Polygraphy expanded

A modern way of lie detection

Mary grace b. malawis- Ignacio, Ph.D

Chapter I

INTRODUCTION TO DECEPTION DETECTION

This part presents the fundamentals of three major topics Early Methods of Detecting Deception; Historical
Development of Polygraph; other Methods of Detecting Deception; Development of Questioning Technique;
and Other Pioneers in the History of Deception Detection.

Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, readers should be able to:
1. Make a detailed timeline on the development of the polygraph instrument.
2. Critique the early ways and means of separating truth from deception.
3. Trace the development of the different components of the polygraph.
4. Trace the development of different questioning techniques.
5. Display an appreciation of the importance of the different personalities who made a difference in
polygraphy.

RATIONALE

The physiology of man was programmed for truth. Lying is an aberration. It is a struggle to tell a lie.
When a man lies, there are psychological reactions in him, such as shifting eyes, dryness of the mouth,
sweating, etc.
Leonarde Keeler's factors, and American Criminologist, were used as premises for the Lie Detector
he invented. It records in the graph the regular pulse, blood pressure and respiration, and aberration
resulting from the tension caused by lying.
It is not absolute. No human-made instrument is. However, it has a scientific basis. In the hands of
the professional, it is a potent aid in ferreting out deception.
The lie detector records involuntary responses. It is equivalent to making a person testify against
himself. Hence, it cannot be used on a suspect, respondent, or accused without his consent because of the
constitutional right against self-incrimination.

A. EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

1. RED-HOT IRON ORDEAL
 used among the hill tribes of Rajmahal in the north of Bengal, where the accused was
apt to be told to prove his innocence by applying his tongue to a red hot iron nine times
(unless burnt sooner). If burned, he was put to death. (Perhaps a sense of guilt made the
mouth dry, although fear would do the same.)
 Accused carry a bar of red-hot iron in his hands while he walked nine marked paces
 No burns appearing on his hands: innocent
 With burns: promptly hanged
 Variations:
 Licking the red-hot iron
 The suspect had to run barefooted and blindfolded over nine red-hot plowshares
 Hand or foot was bound up and inspected three days afterward
 Unhurt : innocent
 Hurt : guilty
2. WAGER OF BATTLE
  The judgment of God was thought to determine the winner. The defeated was allowed to
live as a recreant, that is, on retracting the perjury that had been sworn
 Similar to Burmese ORDEAL OF DIVINATION wherein the accused and the accuser
hold lighted candles. Whoever's candle lasted longest was pronounced the winner

3. ORDEAL BY BALANCE
 A scale of balance is used. On one end of the scale, the suspect/accused is placed and
on the other end is a counter-balance. The accused will be asked to step, and a judge
delivers the balance. The accused will get back in, and if found to be lighter than before,
he is acquitted.

4. ORDEAL BY WATER
 Water was symbolic of the flood of the Old Testament, washing sin from the face of the
earth, allowing only the righteous minority to survive.
 The usual mode of trial allowed to members of the lower class

a. BOILING WATER ORDEAL

 Accused lifts a stone out of boiling water with the hand as deep as the wrist or
elbow (for serious offenses. The burn was bandaged for three days before
b. COLDWATER ORDEAL
 Accused is tied at feet and hands and was lowered to cold water by rope. The
rope is tied around the defendant's waist and had a knot of a particular
distance with the torso

 Innocent if both knot and accused dipped beneath the surface of the
water

 Guilty if the knot is dry or the water refused to receive him

 Another variation: (undefined, 2017): usually for the ordinary people or for a
male who does not own a land (Trial by Ordeal Definition, n.d.)

 The accused is tied under the arms and thrown into the river (undefined,
2017)
 If he sank to the bottom, not guilty
 Floated, guilty

5. ORDEAL BY RICE CHEWING (practiced by Indians)

 Done by using the rice called sathee prepared with incantations. The person eats
the sathee facing the east and then spits upon a pea leaf
 Saliva is mixed blood
 Corner of the mouth swell Liar
 Trembles
Ancient Chinese
 when subjects were interrogated, they were given a small amount of dry rice, with
the instruction to keep the rice under the tongue. After the interrogation, he had to
spit out the rice in his hand. If the rice is wet, the subject will be considered
innocent. Otherwise, he will be beheaded (Damme, 2008). This is because it is
believed that salivation ceased at times of emotional anxiety.

