Problem 3.

1 [Difficulty: 2]

3.1 Compressed nitrogen (63.5 kg) is stored in a spherical tank

of diameter D = 0.75 m at a temperature of 25°C. What is the
pressure inside the tank? If the maximum allowable stress in
the tank is 210 MPa find the minimum theoretical wall
thickness of the tank.

Given: Data on nitrogen tank.

Find: Pressure of nitrogen; minimum required wall thickness.

Assumption: Ideal gas behavior.

Solution:

Ideal gas equation of state: p⋅V = M⋅R ⋅T

J
where, from Table A.6, for nitrogen R = 297
kg ⋅ K

M⋅R ⋅T ⎛ 6 ⎞
p= = M⋅R ⋅T⋅⎜
⎝ π ⋅ D3 ⎟⎠
Then the pressure of nitrogen is
V
J ⎡ 6 ⎤
p = 63.5 kg × 297 × (25 + 273) ⋅ K × ⎢ 3⎥
kg ⋅ K ⎣ π × (0.75 m) ⎦

p = 25.44 MPa

To determine wall thickness, consider a free body diagram for one hemisphere:

π ⋅ D2
∑F = 0 = p⋅ − σc ⋅ π⋅D⋅ t
4
where σc is the cirumferential stress in the container
p ⋅ π ⋅ D2 p⋅D
Then t = =
4 ⋅ π ⋅ D ⋅σ c 4 ⋅σ c

0.75 m 1
t = 25.44 MPa × ×
4 210 MPa
t = 0.0227 m t = 2.27 cm  
 Problem 3.2 [Difficulty: 3]

3.2 When you are on a mountain faces and boil water, you
notice that the water temperature is 90°C. What is your
approximate altitude? The next day, you are at a location
where it boils at 85°C. How high did you climb between the
two days? Assume a U.S. Atmosphere.

Given: Boiling points of water at different elevations.

Find: Change in elevation.

Solution: From the steam tables, we have the following data for the boiling point (saturation temperature)
of water.
Altitude vs Atmospheric Pressure
Tsat (°°C) p(kPa) 4,500
4,500
90 70.1
85 57.8 4,000

3,750
3,500
The sea level pressure, from Table A.3, is

PSL = 101.3 kPa 3,000

3,000
Altitude (m)

Hence Z 5211953(p/pSL) 1 11286 2,500

R2 5 0.999
Tsat (°°C) p/pSL
90 0.692 2,250
85 0.571

From Table A.3

1,500
p/pSL Altitude(m)
0.7372 2500
0.6920 3000
0.6492 3500 750
0.6085 4000 0.55 0.59 0.63 0.67 0.71 0.75
0.5700 4500 p/pSL

Then, any one of a number of Excel functions can be used to interpolate

(Here we use Excel 's Trendline analysis)
 p/pSL Altitude (m)
0.692 3000
0.571 4450

Current altitude is approximately 3000 m

The change in altitude is then 1450 m.

Alternatively, we can interpolate for each altitude by using a linear regression between adjacent data points.

p/pSL Altitude (m) p/pSL Altitude (m)

For 0.7372 2500 0.6085 4000
0.6920 3000 0.5700 4500

Then 0.7070 2834 0.5730 4461

The change in altitude is then 1446 m.

 Problem 3.3

3.3 A pipe carries water that flows at a rate of 45 Lts/s. The

diameters of two sections, A and B, of the pipe are 25cm and
15cm respectively. Section A is 7m above datum and section B
is 3m above datum. The pressure at section A is 6 bar. Find the
pressure at section B.

Given: Diameters of pipe at different sections, flow rate of the water, and pressure at
section A of the pipe.

To find: The pressure at section B

Solution:

Diameter of section A, DA  25cm = 0.25m

Diameter of section B, DB  15cm = 0.15m

N
Pressure at section A, PA  6bar = 6 105
m2

Height of section A from datum, ZA  7m

Height of section B from datum, ZB  3m

Flow rate, Q  45 lits/s = 0.045 m3 /s

Using continuity equation,

Q 0.045
VA    0.92 m/s
A A   0.252
4

Q 0.045
VB    2.55 m/s
AB   0.15
2
4

Now,
 PA VA 2 PB VB 2
  ZA    ZB
g 2 g 2
6 105 0.922 PB 2.552
  7m =   3m
1000  9.81 2 1000  9.81 2
N
PB  6.1105 2
m

N
Thus, the pressure at section B is 6.1105
m2
 Problem 3.4

Given: Data on system before and after applied force

To find: Applied Force

Solution:

Basic equation:
dP
   g
dy
Or for constant 
P  Patm    g   y  y0  with P  y0   Patm

For Initial state:

P1  Patm    g  h
And
F1  P1  A    g  h  A (Gage; F1 is hydrostatic upward force)

For the initial FBD:

 Fy  0
F1  W  0
W  F1    g  h  A
For Final state:
P2  Patm    g  h
And
F2  P2  A    g  h  A (Gage; F2 is hydrostatic upward force)
For the final FBD:
 Fy  0
F2  W  F  0
F  F2  W
   g H  A   g h A
   g  A H  h
 D2
F   H 2O  S  G  g  H  h (1)
4

From figure A.1

Specific Gravity (SG) of mercury is 13.54

Substitute corresponding values in equation (1)

 N  s2
F  1000 kg/m 13.54  9.81 m/s   0.06 m   0.3  0.03 m 
3 2 2

4 kg  m
 101.40 N

Hence, the force applied to the piston is 101.40 N .

 Problem 3.5 [Difficulty: 1]

3.5 The following pressure and temperature measurements

were taken by a meteorological balloon rising through the
lower atmosphere:
p (in 103 Pa) T (in °C)
101.4 12.0
100.8 11.1
100.2 10.5
99.6 10.2
99.0 10.1
98.4 10.0
97.8 10.3
97.2 10.8
96.6 11.6
95.4 12.1
The initial values (top of table) correspond to ground level.
Using the ideal gas law (P = ρRT with R = 287 m2/(s2 ⋅ k)),
compute and plot the variation of air density (in kg/m3) with
height.

Given: Pressure and temperature data from balloon.

Find: Plot density change as a function of elevation.

Assumption: Ideal gas behavior.

Solution: Using the ideal gas equation, ρ = p/RT

p (kPa) T (°C) ρ (kg/m3)

101.4 12.0 1.240
100.8 11.1 1.236
100.2 10.5 1.231
99.6 10.2 1.225
99.0 10.1 1.218
98.4 10.0 1.212
97.8 10.3 1.203
97.2 10.8 1.193
96.6 11.6 1.183
96.0 12.2 1.173
95.4 12.1 1.166
 Density Distribution
1.26

1.24
1.236
1.24
1.231

1.225
1.218
1.22
Density (kg/m3)

1.212

1.203

1.20
1.193

1.183

1.18
1.173

1.166

1.16
0 2 4 6 8 10
Elevation Point
 Problem 3.6

3.6 A hollow metal cube with sides 200 mm floats at the

interface between a layer of water and a layer of SAE10W oil
such that 10% of the cube is exposed to the oil. What is the
pressure difference between the upper and lower horizontal
surfaces? What is the average density of the cube?

Given: Properties of cube floating at an interface

To find: The pressure difference between the upper and the lower surface; average cube
density.

Solution:

The pressure difference is obtained from the two applications of equation 3.7
PU  P0  SAE10  g   H  0.1d 
PL  P0  SAE10  g  H  SAE10  g  0.9d

Where PU and PL are the upper and lower pressure, P0 s the oil free surface pressure, H is the
depth of the interface, and d is the cube size.

Hence, the pressure difference is

P  PL  PU   H 2O  g  0.9d   SAE10  g  0.1d
  H 2O  g  d  0.9  SGSAE10 0.1
From table A.2
SGSAE10  0.92
N  s2
P  999 kg/m  9.81 m/s  0.2 m  0.9  0.92  0.1
3 2

kg  m
 1944.4 Pa

Hence, the required pressure difference is 1944.4 Pa .

For the cube density, set up a free body force balance for the cube.
 F  0  P  A  W
Hence,
W  P  A  P  d 2
m W P  d 2 P
cube    
d3 d3  g d3  g d g
Substitute corresponding values in the expression of cube .
1 s2 kg  m
cube  1944.4 N/m 2   
0.2 m 9.81 m N  s 2
 991.03 kg/m3

Hence, the average density of the cube is 991.03 kg/m3 .

 Problem 3.7 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Data on tire at 3500 m and at sea level

Find: Absolute pressure at 3500 m; pressure at sea level

Solution:
At an elevation of 3500 m, from Table A.3:

pSL = 101⋅ kPa patm = 0.6492 ⋅ pSL patm = 65.6⋅ kPa

and we have pg = 0.25⋅ MPa pg = 250⋅ kPa p = pg + patm p = 316⋅ kPa

At sea level patm = 101 ⋅ kPa

Meanwhile, the tire has warmed up, from the ambient temperature at 3500 m, to 25oC.

At an elevation of 3500 m, from Table A.3 Tcold = 265.4 ⋅ K and Thot = ( 25 + 273) ⋅ K Thot = 298 K

Hence, assuming ideal gas behavior, pV = mRT, and that the tire is approximately a rigid container, the absolute pressure of the
hot tire is

Thot
phot = ⋅p phot = 354⋅ kPa
Tcold

Then the gage pressure is

pg = phot − patm pg = 253⋅ kPa

 Problem 3.8 [Difficulty: 2]

3.8 An air bubble, 8 mm in diameter, is released from the

regulator of a scuba diver swimming 30 m below the sea
surface. (The water temperature is 30°C.) Estimate the diameter
of the bubble just before it reaches the water surface.

Given: Data on air bubble.

Find: Bubble diameter as it reaches surface.

Solution:

dp M
Basic equation = − ρsea ⋅ g and the ideal gas equation. p = ρ⋅R ⋅T = ⋅R ⋅T
dy V

We assume the temperature is constant, and the density of sea water is constant.

For constant sea water density p = patm + SG sea ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h where p is the pressure at any depth h

Then the pressure at the initial depth is p1 = patm + SG sea ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h1

The pressure as it reaches the surface is p 2 = patm

M⋅R ⋅T
For the bubble p= but M and T are constant M ⋅ R ⋅ T = const = p ⋅ V
V

p1 p1
Hence p1 ⋅ V1 = p 2 ⋅ V2 or V2 = V1 ⋅ or D32 = D13 ⋅
p2 p2

1 1 1
 p 3  ( p + ρsea ⋅ g ⋅ h1 )  3  ρsea ⋅ g ⋅ h1  3
Then the size of the bubble at the surface is D 2 = D1 ⋅  1  = D1 ⋅  atm  = D1 ⋅ 1 + 
 p2   p atm   p atm 

From Table A.2 SG sea = 1.025 (This is at 20°C)

1
 kg m m2 N ⋅ s2  3
D 2 = 8 mm × 1 + 1.025 × 103 3 × 9.81 2 × 30 m × × 
 m s 101.3 kN kg ⋅ m 

D 2 = 12.7 mm
 Problem 3.9 [Difficulty: 2] 

3.9 A cube with 150 mm sides is suspended in a fluid by a

wire. The top of the cube is horizontal and 203 mm below the
free surface. If the cube has a mass of 29 kg and the tension in
the wire is T = 226 N, compute the fluid specific gravity, and
from this determine the fluid. What are the gage pressures on
the upper and lower surfaces? 

