̰ ) (Distributive Law)
iii. 𝛼(𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ ) = (𝛼𝑎̰ )𝑥𝑏̰ = 𝑎̰ 𝑥(𝛼𝑏̰ ) where 𝛼 is a scalar
iv. The cross product of two vectors (i.e., 𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ ) is a vector.
Precaution: The cross product cannot function between scalar and vector (i.e., 3 𝑥 𝑏̰ or (𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ ) 𝑥 𝑐̰ or
(𝑎̰ . 𝑏̰ ). (𝑐̰ . ̰ ) 𝑥 (𝑒̰)

(c) Orthogonal vector (Also known as perpendicular or normal vector)

We have cross product,𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑛̰ , orthogonal vector has 𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| 𝑛̰
To let 𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰|𝑛̰ , we need to have 𝜃 = 90°; 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 1

36
 (i) 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ are orthogonal vectors (𝑎̰ ⊥ 𝑏̰ )
(ii) Cross product of unit vector 𝑎̰̂𝑥𝑏̰̂ = |𝑎̰̂||𝑏̰̂|𝑛̰ = 𝑛̰ (where mag. of unit vector =1)
i.e., in the 3D system, 𝑖̰̇,𝑗̰̇,𝑘̰ are unit vectors where 𝑖̰̇ ⊥ 𝑗̰̇, 𝑗̰̇ ⊥ 𝑘̰ , 𝑖̰̇ ⊥ 𝑘̰ , therefore the cross product
between them are the vector normal to its plane (i.e., 𝑖̰̇𝑥 𝑗̰̇ = 𝑘̰ ; 𝑗̰̇𝑥𝑘̰ = 𝑖̰̇ and 𝑘̰ 𝑥𝑖̰̇ = 𝑗̰̇ ). This
follows right hand rule and system as following:

Precaution: The cross product of vectors does not satisfy the commutative law: 𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ ≠ 𝑏̰ 𝑥𝑎̰

Proof:
𝑖̰̇𝑥 𝑗̰̇ = 𝑘̰
𝑗̰̇𝑥𝑖̰̇ = −𝑘̰
Thus, 𝑖̰̇𝑥𝑗̰̇ = −𝑗̰̇𝑥𝑖̰̇

Apply this to other axis we get:

𝑗̰̇𝑥𝑘̰ = 𝑖̰̇ 𝑜𝑟 − 𝑘̰ 𝑥𝑗̰̇
𝑘̰ 𝑥𝑖̰̇ = 𝑗̰̇ 𝑜𝑟 − 𝑖̰̇𝑥 𝑘̰

Remark:
i. 𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ = −𝑏̰ 𝑥𝑎̰
ii. (𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ )𝑥𝑐̰ ≠ 𝑎̰ 𝑥(𝑏̰ 𝑥𝑐̰ )

(d) Parallel vector

We have cross product,𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑛̰ , parallel vector has 𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ = 0̰ where 𝑎̰ & 𝑏̰ ≠ 0̰
To let 𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ = 0̰ , we need to have 𝜃 = 0° 𝑜𝑟 180°; 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 0
(i) Cross product of two similar vectors 𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑎̰ = 0̰ ---- (if 𝑎̰ = 𝑏̰ ∵ 𝜃 = 0)
(ii) Cross product of two parallel vectors 𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ = 0̰ ----- (if 𝑎̰ ∥ 𝑏̰ ∵ 𝜃 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝜋)

37
 (iii) Cross product of two parallel unit vectors 𝑎̰̂𝑥𝑏̰̂ = 0̰ ---- (if 𝑎̰̂ ∥ 𝑏̰̂ ∵ 𝜃 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝜋)
i.e., in the 3D system, 𝑖̰̇ ∥ 𝑖̰̇ & − 𝑖̰̇, 𝑗̰̇ ∥ 𝑗̰̇ & − 𝑗̰̇, 𝑘̰ ∥ 𝑘̰ & − 𝑘̰ , therefore the cross product between
them are zero (i.e., 𝑖̰̇𝑥 𝑖̰̇ = 0 ; 𝑗̰̇𝑥𝑗̰̇ = 0 and 𝑘̰ 𝑥𝑘̰ = 0)

