Chapter 1

Fundamentals of Topological spaces

1.1 Topology, Bases and Subbases

Definition 1.1.1. Let X be a non-empty set. A subfamily τ of P(X) (= Power set of X)
is called a topology on X if the following conditions are satisfied:

1. ∅, X ∈ τ
S
2. {Uα : α ∈ Λ} ⊆ τ implies Uα ∈ τ
α∈Λ

3. U1 , U2 ∈ τ implies U1 ∩ U2 ∈ τ .

The pair (X, τ ) is called a topological space and the members of τ are called open sets in
X. The complements of the members of τ are called closed sets in X. i.e., A subset A of X
is called a closed set in X iff X \ A is open in X.

Example 1.1.1. On any non-empty set X, the largest possible topology is τ = P(X) and
the smallest possible topology is τ = {∅, X}. The largest topology is termed as discrete
topology and the smallest topology is termed as the indiscrete topology.
S
Example 1.1.2. Let X be an infinite set with τ = {U ⊆ X : X \ U is f inite} {∅}.
Then τ is a topology on X (verify). This topology is called cofinite topology on X.
S
Example 1.1.3. Let X be an uncountable set with τ = {U ⊆ X : X\ U is countable} {∅}.
Then τ is a topology on X (verify). This topology is called co-countable topology on X.

Problem 1.1.1. Describe explicitly the cofinite and cocountable topologies on X, if X is

respectively a finite set and a countable set.

Example 1.1.4. Let X = {a, b} and τ = {∅, X, {a}}, then τ is a topology on X (verify),
called Sierpinski topology on X and the space (X, τ ) is called Sierpinski space.

Example 1.1.5. Let R be the set of all real numbers. If τ = {U ⊆ R : for each x ∈ U ∃ϵ >
0 such that (x − ϵ, x + ϵ) ⊆ U } then τ is a topology on R, called the usual or standard
topology on R, usually denoted by τU .
1
A. Deb Ray, C.U. 2

The following example shows that even a finite union of topologies need not be a topology
on a set X.

Example 1.1.6. Let X be any nonempty set containing at least three points. Suppose in
particular, X = {a, b, c}. Define two topologies τ1 and τ2 on X as follows:
τ1 = {X, ∅, {a}}
τ2 = {X, ∅, {b}}
Then τ1 ∪ τ2 = {X, ∅, {a}, {b}} is not a topology (why?) on X. Hence, union of two
topologies need not be a topology on X.

However, we shall see next that any arbitrary intersection of topologies is a topology on X.

Theorem 1.1.1. Let X be a nonempty T set. If {τα : α ∈ Λ} (Λ is any index set) is a

collection of topologies on X, then τα is a topology on X.
α∈Λ
T
Proof. ∅, X ∈ τα , for each α ∈ Λ ⇒ ∅, X ∈ τα .
α∈Λ
Let {Uβ : β ∈ Λ∗ } ⊆
T
τα . Then for each α ∈ Λ, {Uβ : β ∈ Λ∗} ⊆ τα . As each τα is a
S α∈Λ S T
topology on X, Uβ ∈ τα for each α ∈ Λ. Consequently, Uβ ∈ τα .
T α∈Λ
Suppose, U1 , U2 , ..., Un ∈ τα . Then U1 , U2 , ...Un ∈ τα for each α ∈ Λ. Then each τα being
α∈Λ T
a topology on X, U1 ∩ U2 ∩ ... ∩ Un ∈ τα , for each α ∈ Λ. Hence, U1 ∩ U2 ∩ ... ∩ Un ∈ τα .
T α∈Λ
Therefore τα is a topology on X.
α∈Λ

Definition 1.1.2. Given two topologies τ1 and τ2 on X. τ1 is said to be stronger or finer

or larger than τ2 , if τ2 ⊆ τ1 . In such case, τ2 is called weaker or coarser or smaller than
τ1 .

It is clear that the discrete topology is stronger than any other topology while indiscrete
topology is weaker than any other topology. So, we may designate the discrete and indiscrete
topology as the strongest and the weakest topology respectively. It is to be noted also that
any two topologies τ1 and τ2 on a set X may or may not be related. For example, on an
uncountable set X cofinite topology is strictly weaker than cocountable topology. But, even
on a finite set, the following two topologies are not related -

Example 1.1.7. Let X = {a, b, c}, τ1 = {∅, X, {c}} and τ2 = {∅, X, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}. Then
certainly (X, τ1 ) and (X, τ2 ) are topological spaces. But they are not related.

Problem 1.1.2. Verify that τU is strictly weaker than τd on R and strictly finer than τf on
R.