Given: Properties of a cube suspended by a wire in a fluid.

Find: The fluid specific gravity; the gage pressures on the upper and lower surfaces.

Solution:

From a free body analysis of the cube: ∑ F = 0 = T + (p L − pU ) ⋅ d 2 − M ⋅ g

where M and d are the cube mass and size and PL and PU are the pressures on the lower and upper surfaces.

For each pressure we can use Eq. 3.7 p = p0 + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h

Hence p L − p U = [p0 + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ (H + d)] − (p 0 + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ H) = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ d = SG ⋅ ρ H2 O ⋅ d

where H is the depth of the upper surface

m N ⋅ s2
M ⋅g − T 29 kg × 9.81
× − 226 ⋅ N
Hence the force balance gives SG = s 2 kg ⋅ m SG = 1.77
SG =
ρH2 O ⋅ g ⋅ d 3 kg m N ⋅ s2
103 3 × 9.81 2 × × (0.15 m)3
m s kg ⋅ m
From Table A.1, the fluid is Meriam blue.

The individual pressures are computed from Eq 3.7

p = p 0 + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h or p g = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h = SG ⋅ρ H2 O ⋅ h

kg m N ⋅ s2
For the upper surface pg = 1.77 × 103 × 9.81 × 0.203 m × p g = 3.525 kPa
m3 s2 kg ⋅ m

kg m N ⋅ s2
For the lower surface pg = 1.77 × 103 × 9.81 × ( 0.203 + 0.15 ) m × p g = 6.13 kPa
m3 s2 kg ⋅ m

Note that the SG calculation can also be performed using a buoyancy approach (discussed later in the chapter):

Consider a free body diagram of the cube: ∑F = 0 = T + F B − M⋅g

where M is the cube mass and FB is the buoyancy force FB = SG ⋅ ρ H 2 O ⋅ L3 ⋅ g

M ⋅g − T
Hence T + SG ⋅ ρ H 2 O ⋅ L3 ⋅ g − M ⋅ g = 0 or SG = as before SG = 1.75
ρH2 O ⋅ g ⋅ L3
 Problem 3.10 [Difficulty: 3]

3.10 Oceanographic research vessels have descended to 10 km

below sea level. At these extreme depths, the compressibility of
seawater can be significant. One may model the behavior of
seawater by assuming that its bulk modulus remains constant.
Using this assumption, evaluate the deviations in density and
pressure compared with values computed using the
incompressible assumption at a depth, h, of 10 km in seawater.
Express your answers as a percentage. Plot the results over the
range 0 ≤ h ≤ 11 km.

Given: Model behavior of seawater by assuming constant bulk modulus.

Find: The percent deviations in (a) density and (b) pressure at depth h = 10 km,
as compared to values assuming constant density.
Plot results over the range of 0 km - 11 km.

Solution: From Table A.2, App. A: SG o =1.025 E v = 2.42 ⋅ GPa h = 10 km.

dp
Governing Equations: = ρ⋅g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards)
dh
dp
Ev = (Definition of Bulk Modulus)
dρ
ρ
dρ dρ g ρ 1 h g
Then dp = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ dh = E v ⋅
ρ
or
ρ2
=
Ev
dh Now if we integrate: ∫ρo ρ2
dρ = ∫
0 Ev
dh

ρ − ρo g⋅h E v ⋅ρo ρ 1
After integrating: = Therefore: ρ= and =
ρ ⋅ρo Ev E v − ρo ⋅ g ⋅ h ρo ρo ⋅ g ⋅ h
1 −
Ev
⎛ ρ ⋅g⋅h ⎞ ρo ⋅ g ⋅ h ρo ⋅ g ⋅ h
1 − ⎜1 − o ⎟
Δρ ρ − ρo ρ 1 ⎝ Ev ⎠ Ev Δρ Ev
= = − 1= − 1= = =
ρo ρo ρo ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h ρ ⋅g⋅h ρo ρ ⋅g⋅h
1 − o 1 − o 1 − o 1 − o
Ev Ev Ev Ev

To determine an expression for the percent deviation in pressure, we find p – patm for variable ρ, and then for constant ρ.

ρ Ev ⎛ ρ ⎞
For variable density and constant bulk modulus: p − patm = ∫ρo ρ
dρ = E v ⋅ ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ρo ⎠

∫
h
For constant density: pconstρ − p atm = ρo gdh = ρo ⋅ g ⋅ h
0

⎛ ρ⎞
E v ⋅ ln ⎜ ⎟ − ρo ⋅ g ⋅ h
Δp p − pconstρ ⎝ ρo ⎠ Ev ⎛ ρ ⎞ Δp ⎡⎛ ρ ⋅g⋅h ⎞ ⎤
−1

= = = ⋅ ln ⎜ ⎟ − 1 =
Ev
⋅ ln ⎢⎜1 − o ⎟ ⎥ − 1
pconstρ pconstρ ρo ⋅ g ⋅ h ρo ⋅ g ⋅ h ⎝ ρo ⎠ p constρ ρo ⋅ g ⋅ h ⎢⎣⎝ Ev ⎠ ⎥
⎦
Ev N 1 m3 s2 kg ⋅ m km
If we let x = x = 2.42 × 109 × ⋅ × × × x = 240.7 km
ρo ⋅ g m 2
(1000 )(1.025) kg 9.81 m N ⋅ s 2
103 m
Substituting into the expressions for the deviations we get:
h
Δρ x h h
devρ = = = =
ρo 1 −
h x − h 240.7 km
x
Δp x ⎡⎛ h⎞ ⎤
−1
240.7 km ⎡⎛ h ⎞ ⎤
−1

devρ = = ⋅ ln ⎢⎜ 1 − ⎟ ⎥ − 1 = ⋅ ln ⎢⎜ 1 − ⎟ ⎥ − 1
pconstρ h ⎢⎣⎝ x ⎠ ⎥⎦ h ⎢⎣⎝ 240.7 km ⎠ ⎥⎦

For h = 10 km we get: devρ = 4.34 % devρ = 2.15 %

The plot below shows the deviations in density and pressure as a function of depth from 0 km to 10 km:

Depth, Density Pressure

h (km) Error, Error,
Δρ / ρo ( − ) Δρ / ρo ( − )
0 0 0
1 0.417 0.219
2 0.838 0.419
3 1.26 0.639
4 1.69 0.851
5 2.12 1.06
6 2.56 1.28
7 3.00 1.49
8 3.44 1.71
9 3.88 1.93
10 4.34 2.15
11 4.79 2.37
12 5.25 2.59
13 5.71 2.81
14 6.18 3.04
15 6.65 3.26

Errors in Density and Pressure Assuming Constant Density

8
Density
Pressure
Errors in Density and Pressure (%)

0
0 5 10 15
Depth (km)
 Problem 3.11 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Cylindrical cup lowered slowly beneath pool surface

Air H
Find: Expression for y in terms of h and H.
Plot y/H vs. h/H.
D y Air H–y
Solution: y

dp
Governing Equations: = ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards)
dh

p⋅ V = M⋅ R⋅ T (Ideal Gas Equation)

Assumptions: (1) Constant temperature compression of air inside cup

(2) Static liquid
(3) Incompressible liquid

First we apply the ideal gas equation (at constant temperature) for the pressure of the air in the cup: p⋅ V = constant

π 2 π 2
Therefore: p⋅ V = pa⋅ ⋅ D ⋅ H = p⋅ ⋅ D ⋅ ( H − y) and upon simplification: pa⋅ H = p⋅ ( H − y)
4 4

Now we look at the hydrostatic pressure equation for the pressure exerted by the water. Since ρ is constant, we integrate:

p − pa = ρ⋅ g⋅ ( h − y) at the water-air interface in the cup.

Since the cup is submerged to a depth of h, these pressures must be equal:

pa⋅ H = ⎡pa + ρ⋅ g⋅ ( h − y)⎤ ⋅ ( H − y) = pa⋅ H − pa⋅ y + ρ⋅ g⋅ ( h − y) ⋅ ( H − y)

⎣ ⎦

Explanding out the right hand side of this expression:

2
0 = −pa⋅ y + ρ⋅ g⋅ ( h − y) ⋅ ( H − y) = ρ⋅ g⋅ h⋅ H − ρ⋅ g⋅ h⋅ y − ρ⋅ g⋅ H⋅ y + ρ⋅ g⋅ y − pa⋅ y

2 2 ⎡ pa ⎤
ρ⋅ g⋅ y − ⎡pa + ρ⋅ g⋅ ( h + H)⎤ ⋅ y + ρ⋅ g⋅ h⋅ H = 0 y −⎢ + ( h + H)⎥ ⋅ y + h⋅ H = 0
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ρ⋅ g ⎦

2
⎡ pa ⎤ ⎡ pa ⎤
⎢ + ( h + H)⎥ − ⎢ + ( h + H)⎥ − 4⋅ h⋅ H
y= ⎣
ρ⋅ g ⎦ ⎣ ρ⋅ g ⎦
We now use the quadratic equation: we only use the minus sign because y
2 can never be larger than H.
Now if we divide both sides by H, we get an expression for y/H:

2
⎛ pa h ⎞ ⎛ pa h ⎞ h
⎜ + + 1⎟ − ⎜ + + 1⎟ − 4⋅
y
=
⎝ ρ⋅ g⋅ H H ⎠ ⎝ ρ⋅ g⋅ H H ⎠ H
H 2

The exact shape of this curve will depend upon the height of the cup. The plot below was generated assuming:

pa = 101.3⋅ kPa
H = 1⋅ m

0.8
Height Ratio, y/H

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 20 40 60 80 100

Depth Ratio, h/H

 Problem 3.12 [Difficulty: 1]

Given: Geometry of straw

Find: Pressure just below the thumb

Assumptions: (1) Coke is incompressible

(2) Pressure variation within the air column is negligible
(3) Coke has density of water

Solution:
dp
Basic equation = − ρ⋅ g or, for constant ρ Δp = ρ⋅ g⋅ h where h is measured downwards
dy

This equation only applies in the 15 cm of coke in the straw - in the other 30 cm of air the pressure is essentially constant.