6. ORDEAL OF THE REDWATER/"SASSY BARK"

 Accused is made to fast for 12 hours and made to swallow a small of rice. He
is then immersed in dark colored water, which is emetic
 Innocent if suspect ejects all the rice

7. ORDEAL BY COMBAT
 The aggrieved party claimed the right to fight the alleged offender or to pay a
champion to fight for him.
  The victor is said to win not by his strengths but because of supernatural powers that
had intervened on the side of the right judgment of God was said to determine the
winner
 .If the loser is alive after the combat:
 hanged or burned for a criminal offense
 a hand is a cut-off and property confiscated in civil actions

8. ORDEAL OF THE CORSNAED/BLESSED BREAD

 The priest puts the corsnaed or hollowed bread into the mouth of the accused
with various imprecations
 Accused swallowed: freed from punishment

9. TEST OF THE EUCHARIST applied among clergy and monks

 If the suspect took the host: God would smite the guilty with sickness or death
 When innocent: Angel Gabriel will descent from heaven to prevent the accused
from taking in the poisonous drink when given
10. ORDEAL OF THE BIER
 Slain could point out their killer
 In England: The wounds of the victim were observed to see if they began to bleed again.
It is believed that the murderer is near, which causes the blood to flow out from the
wound of the victim

11. ORDEAL OF THE NEEDLE

 Practiced in Wanaka, Eastern Africa
 A red-hot needle was made to pierce the lower lip of the accused
 Guilty if blood flowed from the wound
 Innocent if the blood

12. ORDEAL BY HEAT AND FIRE

 Accused walked barefooted over red hot coals or walk through fire
 Innocent if unburned

13. TRIAL OF THE CROSS

 The accuser and accused were placed under the cross with arms extended or crosswise,
and the first to move his hands or suffer them to fall was held guilty
 Variation:
 Accused was placed before relics, and two dice were then produced, one marked
with a cross. Of these, one was taken at haphazardly. If it happened to bear the sign
of the cross, the accused was acquitted

14. TRIAL OF THE WAXEN SHIRT

 Accused was dressed in cloth covered with was and walked barefooted over burning
coals
 Innocent if unhurt and wax did not melt

15. HEREDITARY SIEVE METHOD

 Beans were thrown into a sieve as the name of the suspect was called
 Innocent if beans jump out
 Guilty of theft if beans remained

16. ORDEAL OF THE TIGER

 The accused and the accuser are placed inside a cage of the tiger; if the tiger spare one
of them, he is considered innocent

17. DONKEY'S TAIL ORDEAL

 The donkey was placed in a darkened tent, and its tail was then generously coated with
lampblack. All possible suspects were then asked, one after the other, to enter the tent
and pull the donkey's tail. They were told that the donkey would only bray if a liar pulled
his tail. The honorable men, obviously having nothing to fear, did indeed pull the
 donkey's tail and came out of the tent with their hand blackened with lampblack. The liar,
however, because of fear of being caught, came out with hands clean.
For additional information on Donkey's Tail Ordeal, please click this link (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?
v=ne_BZ5Ar0gc)

B. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF POLYGRAPH (Batalang. Lie Detection, and Interrogation)

a. Development of cardiograph component

1. DANIEL DEFOE ( 1730 )

 recommended taking the pulse of a suspicious fellow as a practical, effective, and
humane method for distinguishing truthfulness from lying (Galianos Polygraphe Expert
Inc., 2006). This was an early and insightful suggestion to employ medical science in the
fight against crime.
2. FRANCIS FRYKE
 Invented the Plethysmograph
Plethysmograph is an instrument for measuring blood pressure and pulse which
revealed periodic undulations in blood pressure caused by the respiration cycle (Matte,
1996). He used this to determine the influence of emotion and fear to cardio activity and
respiration (van Damme, 2008).
3. ANGELO MOSSO
 Studied the effects of fear and emotion on cardiovascular and respiratory activities of
subjects undergoing questioning.
 He also used a plethysmograph to measure changes in blood circulation and breathing
patterns and how these changed under certain stimuli (Galianos Polygraphe Expert Inc.,
2006)
 Developed sphygmomanometer and scientific cradle, which he used in studying fear and
its influence on the heart
Scientific cradle measures the blood flow while a person lay on his back in a prone
position, as it became concentrated first on one of the body and then on the other (Matte,
1996).