In a space sometimes it is easy to visualize some particular open sets and information about
such sets suffices for studying the underlying topology. For example, in R, if we study the
open intervals, it is good enough. Even though there are open sets in R that are not open
intervals, topological information about open intervals is sufficient. A subclass of open sets
that are enough in discussing topological properties is called a base for the topology and
A. Deb Ray, C.U. 3

members of that subclass are called basic open sets. Sometimes a subclass of base, called
subbase for the topology also play significant role. Eventually we shall see that subbasic
open sets are inadequate in almost everywhere except for a few very important situations:
(1) Characterizing continuous functions
(2) Alexander subbase theorem that simplifies the proof of Tychonoff’s product theorem on
compactness
(3) In defining Complete regularity of a space
(4) In discussing product topology.
The power of the topics mentioned above justifies the need for subbasic open sets. So, we
formally define basic and subbasic open sets next.

Definition 1.1.3. A collection B of subsets of a set X is called a base for a topology on X,

if the following conditions hold :

1. For each x ∈ X, ∃B ∈ B such that x ∈ B;

2. For any B1 , B2 ∈ B and x ∈ B1 ∩ B2 , ∃B3 ∈ B, such that x ∈ B3 ⊆ B1 ∩ B2 .

Note : A collection of subsets B of a set X satisfying the following conditions clearly

qualifies for base for some topology:

ˆ X ∈ B;

ˆ B1 , B2 ∈ B ⇒ B1 ∩ B2 ∈ B.

Theorem 1.1.2. Let B be a base for some topology on a set X. Then τ = {G ⊆ X : ∀ x ∈

G, ∃B ∈ B with x ∈ B ⊆ G}, is a topology on X. Moreover, τ is the smallest topology on
X that contains B.

Proof. By definition of τ , ∅, X ∈ τ . Let A1 , A2 ∈ τ . Then x ∈ A1 ∩A2 ⇒ x ∈ A1 and x ∈ A2 .

By definition of τ , as A1 , A2 ∈ τ , ∃B1 , B2 ∈ B, such that x ∈ B1 ⊆ A1 and x ∈ B2 ⊆ A2 . As
B is a base, for x ∈ B1 ∩ B2 , there exists B3 ∈ B such that x ∈ B3 ⊆ B1 ∩ B2 ⊆ A1 ∩ A2 .
Hence, A1 ∩ A2 ∈ τ . S
Suppose, {Uα α ∈ Λ} ⊆ τ (Λ is any index set). Let x ∈ Uα . Then x ∈ Uα , for some
α∈Λ S
α ∈ Λ. By definition of τ , there is B ∈ B, such that x ∈ B ⊆ Uα ⊆ Uα . Hence,
S α∈Λ
Uα ∈ τ .
α∈Λ
Hence, (X, τ ) is a topological space.
It is also easy to see from the definition of τ that B ⊆ τ . Let σ be another topology on X
such that B ⊆ σ. We have to show that τ ⊆ σ.
Suppose G ∈ τ . Then S ∀x ∈ G, ∃Bx ∈ B,S such that x ∈ Bx ⊆ G. Taking union over all
x ∈ G, we get, G ⊆ Bx ⊆ G, i.e., G = Bx . Now, each Bx ∈ B ⊆ σ and σ is a topology
x∈G S x∈G
on X implies that G = Bx ∈ σ. Hence by the arbitrariness of G, we get τ ⊆ σ.
x∈G

While proving this result we have already established that

A. Deb Ray, C.U. 4

Corollary 1.1.1. If B is a base for some topology τ on a set X, then each member of τ is
a union of some members of B.

Corollary 1.1.2. Any two topologies τ1 and τ2 on a set X having the same base B are
equal.

In view of the last theorem, the smallest topology containing B is termed as the topology
generated by B.
We see next that the converse of the corollary (1.1.1) is also true.

Theorem 1.1.3. If (X, τ ) is a topological space and B is a subcollection of τ such that each
member of τ is some union of members of B, then B is a base for the topology τ on X.

Proof.SAs X ∈ τ , by the hypothesis, there are some members Bα ∈ B, α ∈ Λ, such that

X = Bα . Hence, for each x ∈ X, there exists Bα ∈ B such that x ∈ Bα .
Let B1 , B2 ∈ B and x ∈ B1 ∩ B2 . As B is a subcollectionSof τ , B1 , B2 ∈ τ and so, τ being a
topology on X, B1 ∩ B2 ∈ τ . By hypothesis, B S1 ∩ B2 = Bα , for some Bα ∈ B, (α varries
over some index set Λ). Then x ∈ B1 ∩ B2 = Bα ⇒ x ∈ Bα ⊆ B1 ∩ B2 , for some α.
Hence, B is a base for τ on X.