The gage pressure at the coke surface is pcoke = ρ⋅ g⋅ hcoke

Hence, with hcoke = −15⋅ cm because h is measured downwards

2 2
kg m m N⋅ s kPa⋅ m
pcoke = −1000⋅ × 9.81⋅ × 15⋅ cm × × ×
3 2 100⋅ cm kg⋅ m 1000⋅ N
m s

pcoke = −1.471⋅ kPa gage

pcoke = 99.9⋅ kPa

 Problem 3.13 [Difficulty: 2]

3.13 A water tank filled with water to a depth of 5 m has its

inspection cover (2.5 cm × 2.5 cm) at its base, held in place by
a plastic bracket. The bracket can hold a load of 40 N. Is the
bracket strong enough? If it is, what would the water depth
have to be to cause the bracket to break?

Given: Data on water tank and inspection cover.

Find: If the support bracket is strong enough; at what water depth would it
fail.

Assumptions: Water is incompressible and static.

Solution:

Basic equation dp   or, for constant ρ ∆p = ρ·g·h where h is measured downwards

= − ρ⋅g
dy
The absolute pressure at the base is p base = p a tm + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h   where h=5m

The gage pressure at the base is p base = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h This is the pressure to use as we have patm on the
outside of the cover.

The force on the inspection cover is F = p base ⋅ A where A = 2.5 cm ×2.5 cm A = 6.25×10–4m2

F = ρ·g·h·A

kg m N ⋅ s2
F = 1000 × 9.81 2 × 5 m × 6.25 × 10-4 ⋅ m 2 ×
m 3
s kg ⋅ m

F = 30.7 N The bracket is strong enough (it can take 40 N).

To find the maximum depth we start with F = 40 N

F
h=
ρ⋅g ⋅A

1 m3 1 s2 1 1 kg ⋅ m
h = 40 N × × ⋅ × −4
⋅ 2×
1000 kg 9.81 m 6.25 × 10 m N ⋅ s2

h = 6.52 m
 Problem 3.14 [Difficulty: 4]

Given: Container of mercury with vertical tubes of known diameter, brass

cylinder of known dimensions introduced into larger tube, where it floats.

d1 = 39.5⋅ mm d2 = 12.7⋅ mm D = 37.5⋅ mm H = 76.2⋅ mm SGHg = 13.55 SGb = 8.55

Find: (a) Pressureon the bottom of the cylinder

(b) New equlibrium level, h, of the mercury

Solution: We will analyze a free body diagram of the cylinder, and apply the hydrostatics equation.

Governing equations: ΣFz = 0 (Vertical Equilibrium)

dp
= − ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - z is positive upwards)
dz
ρ = SG⋅ ρwater (Definition of Specific Gravity)

Assumptions: (1) Static liquid

(2) Incompressible liquid

If we take a free body diagram of the cylinder:

z
mg
π 2 π 2
ΣFz = p⋅ ⋅ D − ρb⋅ g⋅ ⋅ D ⋅ H = 0 thus: p = ρb⋅ g⋅ H = SGb⋅ ρwater⋅ g⋅ H
4 4

kg m m
p = 8.55 × 1000⋅ × 9.81⋅ × 76.2⋅ mm × p = 6.39⋅ kPa (gage)
3 2 3
m s 10 ⋅ mm
pA
This pressure must be generated by a column of mercury h+x in height. Thus:

SGb
p = ρHg⋅ g⋅ ( h + x) = SGHg⋅ ρwater⋅ g⋅ ( h + x) = SGb⋅ ρwater⋅ g⋅ H Thus: h+x = ⋅H
SGHg

The value of x can be found by realizing that the volume of mercury in the system remains constant. Therefore:
⎡⎢⎛ d ⎞ 2 ⎛ d2 ⎞ ⎥⎤
2
⋅ D ⋅ x = ⋅ ⎛ d1 − D ⎞ ⋅ h + ⋅ d2 ⋅ h
π 2 π 2 2 π 2 1
Now if we solve for x: x = ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⋅ h
4 4 ⎝ ⎠ 4 ⎣⎝ D ⎠ ⎝D⎠ ⎦
SGb 2
D
These expressions now allow us to solve for h: h= ⋅ ⋅H Substituting in values:
SGHg d 2 + d 2
1 2

2
8.55 ( 37.5⋅ mm)
h = × × 76.2⋅ mm h = 39.3⋅ mm
13.55 2 2
( 39.5⋅ mm) + ( 12.7⋅ mm)
 Problem 3.15

Given: Data on portioned tank

To find: Gage pressure of trapped air; pressure make water and mercury levels equal

Solution:

The pressure difference is obtained repeated application of equation 3.7, or in other words, from
equation 3.8, starting from the right air chamber.
Pgage  SGHg   H 2O  g   4  3.8 m   H 2O  g  2 m

 
  H 2O  g  SGHg  0.2 m  2 m  (1)
Here,
 H O  999 kg/m3
2

g  9.81 m/s 2
N  s2
SGHg  13.55
kg  m

Substitute corresponding values in equation (1)

Ns 2
Pgage  999 kg/m3  9.81 m/s 2  13.55  0.2 m  2 m 
kgm
 6.36 103 Pa
 6.96 kPa

Hence, the gage pressure in the air trapped in the left chamber is 6.96 kPa .
If the left air pressure is now increased until the water and mercury levels are now equal,
equation 3.8 leads to the following expression.

 
Pgage   H2O  g  SGHg  2.0 m  2.0 m 

Substitute corresponding values in the above expression

Ns 2
Pgage   999 kg/m3  9.81 m/s 2  13.55  2.0 m  2.0 m 
kgm
 245.7 kPa

Hence, the gage pressure to make water and mercury level equal is 245.7 kPa .
 Problem 3.16 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Two-fluid manometer as shown

l = 10.2⋅ mm SGct = 1.595 (From Table A.1, App. A)

Find: Pressure difference

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equation.

Governing equations: dp
= ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards)
dh
ρ = SG⋅ ρwater (Definition of Specific Gravity)

Assumptions: (1) Static liquid

(2) Incompressible liquid
z
Starting at point 1 and progressing to point 2 we have: d

p1 + ρwater⋅ g⋅ ( d + l) − ρct⋅ g⋅ l − ρwater⋅ g⋅ d = p2

Simplifying and solving for p2 − p1 we have:

( )
Δp = p2 − p1 = ρct⋅ g⋅ l − ρwater⋅ g⋅ l = SGct − 1 ⋅ ρwater⋅ g⋅ l

Substituting the known data:

kg m m
Δp = ( 1.591 − 1) × 1000⋅ × 9.81⋅ × 10.2⋅ mm × Δp = 59.1 Pa
3 2 3
m s 10 ⋅ mm
 Problem 3.17 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: U-tube manometer, partiall filled with water, then a given volume of
Meriam red oil is added to the left side
3
D = 6.35⋅ mm Voil = 3.25⋅ cm SGoil = 0.827 (From Table A.1, App. A)

Find: Equilibrium height, H, when both legs are open to atmosphere.

Solution: We will apply the basic pressure-height relation.

Governing Equations: dp
= ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards)
dh
ρ = SG⋅ ρwater (Definition of Specific Gravity)

Assumptions: (1) Static liquid

(2) Incompressible liquid

Integration of the pressure equation gives: (

p2 − p1 = ρ⋅ g⋅ h2 − h1 ) A
C
Thus: pB − pA = ρoil⋅ g⋅ L and pD − pC = ρwater⋅ g⋅ ( L − H) L
L–H
B D
Since pA = pC = patm and pB = pD since they are at the same height:

ρoil⋅ g⋅ L = ρwater⋅ g⋅ ( L − H) or SGoil⋅ L = L − H

Solving for H: (
H = L⋅ 1 − SGoil )
π 2
The value of L comes from the volume of the oil: Voil = ⋅D ⋅L
4

4⋅ Voil 4 × 3.25⋅ cm
3 3
× ⎛⎜
10⋅ mm ⎞
Solving for L: L= L = ⎟ L = 102.62⋅ mm
π⋅ D
2
π × ( 6.35⋅ mm)
2 ⎝ cm ⎠

We can now calculate H: H = 102.62⋅ mm⋅ ( 1 − 0.827) H = 17.75⋅ mm

 Problem 3.18 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Two fluid manometer contains water and kerosene. With both tubes
open to atmosphere, the difference in free surface elevations is known

Ho = 20⋅ mm SGk = 0.82 (From Table A.1, App. A)

Find: The elevation difference, H, between the free surfaces of the fluids
when a gage pressure of 98.0 Pa is applied to the right tube.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equation.

Governing Equations: dp
= ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards)
dh
ρ = SG⋅ ρwater (Definition of Specific Gravity)

Assumptions: (1) Static liquid

(2) Incompressible liquid

When the gage pressure Δp is applied to the right tube, the water in the
right tube is displaced downward by a distance, l. The kerosene in the Δp
left tube is displaced upward by the same distance, l.

Under the applied gage pressure Δp, the elevation difference, H, is:
l
H0 h H
H = Ho + 2⋅ l l
Since points A and B are at the same elevation in the same fluid, their H1
pressures are the same. Initially:

(
pA = ρk⋅ g⋅ Ho + H1 ) pB = ρwater⋅ g⋅ H1 A B A B

Setting these pressures equal:

( )
ρk⋅ g⋅ Ho + H1 = ρwater⋅ g⋅ H1

Solving for H1
ρk⋅ Ho SGk⋅ Ho 0.82 × 20⋅ mm
H1 = = H1 = H1 = 91.11⋅ mm
ρwater − ρk 1 − SGk 1 − 0.82

Now under the applied gage pressure:

( )
pA = ρk⋅ g⋅ Ho + H1 + ρwater⋅ g⋅ l (
pB = Δp + ρwater⋅ g⋅ H1 − l )
Setting these pressures equal:
1 ⎡ Δp
( ) ( ) + H1 − SGk⋅ Ho + H1 ⎥⎤
( )
Δp
SGk⋅ Ho + H1 + l = + H1 − l l= ⎢
ρwater⋅ g 2 ρwater⋅ g
⎣ ⎦
Substituting in known values we get:

1 ⎡⎢ m ⎥⎤
3 2
N 1 m 1 s kg⋅ m
l = × 98.0⋅ × × ⋅ × + [ 91.11⋅ mm − 0.82 × ( 20⋅ mm + 91.11⋅ mm) ] × l = 5.000⋅ mm
2 ⎢ 2 999 kg 9.81 m 2 3 ⎥
⎣ m N⋅ s 10 ⋅ mm⎦

Now we solve for H:

H = 20⋅ mm + 2 × 5.000⋅ mm H = 30.0⋅ mm

 Problem 3.19 [Difficulty: 2]

3.19 The manometer shown contains two liquids. Liquid A has

SG = 0.88 and liquid B has SG = 2.95. Calculate the deflection,
h, when the applied pressure difference is p1 – p2 = 860 Pa.

Given: Data on manometer.

Find: Deflection due to pressure difference.