Trovillo (1939), as cited by Matte (1996), wrote that the "cradle" consisted of a large,
heavy table at the center of which was a delicate knife-edge fulcrum. A stout wooden
plank rested securely on the fulcrum. To prevent counter swaying of the balance with
each small oscillation of respiration, a heavy metal counterpoise, which could be
adjusted up or down, was fastened vertically in the middle of the plank, underneath it
secured with two metal bars at each end of the plank. When the subject experiences
emotion, the blood would rush to the head and throw the cradle out of balance, recorded
on a revolving smoked drum. A rubber cuff was also wrapped around the subject's foot
and connected by a tube to a tambour recording pulse fluctuations.
A subject who was afraid was determined from those who are afraid based on the
change of his pulsation recorded.

Image 1: Hydrosphymograph

4. CESARE LOMBROSO 1895

 modified Hydrosphymograph and used it in his experiments to measure the
physiological changes that occurred in a crime suspect's blood pressure and pulse
rate during police interrogation (Galianos Polygraphe Expert Inc., 2006)
  Hydrosphymograph measures changes in pulse and blood pressure when suspects
were asked about their involvement in or knowledge of specific response

Pulse is the expansion and contraction of the artery as a wave of blood passes
through it. It is the contracting of the heart muscle and blood leaving the left ventricle

Procedure on the use of the Hydrosphymograph (Trovillo, 1939 as cited by Matte,

1996)
a. The subject's hand would be placed in a water filled tank sealed with a
membrane of rubber
b. Pictures connected with the crime will be shown to the subject, or mention will be
made to relevant facts of the crime
c. Pulsations of blood in fist were transferred to the water
d. Changes in water level were carried over into an air-filled tube
e. The tube records pulsations on the revolving smoked drum
Because of hydrosphymograph, he was accorded the distinction of being the first person to utilize an
instrument to detect lies.
5. WILLIAM MOULTON MARSTON 1915
 Considered the Father of Modern Polygraphy
dealt with a sphygmomanometer, which he used to obtain periodic discontinuous BP
reading during a test
 Experimented with and helped to develop the pneumograph (records breathing
patterns) and the galvanograph (records skin resistance)
 Developed in 1915, the systolic blood pressure deception test (Discontinuous
Systolic Blood Pressure Test)
✓ Discontinuous Systolic Blood Pressure Test Made
- used a standard blood pressure cuff and a stethoscope to take
intermittent systolic blood pressure readings of a suspect during
questioning to detect deception (Galianos Polygraphe Expert Inc., 2006)
 Used a combination of sphygmomanometer and galvanometer in detecting deception
 First to use the polygraph in an espionage case in 1917-1918

Image 2: polygraph examination using modern poloygraph

Utilizing one component of modern Polygraph tests: The Systolic Blood Pressure Test, Marston builds the
first proto-type polygraph. According to their son, Marston's wife, Elizabeth Holloway Marston, was also
involved in developing the test. She suggested to him that
"When she got mad or excited, her blood pressure seemed to climb."
6. JOHN AUGUSTUS LARSON
 Developed the Larson's Polygraph capable of continuously recording blood pressure,
pulse and respiration. It was described as polygraphic apparatus in a portable form
 He developed the polygraph, an instrument capable of continuously recording blood
pressure, pulse, and respiration, during the entire period of the test, which is
considered to be the first modern polygraph or, according to Galianos Polygraphe
Expert, Inc. (2006), considered by many to be the original lie detector.
 The first real-world application of "Cardio-pneumo-psychograph" was in Berkeley
sorority house 1921
 Situation: Items including an expensive ring had been stolen from rooms.
Suspect: Helen Graham
"No sooner had he brought up the subject of the diamond ring and stolen
money - "The test shows you stole it. Did you spend it?" then Graham's record
showed a precipitous drop in blood pressure before beginning what looked to be an
alarming rise, along with skipped heartbeats and an apparent halt in her breathing." -
Alder, The Lie Detectors.

