Biomedical Control Systems

(BM-351)

Lecture # 02
Control System Terminologies
by
Engr. Dr. Suhaib Masroor

26 Oct. 2021
 Control System Terminologies

Block Diagrams:
• A block diagram is a shorthand, pictorial representation of the cause-and-effect
relationship between the input and output of a physical system.

• The arrows represent the direction of information or signal flow

 Control System Terminologies Cont..

Summing point:
• For the operations of addition and subtraction, the block becomes a small circle,
called a summing point, with the appropriate plus or minus sign associated with
the arrows entering the circle.

• The output is the algebraic sum of the inputs. Any number of inputs may enter a
summing point.
 Control System Terminologies Cont..

Takeoff point:
• In order to have the same signal or variable be an input to more than one block or
summing point, a takeoff point is used.
 Block Diagrams of Analog Close Loop (Feedback)
Control System
• The basic configuration of a closed-loop (feedback) control system with a single
input and a single output (abbreviated SISO) is given below, for a system with
continuous signals only.
 Terminology of the Closed-Loop Block Diagram

• Plant: The plant (or process, or controlled system) g2 is the system, subsystem,
process, or object controlled by the feedback control system.

• Controlled output: The controlled output c is the output variable of the plant,
under the control of the feedback control system.

• Forward Path: The forward path is the transmission path from the summing point
to the controlled output c.

• Feedforward elements: The feedforward (control) elements g, are the components

of the forward path that generate the control signal u or m applied to the plant
 Terminology of the Closed-Loop Block Diagram Cont..

• Control signal: The control signal u (or manipulated variable m) is the output signal of
the feedforward elements g1, applied as input to the plant g2.

• Feedback Path: The feedback path is the transmission path from the controlled output c
back to the summing point.

• Feedback elements: The feedback elements h establish the functional relationship

between the controlled output c and the primary feedback signal b.

• Reference input: The reference input r is an external signal applied to the feedback
control system, usually at the first summing point, in order to command a specified
action of the plant.
 Terminology of the Closed-Loop Block Diagram Cont..

• Primary feedback signal: The primary feedback signal b is a function of the controlled
output c, algebraically summed with the reference input r to obtain the actuating
(error) signal e , i-e 𝑒 = 𝑟 ± 𝑏.

• Actuating (or error) signal: The actuating (or error) signal is the reference input signal
r plus or minus the primary feedback signal b.

• Negative feedback: Negative feedback means the summing point is a subtractor, i-e
e = r - b.

• Positive feedback: Positive feedback means the summing point is an adder, i-e e = r + b.
 Block Diagrams of Discrete-Time Control Systems

• A discrete-time (sampled-data or digital) control system is one having discrete-time

signals or components at one or more points in the system.

• A discrete system component with discrete-time input 𝑢(𝑡𝑘 ) and discrete-time output
y(𝑡𝑘 ) signals, where 𝑡𝑘 , are discrete instants of time, k = 1,2,. . . , etc., may be
represented by following block diagram
 Block Diagrams of Discrete-Time Control Systems Cont..

• Usually, digital control systems contain both continuous and discrete components. One
or more devices known as samplers, and others known as holds, are usually included
in such systems.

• Sampler: A sampler converts a continuous-time signal, u(t) , into a discrete-time signal,

denoted u*(t), consisting of a sequence of values of the signal at the instants 𝑡1 , 𝑡2 , …,
i-e 𝑢 𝑡1 , 𝑢 𝑡2 , … .

• Ideal samplers are usually represented by a switch, as shown below

 Block Diagrams of Discrete-Time Control Systems Cont..

Example:

• The input signal of an ideal sampler and a few samples of the output signal are
illustrated in given figure. This type of signal is often called a sampled-data signal.

• Discrete-data signals 𝑢(𝑡𝑘 ) are often written with the index k as the only argument,

i-e 𝑢(𝑘), and the sequence 𝑢 𝑡1 , 𝑢 𝑡2 , …, becomes u(l), u(2), ….

 Block Diagrams of Discrete-Time Control Systems Cont..

• Hold: A hold, or data hold, device converts the discrete-time output of a sampler into a
particular kind of continuous-time or analog signal.

Example:

• A zero-order hold (or hold) is one that maintains (holds) the value of 𝑢(𝑡𝑘 ) constant
until the next sampling time 𝑡𝑘+1 , as shown in given figure. The output 𝑦𝐻𝑂 (𝑡) of the
zero-order hold is continuous, except at the sampling times. This type of signal is
called a piecewise-continuous signal.
 Block Diagrams of Discrete-Time Control Systems Cont..