Exercise:
(i) Does (a) What are the reason for (𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ ) = 0?
(b) 𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ = 𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑐̰
>> (If vectors 𝑎̰ ≠ 0,𝑏̰ ≠ 𝑐̰ , 𝑎̰ ≠ (𝑏̰ − 𝑐̰ ) find the relationship between these vectors)

(e) Cross product in coordinates

Let 𝑎̰ = (𝑎1 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑎2 𝑗𝑗̰̇ + 𝑎3 𝑘̰ ) and 𝑏̰ = (𝑏1 𝑖̰̇ + 𝑏2 𝑗̰̇ + 𝑏3 𝑘̰ )
𝑖̰̇ 𝑗̰̇ 𝑘̰
Then (𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ ) = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 | = (𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 )𝑖̰̇ − (𝑎1 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏1 )𝑗̰̇ + (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )𝑘̰
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

Proof:

(axb) = (a1i + a2 j + a3k ) x(b1i + b2 j + b3k )

= ( a1b1 ) ixi + (a1b2 ) ixj + (a1b3 ) ixk +
( a2b1 ) jxi + ( a2b2 ) jxj + (a2b3 ) jxk +

( a3b1 ) kxi + ( a3b2 ) kxj + ( a3b3 ) kxk +

= i ( a2b3 - a3b2 ) + j (a3b1 - a1b3 ) + k (a1b2 - a2b1 )
i j k
= a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3

38
(f) Projection of vector
Previously we learnt that for the projection of vector 𝑏̰ onto 𝑖̰ using dot product, 𝑏̰ . 𝑖̰̇̂

= b iˆ cos θ

= b cos θ iˆ = 1
= 𝑂𝑁 = the length of the orthogonal projection of
𝑏̰ on a straight line parallel to iˆ

Now we extend it for the projection of vector 𝑏̰ onto 𝑗̰̇

where 𝑗̰̇ ⊥ 𝑖̰̇
Then, the projection of 𝑏̰ onto 𝑗̰̇ = 𝑏̰ . 𝑗̰̇̂
= |𝑏̰||𝑗̰̇̂| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

= |𝑏̰| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ∵ |𝑗̰̇̂ | = 1 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (1)

= 𝑁𝑀 = the length of the orthogonal projection of 𝑏̰ on a straight line perpendicular to 𝑖̰̇̂

The component of 𝑏̰ in the direction of 𝑗̰̇, (b. ˆj ) ˆj

= ( b sin θ ) j ĵ = j (both also unit vector) ---------------------------------------------------- (2)

→
= 𝑁𝑀
Now we look at the cross product of a vector and a unit vector, then we check its magnitude:

Cross product, bx iˆ = b iˆ sin θ n

scalar
Precaution: The normal vector, 𝑛̰ is not 𝑗̰̇. You will learn the component of 𝑏̰ in the direction of 𝑗̰̇ using cross
product after you learn the triple vector product later.

Magnitude, bxiˆ = b sin θ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------(3)

Combining Eqns. (1) & (3), we get the magnitude bx iˆ = b sin θ = b. ˆj

Cross Dot

As we know the range of angle is 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 > 0

We can simplify it into:

bxiˆ = b sin θ = b. ˆj
Cross Dot

39
It indicates that the length of 𝑁𝑀 (i.e., the distance from point 𝑁to point 𝑀 or vice versa) can be found
from:

(i) Dot product (i.e., b. ˆj )

(ii) Cross product (i.e., bxiˆ )

This is very useful in the geometry application especially to find the shortest distance between point, line,
or plane.