Married Margaret Taylor, one of the other suspects

He was the first person to continually and simultaneously measure changes in a
subject's pulse rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate during an interrogation
(Galianos Polygraphe Expert Inc., 2006)
7. ETIENNE-JULES MAREY
 French scientist
 Started by studying blood circulation in the human body
 Devised a polygraph instrument that records pulse rate and heartbeat
simultaneously
 Produced sphygmograph which allowed medical doctors to produced graphical
records of pulse rate for the first time
Sphygmograph Blood-pressure recorder: an apparatus used to make a graphical
record of variations in blood pressure and pulse
 Advance the study of cardiac irregularities by devising a polygraph instrument that
recorded pulse rate and heartbeat simultaneously
8. LEONARDE KEELER
 Invented "Keeler Polygraph" in 1925, which is an improvement of Larson's polygraph
that is with a component that simultaneously records changes in blood pressure,
pulse, and respiration as well as the newly developed GSR, which were recorded
using inked pens (Galianos Polygraphe Expert Inc., 2006)
 He devised the rolled chart paper and incorporated the kymograph
Kymograph: a polygraph component that pulled at a constant speed, a chart paper
under the recording pen from a roll of chart paper located inside the instrument

 1926: Keeler Polygraph came on the market as a new and improved lie detector
(Galianos Polygraphe Expert Inc., 2006)

 Also devised the metal recording bellows of the polygraph

 1938: Keeler further refined the polygraph by adding the third physiological
measuring component for the detection of deception-the psychogalvanometer a
component that measured changes in a subject's galvanic skin resistance during
questioning, and in doing so, thus signaling the birth of the polygraph as we know it
today (Galianos Polygraphe Expert Inc., 2006).

 1939: Keeler patented what is now understood as the prototype of the modern
polygraph - the Keeler Polygraph

 Today: Keeler is known as the father of polygraph

b. Development of the Pneumograph Component

1. VITTORIO BENUSSI (1914)
 Successfully detected deception with pneumograph (an instrument that graphically
measures an examinee's inhalation and exhalation)
 demonstrated that changes in breathing patterns accompany deception
 Publish his research on respiration changes as indicators of lying and deception
2. HAROLD BURTT
 Determined that respiratory changes were indicative of deception
 Found out that changes in systolic blood pressure were of greater value in
determining deception than changes in respiration
 - the higher ratio in a BP reading (lower is diastolic)
The one recorded at the point at which the cuff stops the circulation & at
which no pulsations are heard.

c. Development of Galvanograph Component

1. LUIGI GALVANI Italian Physiologist
 Accorded the distinction for developing the galvanic skin reflex or the galvanometer,
which records electrical bodily resistance in term of ohm
Galvanometer records electrical bodily resistance reflected emotional changes by
measuring changes in person's skin resistance to electricity
2. STICKER
 Conducted the earliest application of psycho galvanometer (PGR) to forensic
problems
 First to suggest the use of the galvanograph for detecting deception based on the
work of several predecessors
 He theorized that exciting mental impressions influence the galvanic skin
phenomenon and will have no effect upon it.
 Introduced the method of detecting deception from the galvanic impression on the
chart tracing
3. VERAGUTH
 First to use the term Psycho-galvanic Skin Reflex
 Believed that the electrical phenomenon was due to the activity of the sweat glands

d. The Modern Polygraph

1. LEONARDE KEELER
 In 1949, galvanometer was added to his invention in 1925 for recording psycho-
galvanic skin refer or electrodermal response
 Recognized as the inventor of the first modern polygraph with kymograph, which is
composed of the paper roller and metal bellow (aka tambour)
2. JOHN EDWARD REID
 American Criminologist Devised "Reid Polygraph" in 1945, a new device for
recording unobserved muscular activities of the
 arms, thighs, and feet (Microsofts Student 2009)
 He designed a special chair equipped with metal bellows for recording unobserved
muscular activities of the arms, thighs, and feet, located on the arm of the chair and
the seat; this transmits singular muscular activity to the recording polygraph

Reid's present 4-recording channel polygraph is an excellent instrument for

detecting deception because it has the recording pens for the Cardio Pneumo-
Sphygmo-Galvano components, and has the muscular movement recording pens for
both arms and thighs. Reid based on his theory that once the subject has made a lie,
muscular contractions and pressures in the arms and thighs may occur due to the
constant pressure of blood volume causing them to contract or relax, significantly
when they are emotionally affected by the gravity of the offense charged.