Solution:

dp
Basic equation = −ρ ⋅ g or, for constant ρ Δρ = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Δh where h is measured downwards
dy

Starting at p1 p A = p1 + SG A ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ (h + 1) where 1 is the (unknown) distance from the

level of the right interface

Next, from A to B p B = p A − SG B ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h

Finally, from A to the location of p2 p 2 = p B − SG A ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅1

Combining the three equations p 2 = ( p A − SG B ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h ) − SG A ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ 1 = [ p1 + SG A ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ (h + 1) − SG B ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h ] − SG A ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ 1

p 2 − p1 = ( SG A − SG B ) ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h

p1 − p 2
h=
(SG B − SG A ) ⋅ ρ ⋅ g

1 1 m3 1 s 2 kg ⋅ M
h = 860 Pa × × 3⋅ × ⋅ ×
( 2.95 − 0.88 ) 10 kg 9.81 m s 2 ⋅ N

h = 4.23 × 10−2 m h = 42.3mm

 Problem 3.20 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Two fluid manometer, Meriam red oil is the second fluid SGoil = 0.827 from Table A.1

Find: The amplification factor which will be seen in this demonstrator

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: dp
= ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards)
dh
ρ = SG⋅ ρwater (Definition of Specific Gravity)

Assumptions: (1) Static liquid

(2) Incompressible liquid

Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation we get: Δh

p = po + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h b
hA
hB
For the left leg of the manometer: pa = patm + ρwater⋅ g⋅ hA

l
(
pb = pa − ρwater⋅ g⋅ l = patm + ρwater⋅ g⋅ hA − l ) a

For the right leg: pa = patm + ρwater⋅ g⋅ hB

(
pb = pa − ρoil⋅ g⋅ l = patm + ρwater⋅ g⋅ hB − SGoil⋅ l )
Combining the right hand sides of these two equations: ( ) (
patm + ρwater⋅ g⋅ hA − l = patm + ρwater⋅ g⋅ hB − SGoil⋅ l )
Upon simplification: hA − l = hB − SGoil⋅ l (
Δh = hA − hB = l⋅ 1 − SGoil ) so the amplification factor would be:

l 1 1
AF = = For Meriam red AF = = 5.78 AF = 5.78
Δh 1 − SGoil 1 − 0.827
 Problem 3.21 [Difficulty: 2]

3.21 Water flows downward along a pipe that is inclined at

30o below the horizontal, as shown. Pressure difference
pA – pB is due partly to gravity and partly to friction. Derive
an algebraic expression for the pressure difference. Evaluate
the pressure difference if L = 1.5 m and h =150 mm. 

Given: Water flow in an inclined pipe as shown. The pressure difference is

measured with a two-fluid manometer. 

L = 1.5 m h = 150 mm SG Hg = 13.55 (From Table A. 1, App. A)

Find: Pressure difference between A and B.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

dp
Governing Equations: = p⋅g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards)
dh

ρ = SG ⋅ ρwater (Definition of Specific Gravity)

Assumptions: (1) Static liquid

(2) Incompressible liquid
(3) Gravity is constant

Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation we get:

Δp = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Δh

Progressing through the manometer from A to B:

p A + ρ water ⋅ g ⋅ L ⋅ sin(30 ⋅ deg) + ρ water ⋅ g ⋅ a + ρwater ⋅ g ⋅ h − ρHg ⋅ g ⋅ h − ρ water ⋅ g ⋅ a = p B

Simplifying terms and solving for the pressure difference:

Δp = p A − p B = ρ water ⋅ g ⋅ ⎡⎣ h ⋅ ( SG Hg − 1) − L ⋅ sin(30 ⋅ deg) ⎤⎦

Substituting in values:

kg m N ⋅ s2 N
Δp = 103 × 9.81 × ⎡ 0.15 m × (13.55 − 1) − 1.5 m sin 30 ο
⎤ × Δp = 0.0111
m3 s2 ⎣ ⎦ m ⋅ kg mm 2
 Problem 3.22 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Data on fluid levels in a tank

Find: Air pressure; new equilibrium level if opening appears

Solution:
Using Eq. 3.8, starting from the open side and working in gage pressure

pair = ρH2O × g × ⎡SGHg × ( 0.3 − 0.1) ⋅ m − 0.1 ⋅ m − SGBenzene× 0.1 ⋅ m⎤

⎣ ⎦

2
kg m N ⋅s
Using data from Table A.2 pair = 999⋅ × 9.81⋅ × ( 13.55 × 0.2 ⋅ m − 0.1 ⋅ m − 0.879 × 0.1 ⋅ m ) × pair = 24.7⋅ kPa
3 2 kg ⋅ m
m s

To compute the new level of mercury in the manometer, assume the change in level from 0.3 m is an increase of x. Then, because the
volume of mercury is constant, the tank mercury level will fall by distance (0.025/0.25)2x. Hence, the gage pressure at the bottom of the tan
can be computed from the left and the right, providing a formula for x

⎡ ⎛ 0.025 ⎞ ⎤
2
⎢
SGHg × ρH2O × g × ( 0.3⋅ m + x) = SGHg × ρH2O × g × 0.1⋅ m − x⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⋅ m ...
⎣ ⎝ 0.25 ⎠ ⎦
+ ρH2O × g × 0.1 ⋅ m + SGBenzene × ρH2O × g × 0.1 ⋅ m

[ 0.1⋅ m + 0.879 × 0.1⋅ m + 13.55 × ( 0.1 − 0.3) ⋅ m]

Hence x = x = −0.184 m
⎡ ⎛ 0.025 ⎞ 2⎤
⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ × 13.55 (The negative sign indicates the
⎣ ⎝ 0.25 ⎠ ⎦
manometer level actually fell)

The new manometer height is h = 0.3⋅ m + x h = 0.116 m

 Problem 3.23

3.23 A rectangular tank, open to the atmosphere is filled with water to

a depth of 2.7 m as shown. A U-tube monometer is connected to the
tank at a location 0.9 m above the tank bottom. If the zero level of
the Meriam blue manometer fluid is 0.3 m below the connection,
determine the deflection l after the monometer is connected and all
air has been removed from the connection leg.

Given: A U-tube manometer is connected to the open tank filled with water as shown
(manometer fluid is Meriam blue)

D1 = 27 m, D2 = 0.9 m, d = 0.3 m, SGoil = 1.75 (from table A.1, App A)

To find: The manometer deflection, l

Solution:

We will apply the hydrostatic equations to this system.

Governing Equations:

dp
 g  Hydrostatic Pressure h is positive downwards 
dh
p  SG   water  Detention of Specific Gravity 
Assumptions:

1) Static liquid
2) Incompressible liquid
Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation we get:

p   gh

When the tank is filled with water, the oil in the left leg of the manometer is displaced downward
by ½. The oil in the right leg is displaced upward by the same distance ½.

Beginning at the free surface of the tank, and accounting for the changes in pressure with
elevation.

 1
p atm   water  g   D1  D 2  d    oil  g  l  p atm
 2
upon simplification
 1
  g   D1  D 2  d     oil  g  l
water
 2
1
D1  D 2  d   SG oil  l
2
D  D2  d
l 1
1
SG oil 
2
2.7m  0.9m  0.3m
l
1
1.75 
2
l  1.68m

The U-tube manometer deflection, l, is 1.68m

 Problem 3.24 [Difficulty: 2]

3.24 A reservoir manometer is calibrated for use with a liquid

of specific gravity 0.827. The reservoir diameter is 16 mm and
the (vertical) tube diameter is 5 mm. Calculate the required
distance between marks on the vertical scale for 25 mm of
water pressure difference.

Given: Reservoir manometer with dimensions shown. The manometer fluid

specific gravity is given.

D = 16 mm d = 5 mm SG oil = 0.827

Find: The required distance between vertical marks on the scale

corresponding to Δ p of 25 mm water.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

dp
Governing Equations: = −ρ⋅g (Hydrostatic Pressure - z is positive upwards)
dz
ρ = SG ⋅ ρ water (Definition of Specific Gravity)

Assumptions: (1) Static liquid

(2) Incompressible liquid

Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation we get:

Δp = − ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Δz  

Beginning at the free surface of the tank, and accounting for the changes in pressure with
elevation:

patm + Δp − ρoil ⋅ g ⋅ ( x + h ) = p atm

Upon simplification: Δp = ρoil ⋅ g ⋅ ( x + h ) The applied pressure is defined as: Δp = ρwater ⋅ g ⋅1 where 1 = 25 mm

1
Therefore: ρwater ⋅ g ⋅1 = ρoil ⋅ g ⋅ ( x + h ) x+h =
SGoil

2
π 2 π ⎛d⎞
x and h are related through the manometer dimensions: ⋅ D ⋅ x = ⋅ d2 ⋅ h x= ⎜ ⎟ h
4 4 ⎝ D⎠

1 25 mm
Solving for h:  h = Substituting values into the expression:  h =
⎡ ⎛ d ⎞2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 5 mm ⎞ 2 ⎤
SG oil ⋅ ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ 0.827 ⋅ ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ ⎝ 16 mm ⎠ ⎦⎥

h = 27.8 mm 
 Problem 3.25 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Inclined manometer as shown.

D = 96⋅ mm d = 8⋅ mm
Angle θ is such that the liquid deflection L is five times that of a regular
U-tube manometer.

Find: Angle θ and manometer sensitivity.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equation: dp
= − ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - z is positive upwards)
dz

Assumptions: (1) Static liquid

(2) Incompressible liquid

Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation we get:

Δp = −ρ⋅ g⋅ Δz

Applying this equation from point 1 to point 2:

p1 − ρ⋅ g⋅ ( x + L⋅ sin ( θ) ) = p2 x

Upon simplification: p1 − p2 = ρ⋅ g⋅ ( x + L⋅ sin ( θ) )

2
x = ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⋅ L
π 2 π 2 d
Since the volume of the fluid must remain constant: ⋅D ⋅x = ⋅d ⋅L
4 4 ⎝D⎠
⎡ d 2 ⎤
Therefore: p1 − p2 = ρ⋅ g⋅ L⋅ ⎢⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ + sin ( θ)⎥
⎣⎝ ⎠
D ⎦ ⎡⎛ d ⎞ 2 ⎤
p1incl − p2incl ρ⋅ g⋅ L⋅ ⎢⎜ ⎟ + sin ( θ)⎥
Now for a U-tube manometer: p1 − p2 = ρ⋅ g⋅ h Hence: = ⎣⎝ D ⎠ ⎦
p1U − p2U ρ ⋅ g⋅ h

⎡ d ⎞2 ⎤ 2 2
L⋅ ⎢⎛⎜ − ⎛⎜
h d⎞ 1 ⎛ 8⋅ mm ⎞
For equal applied pressures: ⎟ + sin ( θ)⎥ = h Since L/h = 5: sin ( θ) = ⎟ = −⎜ ⎟
⎣⎝ D ⎠ ⎦ L ⎝D⎠ 5 ⎝ 96⋅ mm ⎠

θ = 11.13⋅ deg

L L 5
The sensitivity of the manometer: s= = s=
Δhe SG⋅ h SG
 Problem 3.26 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Data on inclined manometer