Projection of vector – Area of Parallelogram

The projection of vector is useful in finding the area of parallelogram as shown in figure below:
Vector 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ are represented by two sides of a parallelogram

Area of parallelogram
= Height of parallelogram x Length
= (|𝑏̰ | 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) 𝑥 (|𝑎̰ |)
= |𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(1)

Relationship – Area of Parallelogram & Cross Product

From cross product of vector 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ , we have

|𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑛̰
𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ = ⏟
𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟

The magnitude of the cross product is

|𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ | = |𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃-------------------------------------------------- (2)

Note: Eqn. (1) = Eqn. (2) denotes that the magnitude of cross product is equal to the area of its area of
parallelogram.

Area of parallelogram = Height of parallelogram x Length = |𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = |𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ |----------------- (3)
1 1
Area of triangle = 2 𝑥 Height of parallelogram x Length = 2 |𝑎̰ 𝑥𝑏̰ |--------------------------------- (4)
Exercise:
(ii) Let 𝑃(1, −1,0), 𝑄(2,1, −1), and 𝑅(−1,1,2) be three points.

Find (a) a vector normal the plane containing 𝑃, 𝑄and 𝑅

(b) the area of the triangle 𝑃, 𝑄and 𝑅.

40
4.1.5 Application of Cross Product in Geometry (given Parallel Vector)

Previous dot product applications are used mainly when the normal vector is given. When the parallel vector
is given, we can use the cross product to find the 3D-line equation between intersecting planes, distance
between point-to-3D-line, distance between two 3D-parallel-lines, and distance between two 3D-skew-lines.

41
Recall & Motivation: Previously we learned to define a line of equation of a 2D line using general Cartesian
Eqn (involve dot product). Now, we have learned the cross product operation, and this enable you to define
a line of equation of a 3D line using Parametric Eqn.
Idea: 3D line if formed where two planes intersect.

(a) Parametric equation of 3D line

Let 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 be two planes with normal vectors 𝑛̰ 1 and 𝑛̰ 2 respectively. If 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 intersect, then the
intersection is a line 𝐿. Since 𝐿 is in both 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 , 𝐿 is normal to both 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 , 𝐿 is normal both 𝑛̰ 1 and
𝑛̰ 2 .

Therefore, 𝐿|| (𝑛1 𝑥 𝑛2 )

~ ~

Let 𝑃 be a point on a line 𝐿 (i.e. 𝑃 is in both 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 )

Then the vector equation of L is given by

𝐿: 𝑟 = 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑡 (𝑛1 𝑥 𝑛2 )
~ ~
42
Exercise:
(i) Find the parametric equations of the intersecting line 𝐿 of the planes

𝑆1 : 3𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 15 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (a)

𝑆2 : 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 5 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (b)

(ii) Describe the procedure to plot the 3D line 𝐿 by using the parametric equations obtained in Ans (i) . Can
we know the direction of the line 𝐿 from the plotting by using the parametric equation?

(iii) Generated the general Cartesian eqn. from the Parametric eqn. of 3D line L . What are the major
advantage of having general Cartesian line eqn. Can we know the direction of the line L from the plotting
by using the general Cartesian equation?

(b) Distance of point-to-3D-line

Let L be a line in a space passing through the point P with the vector equation 𝑟 = 𝑝 + 𝑡𝑣, 𝑡 ∈ ℝ
~ ~ ~

By using projection method and cross method as shown in Section 4.1.4 (f), we know the distance from the
point Q to the line L
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ || sin 𝜃 where θ is angle between |𝑃𝑄
= ||𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | and v̰.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣̰ |
= |𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣̰| = |𝑃𝑄
∵ |𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑣̰| sin 𝜃 = |𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | sin 𝜃
|𝑣̰|
Exercise

Find the distance from the point Q (1,1,5) to the line L with the parametric equations 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡, 𝑦 = 3 − 𝑡,
𝑧 = 2𝑡.

(c) Distance of two-parallel-3D-lines

The above method is also used to find the distance between two parallel lines L1 and L2 in space (They have
the same direction vector 𝑣̰ = 𝑢̰). In this case, we choose one point P from L1 and another point Q from L2.