3. SIR JAMES Mackenzie

 Scottish cardiologist
In his classic text The Study of the Pulse (1902), he described an instrument he
devised as a "clinical polygraph" (Galianos Polygraphe Expert Inc., 2006), which
allowed the user to correlate the arterial and venous pulses with the beat of the heart
itself.
 Introduced in 1982 Clinical polygraph which can simultaneously record undulated line
tracings of the vascular pulses (radial, venous and arterial), by way of a stylus onto a
revolving drum of smoked paper (Galianos Polygraphe Expert Inc., 2006)
 1906: he refined his 1892 Clinical Polygraph into Clinical Ink Polygraph with
Sebastian Shaw (a Lancashire watchmaker)
 Clinical Ink Polygraph: used a clockwork mechanism for the paper-rolling and time-
marker movements, and it produced ink recordings of physiological functions that
were easier to acquire and interpret

4. DR. JOSEPH F. KUBIS of Fordham University in New York City

 the first researcher to use potential computer applications for polygraph chart
analysis in the late 1970s (Brief History of the Polygraph, n.d)
5. DRS. JOHN C. KIRCHER AND DAVID C. RASKIN (Galianos Polygraphe Expert Inc., 2006)
 Conducted research on computerized polygraph during the 1980s
 developed the Computer Assisted Polygraph System (CAPS), which incorporated the
first algorithm to be used for evaluating physiological data collected for diagnostic
purposes in 1988
 1992: polygraph made its official entrance into the computer age
6. DR. DALE E. OLSEN AND JOHN C. HARRIS (Galianos Polygraphe Expert Inc., 2006)
 Statisticians at Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, in Maryland
 They completed a software program called PolyScore in 1993, which used a
sophisticated mathematical algorithm to analyze the polygraph data and estimate a
probability or degree of deception or truthfulness in a subject.

PolyScore

Is a computerized polygraph chart scoring algorithm that uses statistical probability to

arrive at truthfulness or deception. It has been shown that validated algorithms have
exceeded 98 percent in their accuracy to quantify, analyze and evaluate the
physiological data collected from polygraph examinations administered in real
criminal cases (Polygraphy (Lie Detection) Reviewer,n.d.).

PolyScore 3.0 Polygraph Software was developed by analyzing the data from
polygraph examinations administered in 624 real criminal cases in which 303
suspects were non-deceptive, and 321 suspects were deceptive.

 2003: PolyScore 5.1 Polygraph Software was developed by analyzing the data from
polygraph examinations administered in 1,411 real criminal cases provided by the
United States Department of Defence Polygraph Institute for study and comparison
purposes

C. OTHER METHODS IN DETECTING DECEPTION

1. WORD ASSOCIATION TEST
 Developed by Francis Galton in 1879
 Prepared a list of stimulus and a non-stimulus group of words separated in time to
allow the patient to utter his first thought generated by each word. Answers should be
given as quickly as possible. The time interval between the words uttered by the
examiner and the answer of the subject is recorded. Dr. Carl Gustav Jung later
developed the work and experiment of Galton.

✓This is not concerned whether your answer is yes or no

 Theory: guilty subject answer immediately when the question is non-stimulus and
takes time to answer stimulus questions
✓ The test is administered with the consent of the subject

Alexander R. Luria
 modified the Word Association Test technique,introduced by Galton, to be suitable in
Russia

Hugo Munsterberg
 
Introduced in the US (1908) the first forensic application of WAT in lie detection and
further suggested possibilities in detecting deception by recording physiological
changes.
2. PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS EVALUATOR (PSE)
 Developed by Charles R. McQuiston together with his friends, Alan Bell and Wilson
Ford in 1970
 The machine that detects, measures, and graphically displays the voice modulations
that we cannot hear, which can manifest psychological stress
 detects slight trembling in the voice, which may be interpreted to determine if the
person is telling the truth
 Purpose: to detect levels of significant emotional stress from human voiced
modulations
The PSE basis comes down to McQuiston's discovery that, under stress, tremors
from human voice disappear. When a person speaks, the air is pushed from the
lungs upward to the vocal cords. As a result, the vocal cords vibrate at a frequency of
about 10-12 Hertz (cycles per second). The air keeps flowing upward to the mouth
and goes through the tongue, teeth, and lips, thereby creating the speech flow.
When a person lies, the amount of blood in the vocal cords drops due to stress, so
no tremor. It is the disappearance of these tremors that the VSA looked into
(Damme, n.d.).