An useful criterion to compare two topologies in terms of their bases is given as follows:

Theorem 1.1.4. Let τ1 and τ2 be two topologies on a set X, generated by B1 and B2

respectively. Then τ1 ⊆ τ2 if and only if ∀x ∈ X and ∀B1 ∈ B1 with x ∈ B1 , ∃B2 ∈ B2 such
that x ∈ B2 ⊆ B1 .

Proof. Suppose, τ1 ⊆ τ2 . Let B1 ∈ B1 with x ∈ B1 . Then B1 ⊆ τ1 ⇒ B1 ∈ τ1 ⇒ B1 ∈ τ2 .

So, by the definition of topology generated from a base, ∃B2 ∈ B2 , such that x ∈ B2 ⊆ B1 .
Conversely, let U ∈ τ1 . Then for each x ∈ U , ∃B1 ∈ B1 such that x ∈ B1 ⊆ U . Hence, by
the hypothesis, ∃B2 ∈ B2 , with x ∈ B2 ⊆ B1 ⊆ U . Consequently, U ∈ τ2 .

Problem 1.1.3. Consider B1 = interiors of circles drawn on R2 and B2 = interiors of squares

drawn on R2 . If τ1 and τ2 are the topologies generated from B1 and B2 respectively, then
use the above result to show that τ1 = τ2 .

Problem 1.1.4. Consider R = set of real numbers, B = collection of all open intervals of
R, Bl = collection of all half open intervals of the form [a, b) of R. Show that

1. B forms a base for some topology σ on R (σ is called the usual topology on R)

2. Bl forms a base for some topology τl on R (τl is called the lower limit topology on R
and (R, τl ) is known as the Sorgenfrey line.)

Can you compare σ and τl ?

In dealing with properties of topological spaces (in most of the situations), information about
even a particular subcollection of its base is enough. So, we define subbase for a topology
as follows:
A. Deb Ray, C.U. 5

S A collection S of subsets of a set X is said to be a subbase for a topology

Definition 1.1.4.
on X if X = S (i.e., S is a cover of X).
S∈S

Theorem 1.1.5. If S is a subbase for some topology τ on X, then B = {S1 ∩ S2 ∩ ... ∩ Sn :

Si ∈ S, i = 1, ...n, n ∈ N} forms a base for the topology τ on X.
Proof. Exercise. (To be done in class)
Problem 1.1.5. Let (X, <) be a partially ordered set. Define U ⊆ X to be open if it
satisfies the condition: (x ∈ U ) ∧ (y < x) ⇒ y ∈ U . Show that {U |U is open} is a topology
on X.
Problem 1.1.6. In N, define U ⊆ N to be open if it satisfies the condition : n ∈ U ⇒ every
divisor of n belongs to U. Show that this is a topology on N and that it is not the discrete
topology.
Problem 1.1.7. Let (X, ≤) be a linearly ordered set. S Let a0 and b0 be the
S least and greatest
element of X (if exist). If B = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ X} {[a0 , b) : b ∈ X} {(a, b0 ] : a ∈ X}
(where (a, b) stands for the set of all points x ∈ X such that a ≤ x ≤ b and x ̸= a, x ̸= b
and similar for [a0 , b) and (a, b0 ]). ((a, b) will be called an ‘open interval’). Verify that B
is a base for some topology on X. The topology generated by B is known as the ‘order
topology’ on X.
Note that the order topology on R induced by the usual order on R coincides with the usual
topology τU on R.
Problem 1.1.8. Let X be a set. A function d : X × X → R+ ∪ {0} (where R+ is the set of
all positive real numbers) is called a pseudometric on X if it obeys the following conditions :
(i) d(x, x) = 0 for all x ∈ X;
(ii) d(x, y) = d(y, x), for all x, y ∈ X;
(iii) d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y), for any x, y, z ∈ X.
For any x ∈ X and r ∈ R+ , Br (x) = {y ∈ X : d(x, y) < r} is called an open ball centred
at x and radius r. If B = {Br (x) : x ∈ X, r ∈ R+ } then show that B is a base for some
topology on X. In this case, the topology thus obtained is called the pseudometric topology
on X.
One may observe that in the definition of a pseudometric we make the condition (i) stronger
by replacing it with “d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y’ for all x, y ∈ X, to get the definition
of a metric on X and hence, the topology generated by such open balls give the metric
topology on X.
It is easy to see that the metric topology on R obtained from the usual metric d(x, y) = |x−y|
yields open intervals as open balls, thereby producing the usual topology on R.
Problem 1.1.9. Let X be a set and d : X × X → R+ ∪ {0} be defined by
(
1, if x = y
d(x, y) =
0, otherwise.
Verify that d is a metric on X (called the discrete metric) and find the open balls, for each
x ∈ X and r > 0. Do you know the name of the topology obtained from this?
A. Deb Ray, C.U. 6