By using projection method and cross method as shown in Section 4.1.4(f), we know the distance from the
point Q to the line L.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣̰ | or |𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | sin 𝜃| = |𝑃𝑄
||𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑢 |
|𝑣̰| |𝑢̰|

43
Exercise

Find the distance from the two line L1 with the parametric equations: 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡, 𝑦 = 3 − 𝑡, 𝑧 = 2𝑡; and
with the vector equation 𝑟̰ = 〈5,2, −1〉 + 𝑡〈1, −1,2〉

(d) Distance between two 3D skew lines

Let L1 and L2 be two skew lines in a 3D space with the vector equations 𝐿1 : 𝑎̰ + 𝑡𝑢̰ and 𝐿2 : 𝑏̰ + 𝑠𝑣̰, 𝑠, 𝑡 ∈ ℝ,
respectively.

Let P and Q be the points on L1 and L2, respectively, such that the length of PQ is the shortest distance
between the two lines.

From the vector equations, we know that 𝐿1 ||𝑢̰

and 𝐿2 ||𝑣̰. Then, 𝑛̰ = 𝑢̰ × 𝑣̰ is normal to both L1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑛̰ = 𝑢̰ × 𝑣̰.
and L2. Hence, 𝑃𝑄

Let S1 and S2 be the planes that containing L1 and L2, respectively, such that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 is normal to both planes. Then
S1 and S2 are parallel planes. Hence the distance between P and Q is the distance between the two parallel
planes S1 and S2.

Therefore, the shortest distance between L1 and L2

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̰ | where A and B are the points on L1 and L2, respectively, and, 𝑛̰ = 𝑢̰ × 𝑣̰ is a vector normal to L1
= |𝐴𝐵 |𝑛̰|
and L2.

Exercise
Find the shortest distance between the two lines.
𝐿1 : 𝑟̰1 = 𝑎̰ + 𝑡𝑢̰ = 〈0,9,2〉 + 〈3, −1,1〉𝑡---------------------------------------------------------------(a)
𝐿2 : 𝑟̰2 = 𝑏̰ + 𝑡𝑣̰ = 〈−6, −5,10〉 + 〈−3,2,4〉𝑡---------------------------------------------------------------(b)

44
4.1.6 Uses of Scalar Triple Products

(a)Parallelepiped

(b)Projecting area

Find the Area of the projection of triangle PAB onto the yz plane. To do this we use the formula for the area
of a projected parallelogram and half the answer to get triangular area instead.

45
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF VECTOR
ALGEBRA AND VECTOR ANALYSIS
WEEK 5: ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA AND VECTOR ANALYSIS
5.1 ENGINEERING APPLICATION: VECTOR ALGEBRA

5.1.1 HEAD TO TAIL METHOD

Example 5.1:

1. A 200 kg cylinder is hung by means of two cables 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝐶, which are attached to the top of a vertical
wall. A horizontal force P perpendicular to the wall holds the cylinder in the position shown below.

(i) Find the coordinate of position 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶and their position vectors based on the axis given in
the diagram above.
(ii) Identify all the force vectors acting on point𝐴. (Assume = 9.81𝑚𝑠 −2 )
(iii) Determine the resultant of forces acting on point 𝐴 using head to-tail method.
(iv) Assume the system is in static, determine the magnitude of P and the tension in each cable.

Solution:

In this example, you should be able to solve 3D engineering problem using vector. Hint: imagine 3D object
→
and translate it in the point point (i.e. 𝐴 = (1,2,3)) , 𝐵 = (2,3,4) and vector form (i.e. position vector 𝑂𝐴 =
→ → →
⟨1,2,3⟩, 𝑂𝐴 = ⟨2,3,4⟩ and arbitrary vector 𝐴𝐵 = ⟨1,1,1⟩, 𝐵𝐴 = ⟨−1, −1, −1⟩)

(i) Find the coordinate of position 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 and their position vectors based on the axis given in the diagram.