ADVANTAGES OF VSA OVER THE POLYGRAPH

1. It can be used as a remote verification tool
2. No direct connection to the subject's body, nor any testing equipment
3. Possibility to interview the subject over the telephone
4. Previously recorded conversations can be analyzed later
5. Normal conversation using full phrases and answers can be used, no need for
yes and no answers only, no timing of questions necessary
6. The subject can be held ignorant of the fact that he is interviewed and that his
answers will be analyzed this case the recording nor the analysis can be used
against him

3. ADMINISTRATION OF TRUTH SERUM

 Introduced by Dr. Edward Mandel House
Used Hysocine hydrobromide administered to the subject hypodermically unit a state of
delirium is brought on. When under delirium, the subject. when asked questions, feel an
obligation to answer truthfully, forgets his alibi, and may even give information of his acts
or even involve others in the crime

4. NARCOANALYSIS/NARCOSYNTHESIS
 Used Psychiatric Sodium amytal/Na pentothal, a drug that causes depression of the
inhibitory mechanism of the brain, which makes the subject talk freely
5. INTOXICATION WITH ALCOHOL
 In vino veritas
 The subject is allowed to drink until intoxicated, wherein his power to control decreases,
so questions will be asked and recorded
6. HYPNOSIS
 an altered state of consciousness and heightened responsiveness to suggestion
(Microsoft & Encarta@2009)
 the alteration of consciousness and concentration while awareness is maintained
 Hypnosis can produce a deeper contact with one's emotional life, resulting in some lifting
of repressions and exposure of buried fears and conflicts (ibid).

FRANZ ANTON MESMER

 Austrian physician
 He is known for inducing a trancelike state, mesmerism, as a curative agent. He used
this in the treatment of his patients in Vienna and Paris (Microsoft® Encarta® 2009)
 MESMERISM
 the forerunner of hypnotism named after Mesmer (Encyclopædia Britannica)
 mesmeric trance is today identified as hypnosis (Microsoft® Encarta®2009)

JAMES BRAID
 after studying mesmeric trance coined Hypnotism and Hypnosis after the Greek God of
sleep, Hypnos

SIGMUND FREUD
 Austrian physician who used hypnosis to help neurotics recall disturbing events that they
had forgotten but discard because of theoretical consideration and difficulty he
encountered in hypnotizing some patients

POSTHYPNOTIC AMNESIA
 Inability to recall events that occurred while they were in deep hypnosis
7. SCAN (SCIENTIFIC CONTENT ANALYSIS)
 A technique developed by Avinoam Sapir, an Israeli psychologist and criminologist
A scientific analyzing technique of written statements and is used worldwide

The SCAN technique requires the subject his written version of what happened to detect
truth or deception. The examiner will then interpret this statement from beginning to end.
Every word in the subject's explanation of facts - the pronouns. connotations, subjective
time, and language changes are analyzed (Damme, n.d.).

This technique is vital in the examiner's training because it requires in-depth knowledge
of the various SCAN techniques and a perfect understanding of the subject's language.

8. VIEW (Verbal Inquiry-Effective Witness) QUESTIONNAIRE (Damme, n.d.)

 Typically a multiple questions document Reliability is up to 80%
 Mainly used to speed up investigations
 Very fast technique especially useful when dealing with a large number of subjects

In this technique, the subject shall give a detailed answer to each question. Certain
questions are very subtle duplications that the non-trained subject will not be aware of.

The theory behind the questionnaire is that a person cannot lie twice. The human psyche
makes it difficult to lie. A person, when asked the same question, but formulated
differently, will answer differently.

9. SCIENTIFIC INTERROGATION
 Questioning of a person suspected of having committed an offense or of a person who is
reluctant to make full disclosure of information in his possession that is pertinent to the
investigation

D. DEVELOPMENT OF QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE

1. RELEVANT-IRRELEVANT TEST/RI THEORY
 Developed by Larson and Keeler in 1942
 The earliest method of polygraph testing
 It uses two kinds of questions
- Relevant
 Deal with the issue at hand

- Irrelevant
 Deal with outside facts or details
  A known fact which the subject cannot lie
 Theory:
a. The guilty subject reacts only to relevant questions
b. Innocent subjects show no reaction to relevant questions

Assumption: A liar or guilty person will be more aroused by relevant questions than
Irrelevant ones, while an innocent person will show no difference

c. So, if arousal (relevant)>arousal (irrelevant) = lying

Leonarde Keeler
 Credited for the development of the Relevant/ Irrelevant questions Technique, which he
described as Deception Tests and the Lie Detector