1.2 Essential Concepts

Definition 1.2.1. Let (X, τ ) be a topological space. A set U (⊂ X) with x ∈ U is said to
be a neighbourhood (in short, nbd) of x if ∃G ∈ τ , such that x ∈ G ⊆ U . If in particular,
U itself is open (closed) then U is called an open neighbourhood (respectively, closed
neighbourhood).
We prove now that an open set U of a topological space X can be characterized by the nbds
of the points of U.
Theorem 1.2.1. In a topological space (X, τ ), U ∈ τ if and only if U is a nbd of each of its
points.
Proof. Let U ∈ τ . Then for each x ∈ U , ∃U ∈ τ , such that x ∈ U ⊆ U . Hence, U is a nbd
S then ∀x
of each of its points. Conversely, if U is a nbd of each of its points, S ∈ U , ∃Bx ∈ τ ,
such that x ∈ Bx ⊆ U . Taking union over all x ∈ U , we get, {x} ⊆ Bx ⊆ U which
S x∈U x∈U
implies, U = Bx . As each Bx ∈ τ and τ is a topology on X, U ∈ τ .
x∈U

However, the following example shows that a closed set need not be a closed neighbourhood
of a point.
Example 1.2.1. Suppose, (X, τ ) is an infinite set with cofinite topology. Consider any finite
set A (with at least one point) and x ∈ A. Then A is certainly a closed set containing x.
But we can not find any open set U in X, such that x ∈ U ⊆ A (why?). Hence, A is not a
neighbourhood of x.
Theorem 1.2.2. Suppose, for each x ∈ X, ηx = {U ⊆ X : U is a nbd of x}. Then the
collection ηx satisfies the following conditions:
1. ηx ̸= ∅
2. U, V ∈ ηx ⇒ U ∩ V ∈ ηx
3. U ∈ ηx , U ⊆ V ⇒ V ∈ ηx
4. U ∈ ηx ⇒ ∃V ∈ ηx such that V ⊆ U and U ∈ ηy , ∀y ∈ V
Proof. 1. ηx ̸= ∅, as X ∈ ηx , for each x ∈ X.
2. ∀U, V ∈ ηx , ∃G1 , G2 ∈ τ , such that x ∈ G1 ⊆ U and x ∈ G2 ⊆ V . Then x ∈ G1 ∩ G2 ⊆
U ∩ V . Since τ is a topology on X and G1 , G2 ∈ τ , we get G1 ∩ G2 ∈ τ . Hence, U ∩ V ∈ ηx .
3. U ∈ ηx and U ⊆ V ⇒ ∃G ∈ τ , such that x ∈ G ⊆ U ⊆ V . Hence, V ∈ ηx .
4. U ∈ ηx ⇒ ∃V ∈ τ such that x ∈ V ⊆ U . Now, V being an open set containing x, V ∈ ηx .
Again, V ∈ τ ⇒ V is a nbd of each y ∈ V . i.e., V ∈ ηy , ∀y ∈ V . But, V ⊆ U . So, by part
(3), U ∈ ηy , ∀y ∈ V .
Example 1.2.2. Let X = {a, b, c, d} and τ = {∅, X, {a}, {b}, {a, b}, {a, b, c}}. Then the
neighbourhood systems at the points a, b, c and d are as folllows:
ηa = {X, {a}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {a, c, d}, {a, b, d}, {a, b, c}}
ηb = {X, {b}, {a, b}, {a, b, c}, {b, c}, {b, d}, {b, c, d}, {a, b, d}}
ηc = {X, {a, b, c}}
ηd = {X}.
A. Deb Ray, C.U. 7

Note that in the above example, {a, b, d} is neither a closed set nor an open set, but it is a
neighbourhood of a as well as b.

Definition 1.2.2. Let (X, τ ) be a topological space and A ⊆ X. Then

1. Intersection of all closed sets containing A is called the closure of A, denoted by,
cl(A) or A

2. Union of all open sets contained in A is called the interior of A, denoted by, int(A).

Note that, for any set A (⊂ X), at least one closed set exists, namely, X, that contains A
and at least one open set exists, namely ∅, that is contained in A.