Find: Angle θ for given data; find sensitivity

Solution:
dp
Basic equation = − ρ⋅ g or, for constant ρ Δp = ρ⋅ g⋅ Δh where Δh is height difference
dy

Under applied pressure Δp = SGMer⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ ( L⋅ sin( θ) + x) (1)

From Table A.1 SGMer = 0.827

and Δp = 1 in. of water, or Δp = ρ⋅ g⋅ h where h = 25⋅ mm h = 0.025 m

2
kg m N ⋅s
Δp = 1000⋅ × 9.81⋅ × 0.025⋅ m × Δp = 245 Pa
3 2 kg⋅ m
m s
Atube 2
= L⋅ ⎛⎜
d⎞
The volume of liquid must remain constant, so x⋅ Ares = L⋅ Atube x = L⋅ ⎟ (2)
Ares ⎝ D⎠

⎡ d ⎤
2
Combining Eqs 1 and 2 Δp = SGMer⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ ⎢L⋅ sin ( θ) + L⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎣ D ⎝ ⎠⎦
2
− ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
Δp d
Solving for θ sin ( θ) =
SGMer⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ L ⎝ D ⎠

3 2 2
N1 1 m 1 s 1 1 kg⋅ m ⎛ 8 ⎞
sin ( θ) = 245⋅ × × ⋅ × ⋅ × ⋅ × − ⎜ ⎟ = 0.186
s ⋅ N ⎝ 76 ⎠
2 0.827 1000 kg 9.81 m 0.15 m 2
m

θ = 11⋅ deg

The sensitivity is the ratio of manometer deflection to a vertical water manometer

L 0.15⋅ m
s= = s=6
h 0.025⋅ m
 Problem 3.27 [Difficulty: 4]

3.27 A barometer accidentally contains 165 mm of water on

top of the mercury column (so there is also water vapor
instead of a vacuum at the top of the barometer). On a day
when the temperature is 21°C, the mercury column height is
720 mm (corrected for thermal expansion). Determine the
barometric pressure in Pa. If the ambient temperature
increased to 29°C and the barometric pressure did not
change, would the mercury column be longer, be shorter, or
remain the same length? Justify your answer.

Given: Barometer with water on top of the mercury column; Temperature is

known:

h 2 = 165 mm h1 = 720 SG Hg = 13.55 (From Table A.2, App. A) T =

21°C

p v = 2.34 (From Table A.7, App. A)

Find: (a) Barometric pressure in Pa

(b) Effect of increase in ambient temperature on length of mercury
column for the same barometric pressure: Tf = 29 °C

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

dp
Governing Equations: = − ρ⋅g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards)
dh
ρ = SG ⋅ρwater (Definition of Specific Gravity)

Assumptions: (1) Static liquid

(2) Incompressible liquid

Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation we get:

∆ p = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ∆h

Start at the free surface of the mercury and progress through the barometer to the vapor
pressure of the water:

p atm − ρHg ⋅ g ⋅ h1 − ρwater ⋅ g ⋅ h 2 = p v

p atm = p v + ρwater ⋅ g ⋅ (SG Hg ⋅ h1 + h 2 )

m m N ⋅ S2
p atm = 2.34 kPa + 998 kg m3 × 9.81 (13.55 × 720 mm + 165 mm ) ×
S2 103 mm kg ⋅ m
p atm = 99.5 kPa ( abs )

At the higher temperature, the vapor pressure of water increases to 4.14 kPa (abs). Therefore, if the atmospheric
pressure were to remain constant, the length of the mercury column would have to decrease - the increased
water vapor would push the mercury out of the tube!
 Problem 3.28 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: U-tube manometer with tubes of different diameter and two liquids, as shown.

d1 = 10⋅ mm d2 = 15⋅ mm SGoil = 0.85

N
Find: (a) the deflection, h, corresponding to Δp = 250⋅
(b) the sensitivity of the manometer 2
m

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: dp
= − ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - z is positive upwards)
dz
ρ = SG⋅ ρwater (Definition of Specific Gravity)

Assumptions: (1) Static liquid patm patm patm + Δp patm

(2) Incompressible liquid

Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation we get:

( )
p − po = −ρ⋅ g⋅ z − zo = ρ⋅ g⋅ zo − z ( ) h

From the left diagram: l2 lw l3

l1 l4
pA − patm = ρwater⋅ g⋅ l1 = ρoil⋅ g⋅ l2 ( 1)
A B
From the right diagram:

( )
pB − patm + Δp = ρwater⋅ g⋅ l3 ( 2)

pB − patm = ρwater⋅ g⋅ l4 + ρoil⋅ g⋅ l2 ( 3)

Combining these three equations: ( )

Δp = ρwater⋅ g⋅ l4 − l3 + ρoil⋅ g⋅ l2 = ρwater⋅ g⋅ l4 + l1 − l3 ( )
From the diagram we can see lw = l1 − l3 and h = l4 Therefore:

(
Δp = ρwater⋅ g⋅ h + lw ) ( 4)
2
π 2 π 2 ⎛ d2 ⎞
We can relate lw to h since the volume of water in the manometer is constant: ⋅ d ⋅ l = ⋅ d2 ⋅ h lw = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ h
4 1 w 4
⎝ d1 ⎠
 ⎡ ⎛ d ⎞ 2⎤
⎢ 2 ⎥ Δp
Substituting this into (4) yields: Δp = ρwater⋅ g⋅ h⋅ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ Solving for h: h=
⎢ d1 ⎥ ⎡ ⎛ d ⎞ 2⎤
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎢ 2 ⎥
ρwater⋅ g⋅ 1 + ⎜ ⎟
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ d1 ⎠ ⎦

3 2 3
N 1 m 1 s 1 kg⋅ m 10 ⋅ mm
Substituting values into the equation: h = 250⋅ × ⋅ × × × × h = 7.85⋅ mm
2 999 kg 9.81 m 2 2 m
1 + ⎛⎜
m 15⋅ mm ⎞ N⋅ s
⎟
⎝ 10⋅ mm ⎠

h
The sensitivity for the manometer is defined as: s= where Δp = ρwater⋅ g⋅ Δhe
Δhe

1 1
Therefore: s= s = s = 0.308
2 2
⎛ d2 ⎞ ⎛ 15⋅ mm ⎞
1+⎜
1+⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎝ 10⋅ mm ⎠
⎝ d1 ⎠

The design is a poor one. The sensitivity could be improved by interchanging d2 and d1 , i.e., having d2 smaller than d1

A plot of the manometer sensitivity is shown below:

1
Sensitivity

0.5

0 1 2 3 4 5

Diameter Ratio, d2/d1

 Problem 3.29 [Difficulty: 2]

3.29 Consider a small-diameter open-ended tube inserted at

the interface between two immiscible fluids of different den-
sities.Derive an expression for the height difference ∆h
between the interface level inside and outside the tube in
terms of tube diameter D, the two fluid densities and ρ1 ,
and ρ 2 , and the surface tensions σ and θ angle for the two
fluids’ interface. If the two fluids are water and mercury,
find the height difference if the tube diameter is 40 mils
( 1 mil = 0.0254 mm).

Given: Two fluids inside and outside a tube

Find: (a) An expression for height ∆h

(b) Height difference when D =1.016 mm for water/mercury

Assumptions: (1) Static, incompressible fluids

(2) Neglect meniscus curvature for column height and
volume calculations

Solution:

A free-body vertical force analysis for the section of fluid 1 height ∆h in the tube below
the "free surface" of fluid 2 leads to

2 2
π⋅D π⋅D
∑ F = 0 = ∆p ⋅ − ρ1 ⋅ g ⋅ ∆h ⋅ + π ⋅ D ⋅ σ ⋅ cos ( θ )
4 4

where ∆p is the pressure difference generated by fluid 2 over height ∆h, ∆p = ρ 2 ⋅ g ⋅ ∆h

2 2 2 2
π⋅D π⋅D π⋅D π⋅D
Hence ∆p ⋅ −ρ1 ⋅ g ⋅ ∆h ⋅ = ρ2 ⋅ g ⋅ ∆h ⋅ −ρ1 ⋅ g ⋅ ∆h ⋅ = − π ⋅ D ⋅ σ ⋅ cos ( θ)
4 4 4 4

4 ⋅ σ ⋅ cos ( θ )
Solving for ∆h ∆h = −
(
g ⋅ D ⋅ ρ2 − ρ1 )
For fluids 1 and 2 being water and mercury (for mercury σ = 375 mN/m and θ = 140°, from Table A.4), solving for
∆h when D = 1.016 mm

2 3
N 1s 1 1m 1000 mm
∆h = − 4 × 0.375 × cos (140 deg ) × × × ×
3
m 9.81m 1.016 mm (13.6 − 1) × 10 kg m

∆h = 0.915 cm
 Problem 3.30 [Difficulty: 2]

3.30 You have a manometer consisting of a tube that is 1.25 cm

inner diameter (ID). On one side, the manometer leg contains
mercury, 10 cc of an oil (SG = 1.4), and 3 cc of air as a bubble
in the oil. The other leg contains only mercury. Both legs are
open to the atmosphere and are in a static condition. An
accident occurs in which 3 cc of the oil and the air bubble are
removed from one leg. How much do the mercury height levels
change? 

Given: Data on manometer before and after an “accident”.

Find: Change in mercury level.

Assumptions: (1) Liquids are incompressible and static

(2) Pressure change across air in bubble is negligible
(3) Any curvature of air bubble surface can be neglected in volume calculations

Solution:

dp
Basic equation = −ρ ⋅ g or, for constant ρ Δp = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Δh where Δh is height difference
dy

For the initial state, working from right to left p atm = p atm + SG Hg ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h 3 − SG oil ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ( h1 + h 2 )

SG Hg ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h 3 = SG oil ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ( h1 + h 2 ) (1)

Note that the air pocket has no effect!

For the final state, working from right to left p atm = p atm + SG Hg ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ( h 3 − x ) − SG oil ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h 4

SG Hg ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ( h 3 − x ) = SG oil ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h 4 (2)

The two unknowns here are the mercury levels before and after (i.e., h3 and x)

SG oil
Combining Eqs. 1 and 2 SG Hg ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ x = SG oil ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ( h1 + h 2 − h 4 ) x= ⋅ (h1 + h 2 + h 4 ) (3)
SG Hg
From Table A.1 SG Hg = 13.55

The term h1 + h 2 − h 4 is the difference between the total height of oil

before and after the accident
2
ΔV 4 ⎛ 1 ⎞
h1 + h 2 − h 4 = = × ⎜ ⎟ × 3 cm = 2.45 cm
3

⎛ π ⋅ d 2 ⎞ π ⎝ 1.25 cm ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
1.4
Then from Eq. 3 x= × 2.45 cm x = 0.2531 cm
13.55
 Problem 3.31 [Difficulty: 3]

3.31 Two vertical glass plates 300 mm × 300 mm are placed in

an open tank containing water. At one end the gap between the
plates is 2 mm and at the other it is 0.1 mm. Plot the curve of
water height between the plates from one end of the pair to the
other.