 Applied his R/I Questioning Technique on suspect in actual criminal investigations with
great success. This was because he was armed with a polygraph consisting of 4
components, namely:
a. Pneumograph
b. Psychogalvanometer (Galvanograph)
c. Cardiosphymograph (Cardiograph)
d. Kymograph
 Added the Personally Embarrassing Question (EPQ in 1946 to his RI Technique, which
ceased in 1951. This is designed to get a reaction from innocent subjects. They believe
that guilty subjects will not mind embarrassing personal questions because they would
be more concerned with the crime or relevant questions. Thus, they will not be reacting
to EPQ and will only react to relevant questions.
COMMENT: both innocent and guilty reacted to EPQ
 Added Un-Reviewed Control Questions or Surprise Questions, which is still part of some
RI technique used today
 Introduced the Card or Number Test and specialized in (Searching) Peak of Tension
Test

(Searching) Peak of Tension Test

 It can be used when specific details of a crime are unknown to the investigator
 The suspect is presented serially with potential relevant clues
- Areas in which a body may be located
- Amounts of money that may have been stolen
 Assumption:
- A guilty person will react strongest when the correct alternative is chosen
- An innocent person may simply become more aroused as the test goes
won but will not show a significant sudden increase in arousal to one
alternative

2. RELEVANT-IRRELEVANT WITH SURPRISE CONTROL QUESTION

 Developed by Inbau and Reid about 1948
 Theory:
a. To stimulate the innocent subject
b. To identify the general nervous tension and complex
c. To improve the contrast between innocent and guilty subjects
John Reid
Credited with the development of Reviewed Control Question (Reid Control Question
Technique/RCQT) consisting of a probable lie incorporated into the RI test
 Introduced the Guilt Complex Test (GCT), previously described and used by Lee in 1943
and administered it to the overly responsive subject
3. COMPARISON QUESTION TEST (CQT)
 The most common method of polygraph interrogation
 Developed by John Reid
 Begins with an extensive pre-test interview
 It uses three kinds of questions:
a. Relevant
e.g., "Did you kill Nicole Brown Simpson?"
b. Comparison (aka probable lie)
e.g., "Have you ever physically harmed someone?"
c. Irrelevant
e.g., "Is your name Orenthal James Simpson?"
 Assumption:
A liar become more aroused by lying to the relevant questions than the comparison
questions
The comparison questions will more arouse an innocent person
Arousal (relevant) > arousal (comparison) =guilty
 Uses:
a. Criminal investigations.
b. Employee screening
c. Security clearances
4. DIRECTED LIE TEST (DLT)
 The same kind of questions as CQT, the only subject is instructed to lie to all the
comparison questions
Assumptions:
a. A guilty person will show more arousal lying to relevant questions
b. An innocent person will show more arousal lying to comparison questions
5. CONCEALED INFORMATION TEST (CIT)
 AKA - Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT) • Developed by David Lykken in 1958
 Rather than trying to detect arousal caused by lying tries to detect arousal from
recognition of "guilty knowledge" from the "orienting response."
 Multiple-choice (serially presented) questions where the investigator knows the correct
answer
i.e., "What was the weapon used to kill Mr. Boddy?"
i. Candlestick

iii. Revolver

v. Knife

ii. Rope

iv. Lead Pipe

vi. Wrench
Assumptions:
a. A guilty person's arousal will increase upon recognizing the correct alternative due to
involuntary orienting response
b. An innocent person will not be able to discern the correct alternative from the others
c. Guilty examinees are expected to reveal their concealed knowledge by responding
more strongly to the correct item than to the others (The Polygraph and Lie
Detection, 2003)
6. RELEVANT-IRRELEVANT WITH REVIEWED AND GUILT COMPLEX QUESTION
 Developed by Inbau and Reid about 1950-1953
Guilt Complex Question
 Concerning fabricated incident of a similar nature but one which appears to be
real in so far as the subject is concern

 Administered to overly responsive subject

Reviewed questions
 Known lie
 Theory
a. To stimulate the innocent subject
 b. To identify the general nervous tension and guilt complex reactor
c. To improve the contrast between the innocent and guilty subject

7. BACKSTER ZONE COMPARISON TEST (BZCT)

 Developed by Backster in 1963 (The Polygraph and Lie Detection, 2003)
 First comparison question test to incorporate a numerical scoring system
 Named for the three "zones" (The Polygraph and Lie Detection, 2003)
- Red Zone: relevant questions
- Green zone: probable-lie comparison questions
- Black zone: questions to uncover examinee concerns about an issue
outside of the scope of the red and green zones
 Theory
a. Designed to disclose outside issues
 became a standard polygraph technique incorporating RI questions

Cleve Backster (Grover Cleveland Backster, Jr.)