𝐴 = (0,1.2,2), 𝐵 = (8,0,12), 𝐶 = (−10,0,12)

46
 → → →
𝑂𝐴 = ⟨0,1.2,2⟩, 𝑂𝐵 = ⟨8,0,12⟩, 𝑂𝐶 = ⟨−10,0,12⟩

(ii) Identify all the force vectors acting on point 𝐴. (Assume = 9.81𝑚𝑠 −2)
Horizontal force P, & its vector 𝑃 = ⟨0, 𝑃, 0⟩ (note it has magnitude 𝑃 in 𝑦 direction)
~

Vertical force 200 kg cylinder, and its vector 𝑊 = ⟨0,0, −1962𝑁⟩ (note it has magnitude 1962N in
~

negative 𝑧 direction)

Tension cable AB, and its vector

→
The magnitude is unknown (Precaution: the magnitude of vector |𝐴𝐵| is not equal to the magnitude
→
of tension |𝑇𝐴𝐵 |)
∧
→
The direction vector (unit vector) is the same as the unit vector of 𝐴𝐵

47
(iii) Determine the resultant of forces acting on point 𝐴 using head to-tail method.

>>>

48
5.1.2 ENGINEERING APPLICATION: VECTOR IN 3 D SPACE

Example 5.2:

The wire AE, 𝐿1 is stretched between the corners A and E of a bent plate. The wire BF, 𝐿2 is stretched
between the position B and F. The wire BG, 𝐿3 is stretched between the position B and G. The wire OA, 𝐿4 is
stretched between the position O and A.

(i) Find the vector equation of line for wire AE, BF, BG and OA. Hence find the intersection point between
line 𝐿1 with 𝐿2 ; line 𝐿3 with 𝐿4 separately if exist.

(ii) Find the equation of plane for 𝑆1 from point 0, A & B and equation of plane for 𝑆2 from point E, F and
G if possible. Hence find the intersection line between 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 if exist.

49
(iii) Given the intersection point between 𝐿1 & 𝐿3 is 𝑷(60, 15, 80). Find the shortest distance between
intersection point 𝐿1 & 𝐿3 and plane 𝑆1 and plane 𝑆2 respectively.

Solution:
(i)

50
51
52
(ii)

53
54
(iii)

55
WEEK 5: ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA AND VECTOR ANALYSIS
5.2 ENGINEERING APPLICATION: VECTOR ANALYSIS

5.2.1 NAVIGATION

The word problems encountered most often with vectors are navigation problems. These navigation
problems use variables like speed and direction to form vectors for computation. Some navigation problems
ask us to find the groundspeed of an aircraft using the combined forces of the wind and the aircraft. For
these problems it is important to understand the resultant of two forces and the components of force.

Each of the three vectors in the triangle of velocities has two properties – magnitude and direction. This
means that there are a total of six components. These are the True Air Speed (TAS) and heading (HDG) of
the aircraft, the speed and direction of the wind (W/V), and the Ground Speed (GS) and track (TR) of the
path over the ground. This is shown in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: Triangle of Vectors (Velocities)

56
To summarize:
Course—the direction of a line drawn on a chart representing the intended airplane path, expressed
as the angle measured from a specific reference datum clockwise from 0° through 360° to the line.
Heading—is the direction in which the nose of the airplane points during flight.
Drift angle—is the angle between heading and track.
Airspeed—is the rate of the airplane’s progress through the air.
Groundspeed—is the rate of the airplane’s in-flight progress over the ground.

Example 5.3

57
Example 5.4

A 75 N weight is suspended by two wires as shown in figure above. Find the forces F1 and F2 acting in both
wires.

58
59
Exercises
1) A boat leaves port on a heading of 40° with the automatic pilot set for 12 knots. On this
particular day, there is a 6-knot current with a heading of 75°.
a. Sketch and label vectors to represent the intended path of the boat, the current and the
resultant path of the boat with the effects of the current.
b. Calculate the speed and heading at which the boat will actually travel due to the effects
of the current.
2) A plane leaves the airport on a heading 45° traveling a 400 mph. The wind is blowing at a heading
of 135° at a speed of 40 mph. What is the actual velocity of the plane?
3) Consider a 100-N weight suspended by two wires as shown in the accompanying figure. Find the
magnitudes and components of the force vectors F1 and F2.