• Analog-to-digital (A/D) converter: It is a device that converts an analog or continuous

signal into a discrete or digital signal.

• Digital-to-analog (D/A) converter: It is a device that converts a discrete or digital signal

into a continuous- time or analog signal.

Example:

• The sampler is a A/D converter

• The zero-order hold is a D/A converter.

 Block Diagrams of Discrete-Time Control Systems Cont..

• Computer-controlled system: These systems includes a computer as the primary control

element
 Additional Terms

• Transducer: It is a device that converts one energy form into another

Example:

• A common transducers in control systems applications is the potentiometer, which

converts mechanical position into an electrical voltage

• Command v: The command v is an input signal, usually equal to the reference input r.
But when the energy of the command v is not the same as that of the primary feedback
b, a transducer is required between the command v and the reference input r as shown
below.
 Additional Terms Cont..

• Error Detector: When the feedback element consists of a transducer, and a transducer is

required at the input, that part of the control system is called the error detector, as shown

below

• Stimulus: A test input, is any externally introduced input signal affecting the controlled

output c.

• Disturbance n: A noise input, is an undesired stimulus or input signal affecting the value of

the controlled output c.

 Additional Terms Cont..

• Time response: The Time response of a system, subsystem, or element is the output as a
function of time

• Multivariable system: It is one with more than one input (multi input, MI-), more than one
output (multi output, -MO), or both (multi input-multi output, MIMO).

• Controller: The term Controller in a feedback control system is often associated with the
elements of the forward path, between the error signal e and the control variable u.
 Control Law Examples

• Binary Controller: An on-off controller (two-position, binary controller) has only two
possible values at its output u, depending on the input e to the controller

• A binary controller may have an output u = +1 when the error signal is positive, i-e e > 0,
and u = -1 when e≤0.

• Proportional (P) controller: A proportional (P) controller has an output u proportional to its
input e , that is, u = 𝐾𝑝 e, where 𝐾𝑝 , is a proportionality constant.

• Derivative (D) controller: A derivative (D) controller has an output proportional to the
derivative of its input e , that is, u = 𝐾𝐷 de/dt, where 𝐾𝐷 is a proportionality constant.
 Control Law Examples Cont..

• Integral (I) controller: An integral (I) controller has an output u proportional to the integral
of its input e, that is, u = 𝐾𝑖 ∫ 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡, where 𝐾𝑖 is a proportionality constant.

• PD, PI, DI, and PID controllers are combinations of proportional (P), derivative (D), and
integral (I) controllers.

• The output u of a PD controller has the form:

𝑢𝑃𝐷 = 𝐾𝑝 e + 𝐾𝐷 de/dt

• The output u of a PID controller has the form:

𝑢𝑃𝐼𝐷 = 𝐾𝑝 e + 𝐾𝐷 de/dt + 𝐾𝑖 ∫ 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Example Problems

• Consider the following equations in which 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , …. 𝑥𝑛 are variables, and 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … 𝑎𝑛 are

general coefficients or mathematical operators:
a. 𝑥3 = 𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 − 5

b. 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥𝑛−1

Draw a block diagram for each equation, identifying all blocks, inputs, and outputs.

Solution:

(a)
 Example Problems Cont..

(b)
 Example Problems Cont..

• Draw block diagrams for each of the following equations:

𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥1
(a) 𝑥2 = 𝑎1 𝑑𝑡1 , (b) 𝑥4 = ∫ 𝑥3 𝑑𝑡 (c) 𝑥3 = + − 𝑥1
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

Solution:

(a)

(b)
 Example Problems Cont..

(c)
 Example Problems Cont..

• Draw an open-loop and a closed-loop block diagram for the given voltage divider
network such that the output is V2, and the input is V1.

Solution: We knew the open loop and close loop equations for this network, i-e

𝑅2
• The Open Loop Equation was 𝑉2 = 𝑉1
𝑅1+𝑅2

𝑉1−𝑉2 𝑅2 𝑅2
• The Close Loop Equation was 𝑉2 = 𝑅2 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1
 Example Problems Cont..

Thus, the open loop system block diagram is given as

The close loop system block diagram is given as

 Example Problems Cont..

• Draw a block diagram for the human walking system

 Example Problems Cont..

• Draw a block diagram for the human reaching system

 Example Problems Cont..

• Draw a block diagram for the automatic temperature-regulated oven

• When e ˃ 0 (r ˃ b), the switch turns the heater ON

• When e ≤ 0, the heater is turned OFF

Any Questions?