Given: Geometry of vertical plates.

Find: Curve of water height due to capillary action.

Assumption: Water is static and incompressible.

Solution:
Parallel plates: A free-body vertical force analysis for the section of water height ∆h above the “free surface”
between plates arbitrary width w (similar to the figure above), leads to

∑ F = 0 = 2 ⋅ w ⋅ σ ⋅ cos ( θ ) − ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ∆h ⋅ w ⋅ a
2 ⋅ σ ⋅ cos ( θ )
Solving for ∆h ∆h =
ρ⋅ g ⋅ a

For water σ = 72.8 mN/m and θ = 0o (Table A.4), so

σ = 72.8 mN/m
ρ = 1000 kg/m3

Using the formula above

Capillary Height Between Vertical Plates
a (mm) ∆h (mm) 160
0.10 148 140
0.15 98.9
120
Height ∆h (mm)

0.20 74.2
0.25 59.4 100
0.30 49.5 80
0.35 42.4
60
0.40 37.1
0.45 33.0 40
0.50 29.7 20
0.55 27.0
0
0.60 24.7 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0.65 22.8
Gap a (mm)
0.70 21.2
0.75 19.8
1.00 14.8
1.25 11.9
1.50 9.89
1.75 8.48
2.00 7.42
 Problem 3.32 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Data on isothermal atmosphere

Find: Elevation changes for 3% pressure change and 5% density change; plot of pressure and density versus elevation

Solution:

Assumptions: Static, isothermal fluid,; g = constant; ideal gas behavior

dp
Basic equations = − ρ⋅ g and p = ρ⋅ R ⋅ T
dz

dp p⋅ g dp g
Then = − ρ⋅ g = − and =− ⋅ dz
dz Rair⋅ T p Rair⋅ T

Rair⋅ T0 ⎛ p2 ⎞
Integrating Δz = − ⋅ ln ⎜ ⎟ where T = T0
g
⎝ p1 ⎠

p2 ρ2⋅ Rair⋅ T ρ2 Rair⋅ T0 ⎛ ρ2 ⎞ ⎛ ρ2 ⎞

For an ideal gas with T constant = = so Δz = − ⋅ ln ⎜ ⎟ = −C⋅ ln⎜ ⎟ (1)
ρ1⋅ Rair⋅ T ρ1
p1 g
⎝ ρ1 ⎠ ⎝ ρ1 ⎠

N⋅ m
From Table A.6 Rair = 287⋅
kg⋅ K

Rair⋅ T0 N⋅ m 1 s
2
kg⋅ m
Evaluating C= = 287⋅ × ( 30 + 273) ⋅ K × ⋅ × C = 8865⋅ m
g kg⋅ K 9.81 m N⋅ s2

p2
For a 3% reduction in pressure = 0.97 so from Eq. 1 Δz = −8865⋅ m⋅ ln ( 0.97) Δz = 270⋅ m
p1

ρ2
For a 5% reduction in density = 0.95 so from Eq. 1 Δz = −8865⋅ m⋅ ln ( 0.95) Δz = 455⋅ m
ρ1

Δz
p2 ρ2 ρ2 p2 −
C
To plot and we rearrange Eq. 1 = =e
p1 ρ1 ρ1 p1
 5000

4000
Elevation (m)

3000

2000

1000

0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Pressure or Density Ratio

This plot can be plotted in Excel

 Problem 3.33 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Martian atmosphere behaves as an idel gas, constant temperature

m kg
Mm = 32.0 T = 200⋅ K g = 3.92⋅ ρo = 0.015⋅
2 3
s m
Find: Density at z = 20 km
Plot the ratio of density to sea level density versus altitude, compare to
that of earth.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: dp
= − ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - z is positive upwards)
dz
p = ρ⋅ R ⋅ T (Ideal Gas Equation of State)
Ru
R= (Definition of Gas Constant)
Mm

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid

(2) Constant gravitational acceleration
(3) Ideal gas behavior

Taking the differential of the equation of state (constant temperature): dp = R⋅ T⋅ dρ

dρ dρ g
Substituting into the hydrostatic pressure equation: R ⋅ T⋅ = − ρ⋅ g Therefore: =− ⋅ dz
dz ρ R⋅ T

ρ z g⋅ z
⌠ 1 ⌠ −
ln ⎛⎜
ρ ⎞ g⋅ z ρ R⋅T
dρ = −⎮
⎮ g
=− =e
ρo ⎟
Integrating this expression: dz or ( 1)
⎮ ρ ⎮ R⋅ T R⋅ T ρo
⌡ρ ⌡0 ⎝ ⎠
o

N ⋅m 1 kg⋅ mol N ⋅m
Evaluating: R = 8314.3⋅ × ⋅ R = 259.822⋅
kg⋅ mol⋅ K 32.0 kg kg⋅ K

⎛ kg⋅ K 1 1 N ⋅ s ⎟⎞
2
− ⎜ 3.92⋅
m 3 1
× 20× 10 ⋅ m × ⋅ × ⋅ ×
⎜ 2 259.822 N ⋅ m 200 K kg⋅ m ⎟
×e ⎝ ⎠
kg s − 3 kg
ρ = 0.015⋅ ρ = 3.32 × 10
3 3
m m

2
g m 1 kg⋅ K 1 1 N ⋅s 1
For the Martian atmosphere, let x= x = 3.92⋅ × ⋅ × ⋅ × x = 0.07544⋅
R⋅ T s
2 259.822 N ⋅ m 200 K kg⋅ m km
 ρ − x⋅ z
Therefore: =e These data are plotted along with the data for Earth's atmosphere from Table A.3.
ρo

Density Ratios of Earth and Mars versus Elevation

20

15
Elevation z (km)

10

Earth
Mars
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Density Ratio (-)

 Problem 3.34 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Door of constant width, located in plane vertical wall of water tank is
hinged along upper edge.
ps
b = 1⋅ m D = 1⋅ m L = 1.5⋅ m
Hinge
Atmospheric pressure acts on outer surface of door; force F is applied h
D
at lower edge to keep door closed. x
y
Find: (a) Force F, if ps = patm
L
(b) Force F, if p = 0.5⋅ atm
sg pdA
Plot F/Fo over tange of ps/patm (Fo is force determined in (a)).
F
Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: dp
= ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards)
dh
⌠
⎮
FR = ⎮ p dA (Hydrostatic Force on door)
⌡

ΣMz = 0 (Rotational Equilibrium)

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid

(2) Constant density
(3) Door is in equilibrium

⌠
⎮
Taking moments about the hinge: − F⋅ L + y⋅ p dA = 0 dA = b⋅ dy
⎮
⌡
L
1 ⌠
Solving for the force: F = ⋅ ⎮ b⋅ y⋅ p dy ( 1) We will obtain a general expression for F
L ⌡0 and then simplify for parts (a) and (b).

Since dp = ρ⋅ g⋅ dh it follows that p = ps + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h where h = D+y

and hence p = p s + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ( D + y) Now because patm acts on the outside of the door, psg is the surface gage pressure.

L L
1 ⌠ b ⌠
F = ⋅ ⎮ ⎡ psg + ρ⋅ g⋅ D ⋅ y + ρ⋅ g⋅ y ⎤ dy
( )
2
From Equation (1): F = ⋅ ⎮ b⋅ y⋅ ⎡psg + ρ⋅ g⋅ ( D + y)⎤ dy
L ⌡ ⎣ ⎦ L ⌡ ⎣ ⎦
0 0
 b ⎡ L ⎤
2 3
⎡ ⎛ D L ⎞⎤
( )
L L
After integrating: F = ⋅ ⎢ psg + ρ⋅ g⋅ D ⋅ + ρ⋅ g⋅ ⎥ or F = b⋅ ⎢psg⋅ + ρ⋅ g⋅ L⋅ ⎜ + ⎟⎥ ( 2)
L ⎣ 2 3⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎝ 2 3 ⎠⎦

(a) For ps = patm it follows that psg = 0 Fo = ρ⋅ g⋅ b⋅ L⋅ ⎜

⎛ D + L⎞
Therefore: ⎟ ( 3)
⎝ 2 3⎠
2
Fo = 999⋅
kg
× 9.81⋅
m
× 1⋅ m × 1.5⋅ m × ⎜
⎛ 1⋅ m + 1.5⋅ m ⎞ × N⋅ s
⎟ Fo = 14.7⋅ kN
m
3 2
s ⎝ 2 3 ⎠ kg⋅ m

(b) For psg = 0.5⋅ atm we substitute variables:

⎡ 101⋅ kPa 1.5⋅ m ⎛ 1⋅ m + 1.5⋅ m ⎞ × N⋅ s ⎥⎤

2
F = 1⋅ m × ⎢0.5⋅ atm ×
kg m
× + 999⋅ × 9.81⋅ × 1.5⋅ m × ⎜ ⎟ F = 52.6⋅ kN
⎢ atm 2 3 2 ⎝ 2 3 ⎠ kg⋅ m⎥
⎣ m s ⎦

⎡
b⋅ ⎢psg⋅
L ⎛ D L ⎞⎤
+ ρ⋅ g⋅ L⋅ ⎜ + ⎟⎥ psg
From Equations (2) and (3) we have:
F
=
⎣ 2 ⎝ 2 3 ⎠⎦ = 1 +
Fo ⎛ D L⎞
ρ⋅ g⋅ b⋅ L⋅ ⎜ + ⎟
D L⎞
2⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ ⎛⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 2 3⎠ ⎝ 2 3⎠

Here is a plot of the force ratio as a function of the surface pressure:

30

20
Force Ratio, F/Fo

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5

Surface Pressure Ratio, ps/patm

 Problem 3.35 [Difficulty: 5]

Discussion: The design requirements are specified except that a typical floor height is about 12 ft, making the total required lift
about 36 ft. A spreadsheet was used to calculate the system properties for various pressures. Results are presented on the next page,
followed by a sample calculation. Total cost dropped quickly as system pressure was increased. A shallow minimum was reached in
the 100-110 psig range. The lowest-cost solution was obtained at a system pressure of about 100 psig. At this pressure, the reservoir
of 140 gal required a 3.30 ft diameter pressure sphere with a 0.250 in wall thickness. The welding cost was $155 and the material cost
$433, for a total cost of $588. Accumulator wall thickness was constrained at 0.250 in for pressures below 100 psi; it increased for
higher pressures (this caused the discontinuity in slope of the curve at 100 psig). The mass of steel became constant above 110 psig.
No allowance was made for the extra volume needed to pressurize the accumulator. Fail-safe design is essential for an elevator to be
used by the public. The control circuitry should be redundant. Failures must be easy to spot. For this reason, hydraulic actuation is
good: leaks will be readily apparent. The final design must be reviewed, approved, and stamped by a professional engineer since the
design involves public safety. The terminology used in the solution is defined in the following table:

Symbol Definition Units

p System pressure psig

Ap Area of lift piston in2

Voil Volume of oil gal

Ds Diameter of spherical accumulator ft

t Wall thickness of accumulator in

Aw Area of weld in2

Cw Cost of weld $

Ms Mass of steel accumulator lbm

Cs Cost of steel $

Ct Total Cost $

A sample calculation and the results of the system simulation in Excel are presented below.
 πD S2
p
4

πD S tσ
Results of system simulation:
 Problem 3.36 [Difficulty: 2]

3.36 Find the pressures at points A, B, and C, as shown in

the figure, and in the two air cavities. 10 cm

10 cm

15 cm

Given: Geometry of chamber system.