Theorem 1.2.3. Let (X, τ ) be a topological space. ∀A, B ⊆ X,

(i) A ⊆ A
(ii) A is a closed set
(iii) A is the smallest closed set containing A.
(iv) If B is a closed set and A ⊆ B, then A ⊆ B.
(v) A ⊆ B ⇒ A ⊆ B.
(vi) A is a closed set ⇔ A = A.
(vii) A = A.
(viii) X = X and ∅ = ∅.
(ix) (A ∪ B) = A ∪ B
(x) (A ∩ B) ⊆ A ∩ B.

Proof. (i) It directly follows from the definition of A that A ⊆ A.

(ii) As arbitrary intersection of closed sets is closed, A is closed in X.
(iii) Let B be any closed set containing A. Then by definition of A, since A is the intersection
of all closed sets containing A,A ⊆ B. Hence A is the smallest closed set containing A.
(iv) If A ⊆ B and B is a closed set, then A being the smallest closed set contaning A, A ⊆ B.
(v) A ⊆ B ⇒ A ⊆ B ⊆ B (by (i)) ⇒ A ⊆ B (Using (ii) and (iv)).
(vi) A is a closed set and A ⊆ A ⇒ A ⊆ A (By (iv)) and also, A ⊆ A (By (i)). Hence, if
A is a closed set A = A. Conversely, let A = A. Then as A is a closed set (By (ii)), A is a
closed set.
(vii) By (vi), B = A is closed if and only if A = B = B = A.
(viii) X and ∅ are closed in X, and so by (vi), X = X and ∅ = ∅.
(ix) A ⊆ (A ∪ B) and B ⊆ (A ∪ B) ⇒ A ⊆ (A ∪ B) and B ⊆ (A ∪ B). So, A ∪ B ⊆ (A ∪ B).
On the other hand, A ⊆ A and B ⊆ B. Thus, (A ∪ B) ⊆ (A ∪ B). Now, A ∪ B is a closed
set containing A ∪ B and A ∪ B is the smallest closed set containing A ∪ B, and hence,
(A ∪ B) ⊆ (A ∪ B). Hence, (A ∪ B) = A ∪ B.
(x) A ∩ B ⊆ A ⇒ (A ∩ B) ⊆ A and similarly, A ∩ B ⊆ B ⇒ (A ∩ B) ⊆ B. Hence,
(A ∩ B) ⊆ A ∩ B.

Problem 1.2.1. Find an example to establish that A ∩ B ⊇ (A ∩ B).

Theorem 1.2.4. Let (X, τ ) be a topological space. ∀A, B ⊆ X,

(i) int(A) ⊆ A
A. Deb Ray, C.U. 8

(ii) int(A) is an open set

(iii) int(A) is the largest open set contained in A.
(iv) If B is an open set and B ⊆ A, then B ⊆ int(A).
(v) A ⊆ B ⇒ int(A) ⊆ int(B).
(vi) A is open set if and only if int(A) = A
(vii) int(int(A)) = int(A)
(viii) int(X) = X and int(∅) = ∅
(ix) int(A ∩ B) = int(A) ∩ int(B)
(x) int(A) ∪ int(B) ⊆ int(A ∪ B)

Proof. (i) Follows from the definition of int(A).

(ii) Since the union of open sets is open (by axiom of topology), int(A) is open.
(iii) Suppose B is any open set contained in A. Then int(A) being the union of all open sets
contained in A, B ⊆ int(A). Hence, int(A) is the largest of all open sets contained in A.
(iv) B is an open set contained in A and int(A) is the largest open set contained in A, it
follows that B ⊆ int(A).
(v) By (i), int(A) ⊆ A. Now, int(A) is an open set contained in B ⇒ (by (iv))int(A) ⊆
int(B).
(vi) If A is an open set and A ⊆ A then by (iv), A ⊆ int(A). By (i), int(A) ⊆ A. Hence
A = int(A). Conversely, let int(A) = A. Then by (ii), A is open.
(vii) Since int(A) is open, by (vi), int(int(A)) = int(A).
(viii) As X, ∅ ∈ τ , by (vi), int(X) = X and int(∅) = ∅.
(ix) A ∩ B ⊆ A ⇒ int(A ∩ B) ⊆ int(A). Similarly,A ∩ B ⊆ B ⇒ int(A ∩ B) ⊆ int(B).
So, int(A ∩ B) ⊆ int(A) ∩ int(B). On the otherhand, int(A) ∩ int(B) is an open set
contained in A ∩ B and int(A ∩ B) is the largest open set contained in A ∩ B, we get
int(A) ∩ int(B) ⊆ int(A ∩ B). Hence, the result is obtained.
(x) A ⊆ (A ∪ B) ⇒ int(A) ⊆ int(A ∪ B) and B ⊆ (A ∪ B) ⇒ int(B) ⊆ int(A ∪ B). Hence,
int(A) ∪ int(B) ⊆ int(A ∪ B).