5.2.2 DOT PRODUCT (WORK DONE)

After investigating the dot product, we apply it to finding the projection of one vector onto another (as
displayed in Figure 5.2) and to finding the work done by a constant force acting through a displacement.
The scalar quantity we seek is the length |𝐹| cos 𝜃 where 𝜃 is the angle between the two vectors F and D.
Then

60
 Figure 5.2: The work done by a constant force F during a displacement D is |𝐹| cos 𝜃,
which is the dot product F.D.

Forces Perpendicular to the Motion Do No Work

When an object is displaced horizontally on a flat table, the normal force n and the gravitational force Fg do
no work since cos θ = 90◦ = 0

Example 5.5

If |𝐹| = 40 𝑁 (newtons), D = |𝐷| = 3 𝑚, and 𝜃 = 60𝑜, the work done by Fin acting from P to Q is

61
 Exercises

1) How much work does it take to slide a crate 20 m along a loading dock by pulling on it with a 200 N force
at an angle of 30° from the horizontal?
2) A 30 kg box is placed 10 m up a ramp that is inclined at 23° to the horizontal. Calculate the work done by
the force of gravity as the box slides down to the bottom of the ramp.

5.2.3 TORQUE (CROSS PRODUCT)

When we turn a bolt by applying a force F to a wrench (Figure 5.3), we produce a torque that
causes the bolt to rotate.
The torque vector points in the direction of the axis of the bolt according to the right-hand rule
(so the rotation is counter clockwise when viewed from the tip of the vector).
The magnitude of the torque depends on how far out on the wrench the force is applied and on
how much of the force is perpendicular to the wrench at the point of application.
The number we use to measure the torque’s magnitude is the product of the length of the lever
arm r and the scalar component of F perpendicular to r.

𝑀𝑎 𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢 𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = |𝑟||𝐹|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑜𝑟 |𝑟 × 𝐹|

If we let n be a unit vector along the axis of the bolt in the direction of the torque, then a
complete description of the torque vector is

𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = (|𝑟||𝐹|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑛, 𝑜𝑟 𝑟×𝐹

Fig 5.3: The torque vector describes the tendency of the force F to drive the bolt forward.

62
Example 5.6

Find the magnitude of the torque generated by force F at the pivot point P in Figure 5.4 is

Figure 5.4: Torque exerted by F at P

The magnitude of the torque exerted by F at P is about 56.4 ft-lb. The bar rotates
counterclockwise around P.

5.2.4 TRIPLE SCALAR OR BOX PRODUCT

The product is called the triple scalar product of u, v, and w (in that order). As you can see from the
formula
|(𝑢 × 𝑣) ∙ 𝑤| = |𝑢 × 𝑣||𝑤||𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃|
the absolute value of this product is the volume of the parallelepiped (parallelogram-sided box) determined
by u, v, and w (Figure 5.5). The number |(𝑢 × 𝑣)| is the area of the base parallelogram. The number
|𝑤||𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃|is the parallelepiped’s height. Because of this geometry, (𝑢 × 𝑣) ∙ 𝑤 is also called the box product
of u, v, and w.

63
 Figure 5.5: The number |(𝑢 × 𝑣) ∙ 𝑤| = is the volume of a parallelepiped.

The triple scalar product can be evaluated as a determinant:

64
Example 5.7

Exercises
Find the volume of the parallelepiped (box) determined by u, v, and w.

5.2.5 INTERPRETATION OF THE DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVES & GRADIENT

Figure 5.6: Interpretation of Directional Derivatives.

From the Figure 5.6, the slope of curve C at Po is (Duf)Po in which it generalizes two partial derivatives. We
can now ask for the rate of change of ƒ in any direction u, not just the directions i and j.