Find: Pressure at various locations.

Assumptions: (1) Water and Meriam Blue are static and incompressible
(2) Pressure gradients across air cavities are negligible

Solution:
dp
Basic equation = −ρ⋅ g or, for constant ρ ∆p = ρ·g·∆h where ∆h is height difference
dy
For point A p A = patm + ρH2O ⋅ g ⋅ h1 or in gage pressure p A = ρ H 2 O ⋅ g ⋅ h1

Here we have h1 = 20 cm h1 = 0.2 m

kg m N ⋅ s2
p A = 1000 × 9.81 × 0.2 m × p A = 1.96 kPa (gage)
m3 s2 kg ⋅ m

For the first air cavity p air1 = p A − SG MB ⋅ρH2 O ⋅ g ⋅ h 2 where h2 = 10 cm h2 = 0.1 m

From Table A.1 SGMB = 1.75

N kg m N ⋅ s2
P = 1962 2 − 1.75 × 1000 3 × 9.81 2 × 0.1m × P = 245.25 Pa (gage)
air1 m m s kg ⋅ m air1

Note that p = constant throughout the air pocket

For point B p B = pair1 + SG Hg ⋅ ρ H2 O ⋅ g ⋅ h 3 where h3 = 15 cm h3 = 0.15 m

N kg m N ⋅ s2
p B = 245.25 + 1.75 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.15 m × PB = 2820.375 Pa (gage)
m2 m3 s2 kg ⋅ m
For point C p C = pair 2 + SG Hg ⋅ ρ H2 O ⋅ g ⋅ h 4 where h 4 = 25 cm h 4 = 0.25 m

N kg m N ⋅ s2
p C = 2820.375 + 1.75 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.25 m ×
m2 m3 s2 kg ⋅ m pC = 7112.25 Pa (gage)

For the second air cavity p air 2 = pC − SG Hg ⋅ρH2 O ⋅ h 5 where h 5 = 15 cm h 5 = 0.15 m

N kg m N⋅s2
p = 7112.25 − 1.75 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.15 m × p air 2 = 4537.125 Pa (gage)
air2 m 2 m3 s 2 kg ⋅m
 Problem 3.37 [Difficulty: 2] 

3.37 A triangular access port must be provided in the side of a

form containing liquid concrete. Using the coordinates and
dimensions shown, determine the resultant force that acts on the
port and its point of application. y
Liquid a = 0.38 m
concrete
Port

b = 0.3 m

Given: Geometry of access port.

Find: Resultant force and location.

y’ y

a = 0.38 m
w dy
FR

SG = 2.5
b = 0.3 m

Solution:
dp
Basic equation FR = ∫ pdA = ρ⋅g ∑ M s = y ' ⋅ FR = ∫y d FR = ∫ y ⋅ pdA
dy

or, use computing equations FR = pc ⋅ A y ' = yc +

Ixx
A ⋅ yc

We will show both methods

Assumptions:
Static fluid; ρ = constant; patm on other side

w y b
F = ∫ pdA = ∫ SG ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ y dA but dA = w ⋅ dy and = w= ⋅y
R b a a

a b a b 2 SG ⋅ρ⋅ g ⋅ b ⋅ a 2
Hence FR = ∫0 SG ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ y ⋅ a ⋅ y dy = ∫
0
SG ⋅ρ⋅ g ⋅
a
y dy =
3

2 1
Alternatively FR = p c ⋅ A and pc = SG ⋅ρ⋅ g ⋅ yc = SG ⋅ρ⋅ g ⋅ ⋅ a with A= ⋅a ⋅b
3 2

SG ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ b ⋅ a 2
Hence FR =
3
 a b 3 SG ⋅ρ⋅ g ⋅ b ⋅ a 3 SG ⋅ρ⋅ g ⋅ b ⋅ a 3 3
For y' y '⋅ FR = ∫ y ⋅ p dA = ∫0 SG ⋅ρ⋅ g ⋅
a
⋅ y dy =
4
y' =
4 ⋅ FR
= ⋅a
4

I XX b ⋅ a3
Alternatively y ' = yc + and I XX = (Google it!)
A ⋅ yc 36
2 b ⋅ a3 2 3 3
y' = ⋅a + ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅a
3 36 a ⋅ b 2 ⋅ a 4

2.5 3 kg m N ⋅ s2
Using given data, and SG = 2.5 (Table A.1) FR = ×10 3 × 9.81 2 × 0.3 m × (0.38 m)2 × FR = 354 N
3 m s kg ⋅ m

3
and y' = ⋅a y' = 0.285 m
4
 Problem 3.38 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Geometry of plane gate

Find: Minimum weight to keep it closed

L=3m
h
y

L/2
dF

W
w=2m
Solution:
⌠ dp
⎮
Basic equation FR = ⎮ p dA = ρ⋅ g ΣMO = 0
⌡ dh

Ixx
or, use computing equations FR = pc ⋅ A y' = yc +
A⋅ yc

Assumptions: static fluid; ρ = constant; patm on other side; door is in equilibrium

Instead of using either of these approaches, we note the following, using y as in the sketch

L ⌠
⎮
ΣMO = 0 W⋅ ⋅ cos ( θ) = y dF
2 ⎮
⌡

We also have dF = p⋅ dA with p = ρ⋅ g⋅ h = ρ⋅ g⋅ y⋅ sin ( θ) (Gage pressure, since p = patm on other side)

2 ⌠
⎮ 2 ⌠
⎮
Hence W= ⋅
y⋅ p dA = ⋅ y⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ y⋅ sin ( θ) ⋅ w dy
⎮
L⋅ cos ( θ) ⌡ L⋅ cos ( θ) ⎮⌡

⌠ L
2 ⎮ 2⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ w⋅ tan( θ) ⌠ 2 2 2
W= ⋅ y⋅ p dA = ⋅ ⎮ y dy = ⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ w⋅ L ⋅ tan( θ)
L⋅ cos ( θ) ⌡⎮ L ⌡ 3
0

2
2 kg m 2 N⋅ s
Using given data W = ⋅ 1000⋅ × 9.81⋅ × 2⋅ m × ( 3⋅ m) × tan( 30⋅ deg) × W = 68⋅ kN
3 3 2 kg⋅ m
m s
 Problem 3.39 [Difficulty: 4]

Given: Semicylindrical trough, partly filled with water to depth d.

Find: (a) General expressions for FR and y' on end of trough, if open to the atmosphere.
(b) Plots of results vs. d/R between 0 and 1.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: dp
= ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - y is positive downwards)
dy

⌠
⎮
FR = ⎮ p dA (Hydrostatic Force on door)
⌡
⌠
⎮
y'⋅ FR = ⎮ y⋅ p dA (First moment of force)
⌡

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid R–d

(2) Incompressible fluid
Integrating the pressure equation: p = ρ ⋅ g⋅ h where h = y − ( R − d)
h y θ
p = ρ⋅ g⋅ [ y − ( R − d) ] = ρ⋅ g⋅ R⋅ ⎡⎢
y ⎛
− ⎜ 1 − ⎟⎞⎤⎥
d d
Therefore:
⎣ R ⎝ R ⎠⎦ dy
α
Expressing this in terms of θ and α in the figure: p = ρ⋅ g⋅ R⋅ ( cos ( θ) − cos ( α) )

For the walls at the end of the trough: dA = w⋅ dy = 2⋅ R⋅ sin ( θ) ⋅ dy Now since y = R⋅ cos ( θ) it follows that dy = −R⋅ sin ( θ) ⋅ dθ

Substituting this into the hydrostatic force equation:

R 0
⌠ ⌠
FR = ⎮ p⋅ w dy = ⎮ ρ⋅ g⋅ R⋅ ( cos ( θ) − cos ( α) ) ⋅ 2⋅ R⋅ sin ( θ) ⋅ ( −R⋅ sin ( θ) ) dθ
⌡R−d ⌡α
Upon simplification:

3 ⎡ ( sin ( α) ) α sin ( α) ⋅ cos ( α) ⎞⎤

α 3
3⌠
FR = 2⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⎮ ⎡⎣sin ( θ) ⋅ cos ( θ) − ( sin ( θ) ) ⋅ cos ( α)⎤⎦ dθ = 2⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ ⎢ − cos ( α) ⋅ ⎛⎜ −
2 2
⌡0
⎟⎥
⎣ 3 ⎝2 2 ⎠⎦

3 ⎡ ( sin ( α) ) sin ( α) ⋅ cos ( α) ⎞⎤

3
− cos ( α) ⋅ ⎛⎜
α
FR = 2⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ ⎢ − ⎟⎥
⎣ 3 ⎝2 2 ⎠⎦

FR ⎡ ( sin ( α) ) 3 sin ( α) ⋅ cos ( α) ⎞⎤

− cos ( α) ⋅ ⎛⎜
α
Non-dimensionalizing the force: = 2⋅ ⎢ − ⎟⎥
ρ⋅ g⋅ R
3 ⎣ 3 ⎝2 2 ⎠⎦
To find the line of action of the force:

R 0
⌠ ⌠
y'⋅ FR = ⎮ y⋅ p⋅ w dy = ⎮ R⋅ cos ( θ) ⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ R⋅ ( cos ( θ) − cos ( α) ) ⋅ 2⋅ R⋅ sin ( θ) ⋅ ( −R⋅ sin ( θ) ) dθ
⌡R−d ⌡α

Upon simplification:
α
4⌠ ⎡ 3⎤
y'⋅ FR = 2⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ ⎮ ⎡⎣( sin ( θ) ) 2⋅ ( cos ( θ) ) 2 − cos ( α) ⋅ ( sin ( θ) ) 2⋅ cos ( θ)⎤⎦ dθ = 2⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ R4⋅ ⎢ 1 ⋅ ⎛⎜ α − sin ( 4⋅ α) ⎟⎞ − cos ( α) ⋅ ( sin ( α) ) ⎥
⌡0 ⎣8 ⎝ 4 ⎠ 3 ⎦

4 ⎡1 ⎛ ( sin ( α) ) ⎤
3 y'⋅ FR y'⋅ FR
sin ( 4⋅ α) ⎞ y'
y'⋅ FR = 2⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ ⎢ ⋅ ⎜ α − ⎟ − cos ( α) ⋅ ⎥ and therefore y' = or =
⎣8 ⎝ 4 ⎠ 3 ⎦ FR R R ⋅ FR