Theorem 1.2.5. If A is a subset of a topological space (X, τ ) and x ∈ X, then

1. x ∈ A if and only if every open nbd. of x intersects A.

2. x ∈ A if and only if every basic open nbd. of x intersects A.

3. x ∈ A if and only if every nbd. of x intersects A.

Proof. 1. Suppose x ∈ A. If x ∈ A then U ∩ A ̸= ∅ for every open nbd. U of x. Let

x ∈ A \ A. If possible let V be an open nbd. of x, such that V ∩ A = ∅. Then A ⊆ (A \ V ).
A \ V = A ∩ (X \ V ) is a closed set containing A and A is the smallest closed set containing
A. So, A ⊆ A \ V . But, A \ V ⊆ A. i.e., A = A \ V , so that V = ∅ - a contradiction, as
x ∈ V . Hence, every nbd. of x intersects A. Conversely, let the condition be true. To show
that x ∈ A. If x ∈
/ A, then x ∈ X \ A. Since X \ A is an open set containing x, by the given
condition, X \ A ∩ A ̸= ∅ - which is not possible. Hence, x ∈ A.
2. and 3. Exercise.

We define a few terms before proceeding further.

A. Deb Ray, C.U. 9

Definition 1.2.3. Let A be a subset of a topological space (X, τ ). A point x ∈ X is said to

be
ˆ an adherent point of A if and only if for every open nbd. U of x, U ∩ A ̸= ∅.

ˆ an interior point of A if and only if there exists an open nbd. U of x, such that
x ∈ U ⊆ A.
ˆ a limit point or accumulation point or cluster point of A if and only if every
open nbd. U of x, U ∩A\{x} =
̸ ∅. The set of all limit points of A is called the derived
d
set of A, denoted by A .
ˆ an isolated point of A if and only if x ∈ A and x is not a limit point of A.

ˆ an ω-accumulation point of A if and only if every nbd. of x intersects A in infinitely

many points.
Definition 1.2.4. A subset A of a topological space (X, τ ) is called
ˆ dense-in-itself iff A ⊆ Ad

ˆ a perfect set iff A = Ad .

Theorem 1.2.6. In a topological space (X, τ ), a set F is closed iff F d ⊆ F .
Proof. Suppose F is a closed set. Then for any x ∈ / F , X \ F is an open nbd. of x, such
/ F d . Hence, F d ⊆ F .
that (X \ F ) ∩ F = ∅. So,(X \ F ) ∩ F \ {x} = ∅. i.e., x ∈
Conversely, let F d ⊆ F . For each x ∈ X \ F , x ∈
/ F d and hence there is an open nbd. U of
x such that F ∩ U = ∅. So, x ∈ U ⊆ X \ F which shows that X \ F is a nbd. of each of its
points. Hence, X \ F is an open set and consequently, F is a closed set.
Corollary 1.2.1. In a topological space X, a set F is perfect if and only if it is closed and
dense-in-itself.
Theorem 1.2.7. For any set A in a topological space (X, τ ), A = A ∪ Ad .
Proof. A ⊆ A ⇒ Ad ⊆ (A)d . A being a closed set, (A)d ⊆ A. So, Ad ⊆ A and it follows that
A ∪ Ad ⊆ A.
Let, x ∈ A then every nbd. of x intersects A. So, either x ∈ A or x ∈ Ad . i.e., x ∈ A ∪ Ad .
Hence, A ⊆ A ∪ Ad .
Therefore, A = A ∪ Ad .
Theorem 1.2.8. For any subset A of a topological space (X, τ ),
1. int(A) = X \ (X \ A)
2. cl(A) = X \ int(X \ A)
Proof. (1) We note that X \ A ⊆ (X \ A) ⇒ X \ (X \ A) ⊆ A, which in turn imply that
X \ (X \ A) ⊆ int(A) (as X \ (X \ A) is open in X.) On the other hand, int(A) ⊆
A ⇒ X \ A ⊆ X int(A) ⇒ (X \ A) ⊆ (X \ int(A)) = X \ int(A) (since, X \ int(A)
is a closed set.). Then int(A) ⊆ X \ (X \ A). Hence, combining the two we obtain that
int(A) = X \ (X \ A)
A. Deb Ray, C.U. 10

Now we define a few terms :

Definition 1.2.5. For a subset A of a topological space (X, τ ),
(i) exterior of A, denoted by Ext(A), is defined as Ext(A) = int(X \ A).
(ii)boundary or frontier of A, denoted by Bd(A), is defined as Bd(A) = A \ int(A).
Definition 1.2.6. A subset A of X is said to be
ˆ dense in X, if A = X

ˆ nowhere dense in X, if int(cl(A)) = ∅

Theorem 1.2.9. Let (X, τ ) be a topological space and A ⊆ X. A point x ∈ X is
ˆ an exterior point of A if and only if ∃G ∈ τ , such that x ∈ G ⊆ X \ A.