65
For a physical interpretation of the directional derivative, suppose that T = f (x, y) is the temperature at each
point (x, y) over a region in the plane. Then f (xo, yo) is the temperature at the point Po (xo, yo) and (Duf)Po is
the instantaneous rate of change of the temperature at Po stepping off in the direction u.

Example 5.8

66
Example 5.9

67
 Exercises

Find the directions in which the functions increase and decrease most rapidly at Po. Then find the
derivatives of the functions in these directions.
(a) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ln 𝑥𝑦 +ln 𝑦𝑧 +ln𝑥𝑧, 𝑃𝑜(1, 1, 1)
(b) (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑒𝑦 + 𝑧2, 𝑃𝑜(1, ln 2 , 1/2)

(c) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥⁄𝑦) − yz, 𝑃𝑜(4,1, 1)

5.2.6 GRADIENTS,TANGENTS AND NORMAL TO LEVEL CURVES

The streams flow perpendicular to the contours. The streams are following paths of steepest descent so the
waters reach the ocean as quickly as possible. Therefore, the fastest instantaneous rate of change in a
stream’s elevation above sea level has a particular direction. In this section, you will see why this direction,
called the “downhill” direction, is perpendicular to the contours.

Figure 5.7: Contours of the hill

68
Based on above contours:

Figure 5.8: The gradient of a differentiable function of two variables at a point is always normal to the
function’s level curve through that point.

Where it shows our observation that streams flow perpendicular to the contours in topographical maps (see
Figure 5.7). Since the downflowing stream will reach its destination in the fastest way, it must flow in the
direction of the negative gradient vectors from Property 2 for the directional derivative.

Now let us restrict our attention to the curves that pass through Po (Figure Below). All the velocity vectors
at Po are orthogonal to ∇f at Po so the curves’ tangent lines all lie in the plane through Po normal to ∇f. At
every point along the curve, ∇f is orthogonal to the curve’s velocity vector.

Figure Above: The gradient ∇f is orthogonal to the velocity vector of every smooth curve in the surface
through Po. The velocity vectors at Po therefore lie in a common plane, which we call the tangent plane at Po.

69
We now define this plane.

The tangent plane and normal line have the following equations:

Example 5.10

70
Example 5.11

:
Exercises

Find equations for the

(a) Tangent plane and (b) normal line at the point Po on the given surface.

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5.2.7 APPLICATION OF DIVERGENCE AND CURL

Divergence at a given point measures the net flow out of a small box around the point, that is, it measures
what is produced (source) or consumed (sink) at a given point in space.
For example, it is used to describe the flow of gas within a domain space. A gas is compressible, unlike a liquid,
and the divergence of its velocity field measures to what extent it is expanding or compressing at each point.
Intuitively, if a gas is expanding at the point (xo, yo) the lines of flow would diverge there (hence the name)
and, since the gas would be flowing out of a small rectangle about (xo, yo), the divergence of F at (xo, yo) would
be positive. If the gas were compressing instead of expanding, the divergence would be negative.

Figure 5.9: If a gas is expanding at a point the lines of flow have positive divergence; if the gas is
compressing, the divergence is negative. Otherwise, it will get zero.

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Example 5.12

Determine the divergence’s characteristic of the vector fields; 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) = 3𝑥2𝒊 − 6𝑥𝑦𝒋

*In fluid dynamics, when the velocity field of a flowing liquid always has divergence equal to zero, as in those
cases, the liquid is said to be incompressible.
If we think of the vector field as a velocity vector field of a fluid in a motion, the curl measures the rotation.
At a given point, the curl is a vector parallel to the axis of rotation of flow lines near the point, with direction
determined by the Right Hand Rule.

Example 5.13

Determine wherther the curl of each vector field at the origin is the zero vector or points in the certain
directions as ±𝑖, ±𝑗 , ±𝑘.

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Example 5.14

The following vector fields represent the velocity of a gas flowing in the xy-plane. Find the divergence and
curl of each vector field and interpret its physical meaning. Figure displays the vector fields.

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 Figure 5.10: Velocity fields of a gas flowing in the plane

DIVERGENCE

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CURL

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