Disassembled and remounted in the late 1950s, the Stoelting instrument into a
Samsonite luggage case, which was the first suitcase-style polygraph
8. QUADRI-TRACK ZONE COMPARISON TECHNIQUE (QTZCT)
 Developed by Prof. James Allan Matte Developed in 1977, the Polygraph Quadri-Zone
Comparison Technique renamed in 1995
 A modification of BZCT because it provided a fourth track or spot of quantification
designed to recover response energy lost by the other tracks/spots as a result of inside
issue factors, which Matte identified as Fear of Error by the innocent, and Hope of Error
by the guilty
 In the same year, he developed the Suspicion- Dan Knowledge-Guilt (SKG) test to
provide the FP Zone Comparison Test (The Polygraph and Lie Detection)
- developed by Backster in 1963

E. OTHER PIONEERS IN THE HISTORY OF DECEPTION DETECTION

1. Richard Arther
 The first polygraphist to record the chest and abdominal breathing patterns simultaneously
 First, to record simultaneously two galvanic skin responses.
 Conducted research that resulted in the polygraph profession adding a second
pneumograph component the polygraph instrument (The Polygraph and Lie Detection, 2003)
 Founded the Journal of Polygraph Science, the oldest of the polygraph publications

2. Richard I. Goldon
 Experimented the use of control question technique but requiring the subject to answer
the question twice, the first time truthfully and the second time with a lie, to require
additional psychophysiological data from the examinee by comparing his subjective
answer with a known lie to the same question
3. Erasistratus
 Successfully noted the frequency of heartbeat upon application of some stimuli related to
the question
4. Galileo
 Devised Pulsilogium, an instrument used to measure heartbeat frequency. However, he
did not use this device for lie detection
5. Daniel Defoe
 Wrote an essay in 1730 suggesting that taking the pulse is a practical and more humane
method of detecting a liar. Concerning this, Gesta Romanum, a book published in 1906,
stated that a nobleman tested his wife's fidelity during the middle ages by taking her
pulse.
6. Dr. Charles E. Cady
 Recommended the use of chloroform to solve Lincoln's assassination, including the
identification of the plotters. This was based on his three years of experience as an army
surgeon where he had observed that rebel officers divulged important information while
they were partially under the influence of chloroform
7. Christian Ruckmick
 Repudiated the term Psychogalvanic reflex because such a reaction is not a reflex. He
explained that the psychological nature of the psychogalvanic reflex is not entirely
understood; thus, he proposed the term. Electrodermal Response
 probably the first to conduct a legitimate laboratory study involving a "Peak-of-Tension
Test resembling the current format in 1938
8. C.W. Darrow
 developed in the early 1930s, Darrow Behavior Research Photopolygraph manufactured
by CH Stoelting Coy in Chicago, Ill). This records the respiration, GSR, and a verbal
stimulus-response record
9. Captain Clarence D. Lee
 designed in 1938, the Berkeley Psychograph consisting of a chart drive or recording unit,
a pneumograph or respiration unit, a cardiograph or pulse-blood pressure unit, and a
stimulus signal unit
10. Fred E. Inbau
 wrote a book Lie Detection and Criminal Investigation in 1942 that explained the Peak-
of-Tension Test by describing the methodology for the administration of a guilty
knowledge test where the subject has not been informed of the essential details of the
case such as the object stolen, the amount of money missing, or the implement used in
the commission of the crime.
11. Dr. William J. Yankee
 presented a report of the computerization of polygraphic recordings to the Keeler
Institute Alumni Association 5th Annual Seminar in Chicago in 1968 He explained the
basics of scientific research and quantifying those variables affecting the polygraphic
recordings to computerize the polygraph system.
12. Dr. Hans Gross
 stated that "a large part of the criminal work is nothing more than a battle of lies."
 Known as the "Father of Criminalistics"