ˆ a boundary point of A if and only if ∀G ∈ τ with x ∈ G, G∩A ̸= ∅ and G∩(X \A) ̸= ∅.

Proof. Exercise.
Theorem 1.2.10. For a subset A of (X, τ ), The following are equivalent
(a) A is dense in X
(b) If F is a closed set in X containing A, then F = X
(c) Every non-empty open set intersects A
(d) int(X \ A) = ∅.
Proof. (a) ⇒ (b) : Since A ⊆ F and F is closed in X, A ⊆ F = F . Again, A = X ⇒ X =
A = F.
(b) ⇒ (c) : Let U ∈ τ and U ̸= ∅. If possile, let U ∩ A = ∅. Then A ⊆ (X \ U ). Since X \ U
is a closed set containing A, by (b), X \ U = X and consequently, U = ∅ - a contradiction.
(c) ⇒ (d) : If int(X \ A) ̸= ∅ then by (c), int(X \ A) ∩ A ̸= ∅ - which is not possible. Hence,
int(X \ A) = ∅.
(d) ⇒ (a) : int(X \ A) = ∅ ⇒ A = X \ int(X \ A) = X \ ∅ = X. Hence A is dense in X.
Problem 1.2.2. Let R be the set of real numbers. Find the closure of
(a) Q, the set of rational numbers
(b) I, the set of irrational numbers
(c) N, the set of natural numbers
(d) Any set A that contains 0
in R, if R is equipped with the following topologies respectively:
(i) discrete topology;
(ii) indiscrete topology;
(iii) cofinite topology;
(iv) cocountable topology;
(v) τ0 = {U ⊆ R : 0 ∈ U };
(vi) τ1 = {U ⊆ R : 1 ∈ U };
(vii) usual topology.
Problem 1.2.3. In the above problem determine the denseness of each of the sets (a) − (d)
with respect to the topologies (i) − (vii).
A. Deb Ray, C.U. 11

1.3 Set Topologization

This section is devoted for studying methods to topologize a non-empty set X. We shall
explore the methods for topologizing a set in terms of
ˆ closed sets

ˆ Kuratowski’s closure operator

ˆ interior operator

ˆ nbd. system

Theorem 1.3.1. Let X be a non-empty set. A collection F of subsets of X is such that

1. ∅, X ∈ F

2. F is closed under finite union

3. F is closed under arbitrary intersection.

Then there exists a unique topology τ = {U ⊂ X : X \ U ∈ F} on X, with F as the
collection of all closed sets w.r.t τ .
Proof. Exercise.
Theorem 1.3.2. Let X be a non-empty set and c : P(X) → P(X) be an operator on X
such that the following conditions hold:
(1) c(∅) = ∅
(2) A ⊂ c(A), ∀A ∈ P(X)
(3) c(c(A)) = c(A), ∀A ∈ P(X)
(4) c(A ∪ B) = c(A) ∪ c(B), ∀A, B ∈ P(X)
(The operator c is known as Kuratowski closure operator.) Then τ = {U ⊂ X :
c(X \ U ) = X \ U } forms a unique topology on X such that for every A ⊂ X, c(A) = A.
(Here A stands for the closure of A in (X, τ )).
Proof. First we see that τ as defined above is a topology on X.
c(X \ X) = c(∅) = ∅ (by (1)) ⇒ X ∈ τ . Again, by (2), X ⊂ c(X) and as c is an operator on
X, c(X) ⊂ X is always true. Hence, c(X \ ∅) = c(X) = X = X \ ∅; i.e., ∅ ∈ τ .
We observe that A ⊂ B ⇒ c(A) ⊂ c(B). Because, A ⊂ B ⇒ B = A ∪ (B \ A) ⇒ c(B) =
c(A) ∪ c(B \ A) (by (4)). Hence, c(A) ⊂ c(B) (since c(B \ A) ⊂ X).
Let {Uα : αS∈ Λ} be anyT collection of sets from τ . Then c(X \ Uα ) = X \ Uα for each α.
Now, c(X \ Uα ) = c( (X \ Uα )) ⊂ c(X \ Uα ) (using A ⊂ B ⇒ c(A) ⊂ c(B)) = X \ Uα for
α S α T S S S
all α. Hence, c(X \ Uα ) ⊂ (X \ Uα ) = X \ Uα . Again, by (2), X \ Uα ⊂ c(X \ Uα ).
αS α S αS α α
Consequently, c(X \ Uα ) = X \ Uα and so Uα ∈ τ .
α α α
If U1 , U2 ∈ τ , c(X \ U1 ) = X \ U1 and c(X \ U2 ) = X \ U2 . Now, c(X \ (U1 ∩ U2 )) =
c((X \ U1 ) ∪ (X \ U2 )) = c(X \ U1 ) ∪ c(X \ U2 ) = (X \ U1 ) ∪ (X \ U2 ) = X \ (U1 ∩ U2 ). Hence,
U1 ∩ U2 ∈ τ . So, τ is a topology on X.
A. Deb Ray, C.U. 12

By the definition of τ it is clear that A is closed with respect to τ if and only if c(A) = A
and τ is the unique topology whose closed sets are those which sattisfy this property (using
previous theorem).
Now, if A stands for the closure of A in X with respect to the topology τ on X. Then to
show that A = c(A). c(c(A)) = c(A) ⇒ X \ c(A) ∈ τ . So, c(A) is a closed set in X with
A ⊂ c(A). As (by definition) A is the smallest closed set containing A, we have A ⊂ c(A).
On the otherhand, A ⊂ A ⇒ c(A) ⊂ c(A) = A. Hence, c(A) = A.

Theorem 1.3.3. Let X be a non-empty set and d : P(X) → P(X) be a mapping satisfying
the following properties:

1. d(X) = X

2. d(A) ⊂ A, ∀A ∈ P(X)

3. d(d(A)) = d(A), ∀A ∈ P(X)

4. d(A ∩ B) = d(A) ∩ d(B), ∀A, B ∈ P(X)

Then the family τ = {A ⊂ X : A = d(A)} is a topology on X and for any A ⊂ X,

int(A) = d(A). (d is called an interior operator)

Proof. Exercise.

Theorem 1.3.4. Let X be a set and to each point p of X, associate a family of subsets ηp
such that

1. ηp is non-empty and for every V ∈ ηp , p ∈ V

2. V ∈ ηp and V ⊂ W ⇒ W ∈ ηp

3. V1 , V2 ∈ ηp ⇒ V1 ∩ V2 ∈ ηp

4. if V ∈ ηp then there exists a V ∗ ∈ ηp such that V ∗ ⊂ V and for every q ∈ V ∗ , V ∗ ∈ ηq .

Then there is a unique topology τ on X, such that ηp is the nbd. system at the point p in
(X, τ ).

Proof. Let τ = {U ⊂ X : either U = ∅ or U ∈ ηx , ∀x ∈ U }. Clearly, ∅ ∈ τ . As x ∈ X and

X is a superset of any nbd. of x, we have by (2), X ∈ τ . (3) shows that τ is closed under
finite intersection and using (2) we can say that τ is closed under arbitrary union. Hence, τ
is a topology on X.
Let Nx = {all nbds of x in (X, τ )}. We claim that Nx = ηx , for all x ∈ X.
For W ∈ Nx , there exists an open set U ∈ τ such that x ∈ U ⊆ W . By definition of τ ,
U ∈ ηx and by (2), W ∈ ηx . Therefore, Nx ⊆ ηx .
Let G ∈ ηx . Then x ∈ G. Consider V = {y ∈ G : G ∈ ηy }. Clearly, x ∈ V ⊆ G. We
claim that V ∈ τ . Suppose, q ∈ V . Then G ∈ ηq . By (4), there exists H ∈ ηq such that
H ⊆ G and G ∈ ηy , for each y ∈ H. Hence, H ⊆ V and consequently, V ∈ ηq . So, V ∈ τ
and therefore, G ∈ Nx .
A. Deb Ray, C.U. 13

Exercise 1.3.1. Let X be a nonempty set and let b : X → P(X) be a map satisfying the
following conditions:

1. b(∅) = ∅

2. b(A) = b(X \ A), for all A ∈ P(X)

3. b(b(A)) ⊆ b(A), for all A ∈ P(X)

4. A ∩ B ∩ b(A ∩ B) = A ∩ B ∩ [b(A) ∪ b(B)], for all A, B ∈ P(X).

Then show that the family {X \ (A ∪ b(A)) : A ∈ P(X)} is a topology on X such that b(A)
is the boundary of A, for all A ∈ P(X). (b is called the boundary operator on X)