Simplifying the expression: 3

1 ⎛ sin ( 4⋅ α) ⎞ ( sin ( α) )
⋅ ⎜α − ⎟ − cos ( α) ⋅
y' 8 ⎝ 4 ⎠ 3
=
R 3
− cos ( α) ⋅ ⎛⎜ −
( sin ( α) ) α sin ( α) ⋅ cos ( α) ⎞
⎟
3 ⎝2 2 ⎠
Plots of the non-dimensionalized force and the line of
action of the force are shown in the plots below:

0.8

0.6
Non-dimensional Force

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1
d/R

0.8

0.6
y'/R

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1

d/R
 Problem 3.40 [Difficulty: 1]

Given: Geometry of cup

Find: Force on each half of cup

Assumptions: (1) Tea is static and incompressible

(2) Atmospheric pressure on outside of cup
Solution:
⌠
⎮ dp
Basic equation FR = ⎮ p dA = ρ⋅ g
⌡ dh

or, use computing equation FR = pc⋅ A

The force on the half-cup is the same as that on a rectangle of size h = 8⋅ cm and w = 6.5⋅ cm

⌠ ⌠
⎮ ⎮
FR = ⎮ p dA = ⎮ ρ⋅ g⋅ y dA but dA = w⋅ dy
⌡ ⌡
h 2
⌠ ρ⋅ g⋅ w⋅ h
Hence FR = ⎮ ρ⋅ g⋅ y⋅ w dy =
⌡0 2
2
h ρ⋅ g⋅ w⋅ h
Alternatively FR = pc⋅ A and FR = pc ⋅ A = ρ⋅ g⋅ yc⋅ A = ρ⋅ g⋅ ⋅ h ⋅ w =
2 2
3 2
× 9.81⋅ × 6.5⋅ cm × ( 8⋅ cm) × ⎛⎜
1 kg m 2 m ⎞ N⋅ s
Using given data FR = × 999⋅ ⎟ × FR = 2.04⋅ N
2
m
3
s
2 ⎝ 100⋅ cm ⎠ kg ⋅m

Hence a teacup is being forced apart by about 2 N: not much of a force, so a paper cup works!
 Problem 3.41 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Liquid concrete poured between vertical forms as shown

t = 0.25⋅ m H = 3⋅ m W = 5⋅ m SGc = 2.5 (From Table A.1, App. A)

Find: (a) Resultant force on form

(b) Line of application

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: dp
= ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - y is positive downwards)
dy

FR = pc⋅ A (Hydrostatic Force)

Ixx
y' = yc +
A⋅ yc
(Location of line of action)
Ixy
x' = xc +
A⋅ yc
Liquid Concrete
Assumptions: (1) Static fluid t = 0.25 m
(2) Incompressible fluid
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts at free surface
and on the outside of the form. H=3m
y’
3
W⋅ H x’
For a rectangular plate: Ixx = Ixy = 0
12

xc = 2.5⋅ m yc = 1.5⋅ m
FR
Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation: p = ρ ⋅ g⋅ y W=5m
The density of concrete is:

kg 3 kg
ρ = 2.5 × 1000⋅ ρ = 2.5 × 10
3 3
m m
Therefore, the force is: FR = ρ⋅ g⋅ yc⋅ H⋅ W

3 kg m
Substituting in values gives us: FR = 2.5 × 10 ⋅ × 9.81⋅ × 1.5⋅ m × 3⋅ m × 5⋅ m FR = 552⋅ kN
3 2
m s

To find the line of action of the resultant force:

3 2 2
W⋅ H H ( 3⋅ m)
y' = yc + = yc + y' = 1.5⋅ m + y' = 2.00 m
12⋅ W⋅ H⋅ yc 12⋅ yc 12⋅ 1.5⋅ m

Since Ixy = 0 it follows that x' = xc x' = 2.50⋅ m

 Problem 3.42 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Door as shown; Data from Example 3.6.

Find: Force to keep door shut using the two seperate pressures method.

Solution: We will apply the computing equations to this system.

Ixx 3
b⋅L
Governing Equations: FR = pc ⋅ A y' = yc + Ixx =
yc⋅ A 12
p0 p0

h1 ’
h2 ’
F1
F2

lbf
F1 = p0⋅ A F1 = 100⋅ × 3⋅ ft × 2⋅ ft F1 = 600 lbf x' = 1⋅ ft z' = 1.5⋅ ft
2
ft
lbf
F2 = pc⋅ A = ρ⋅ g⋅ hc⋅ L⋅ b = γ⋅ hc⋅ L⋅ b F2 = 100⋅ × 1.5⋅ ft × 3⋅ ft × 2⋅ ft F2 = 900 lbf
3
ft
1 3
For the rectangular door Ixx = ⋅ b⋅ L
12
Ixx 2 2
1 L 1 ( 3⋅ m)
h'2 = hc + = hc + ⋅ h'2 = 1.5⋅ m + ⋅ h'2 = 2 m
b⋅ L⋅ hc 12 hc 12 1.5⋅ m

The free body diagram of the door is then

h1’
Ft (
ΣMAx = 0 = L⋅ Ft − F1⋅ L − h'1 − F2⋅ L − h'2 ) ( )
h2’ ⎛ h'1 ⎞ ⎛ h'2 ⎞
F1
L F t = F 1⋅ ⎜ 1 − ⎟ + F 2⋅ ⎜ 1 − ⎟
⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠
F2
Ft = 600⋅ lbf ⋅ ⎛⎜ 1 −
Ay 1.5 ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
Az ⎟ + 900⋅ lbf ⋅ ⎜ 1 − ⎟ Ft = 600 lbf
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
 Problem 3.43 [Difficulty: 2] 

3.43 A large open tank contains water and is connected to a 2 m

diameter conduit as shown. A circular plug is used to seal the
conduit. Determine the magnitude, direction, and location of the
force of the water on the plug. 3m

Water D=2m

Plug

kg
Given: Plug is used to seal a conduit. γ = 9802.3
m2s2

Find: Magnitude, direction and location of the force of water on the plug.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

dp
Governing Equations: =γ (Hydrostatic Pressure - y is positive downwards)
dh

FR = p c ⋅ A (Hydrostatic Force)

I xx
y′ = yc + (Location of line of action)
A ⋅ yc

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid.

(2) Incompressible fluid.
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts on the outside of the plug.

π
Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation: p = γ⋅h FR = p c ⋅ A = γ ⋅ h c ⋅ ⋅ D 2
4

kg π
× 4 m × × ( 2m ) FR = 12.32 × 104 N
2
FR = 9802.3 2 2
ms 4

π
⋅ D4
For a circular area: I xx =
π
⋅ D4 Therefore: y ' = yc + 64 = yc +
D2
y' = 4 m =
( 2m) 2
64 π 2 16 ⋅ y c 16 × 4 m
⋅ D ⋅ yc
4

y ' = 4.06 m

The force of water is to the right and

perpendicular to the plug.
 Problem 3.44 [Difficulty: 1]

Given: Description of car tire

Find: Explanation of lift effect

Solution:
The explanation is as follows: It is true that the pressure in the entire tire is the same everywhere. However, the tire at the top of the hub
will be essentially circular in cross-section, but at the bottom, where the tire meets the ground, the cross section will be approximately a
flattened circle, or elliptical. Hence we can explain that the lower cross section has greater upward force than the upper cross section has
downward force (providing enough lift to keep the car up) two ways. First, the horizontal projected area of the lower ellipse is larger than
that of the upper circular cross section, so that net pressure times area is upwards. Second, any time you have an elliptical cross section
that's at high pressure, that pressure will always try to force the ellipse to be circular (thing of a round inflated balloon - if you squeeze it it
will resist!). This analysis ignores the stiffness of the tire rubber, which also provides a little lift.
 Problem 3.45 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Circular access port of known diameter in side of water standpipe of

known diameter. Port is held in place by eight bolts evenly spaced
around the circumference of the port.
Center of the port is located at a know distance below the free surface of
the water.
d = 0.6⋅ m D = 7⋅ m L = 12⋅ m

Find: (a) Total force on the port

(b) Appropriate bolt diameter

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: dp
= ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - y is positive downwards)
dh
FR = pc⋅ A (Hydrostatic Force)
F
σ= (Normal Stress in bolt) h
A

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid L

(2) Incompressible fluid
d
(3) Force is distributed evenly over all bolts
(4) Appropriate working stress in bolts is 100 MPa
(5) Atmospheric pressure acts at free surface of water and on
outside of port. D

Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation: p = ρ ⋅ g⋅ h

2
π 2 kg m π 2 N⋅ s
The resultant force on the port is: FR = pc⋅ A = ρ⋅ g⋅ L⋅ ⋅ d FR = 999⋅ × 9.81⋅ × 12⋅ m × × ( 0.6⋅ m) ×
4 3 2 4 kg⋅ m
m s

FR = 33.3⋅ kN

FR π 2 2
To find the bolt diameter we consider: σ= where A is the area of all of the bolts: A = 8× ⋅ db = 2⋅ π⋅ db
A 4

1
2
2 FR ⎛ FR ⎞
Therefore: 2⋅ π⋅ db = Solving for the bolt diameter we get: db = ⎜ ⎟
σ ⎝ 2⋅ π⋅ σ ⎠
1
2
⎛ 1 m ⎞⎟
2 3
10 ⋅ mm
db = ⎜ 3
× 33.3 × 10 ⋅ N ×
1
⋅ × db = 7.28⋅ mm
⎜2× π 6 N ⎟ m
⎝ 100 × 10 ⎠
 Problem 3.46 [Difficulty: 3] 

3.46 As water rises on the left side of the rectangular gate, the Gate
gate will open automatically. At what depth above the hinge
will this occur? Neglect the mass of the gate. D 1.5 m

Hinge

Given: Geometry of rectangular gate.

Find: Depth for gate to open.

Solution:

dp
Basic equation = ρ⋅g ΣM Z = 0
dh
I
xx b ⋅ D3
Computing equations FR = p c ⋅ A y1 = y c + I
xx =
A ⋅ yc 12

Assumptions: Static fluid; ρ = constant; patm on other side; no friction in hinge.

For incompressible fluid p = ρ⋅g⋅h where p is gage pressure and h is measured downwards.

The force on the vertical gate (gate 1) is the same as that on a rectangle of size h = D and width w.

D ρ⋅ g ⋅ w ⋅ D 2
Hence F1 = PC ⋅ A = ρ⋅ g ⋅ yc ⋅ A = ρ⋅ g ⋅ ⋅D⋅ w =
2 2

xxI
D w ⋅ D3 1 2 2
The location of this force is y1 = yc + = + × × × ⋅D
A ⋅ yc 2 12 w⋅D D 3

The force on the horizontal gate (gate 2) is due to constant pressure, and is at the centroid.

F2 = p(y = D) ⋅ A = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ D ⋅ w ⋅ L

Summing moments about the hinge L ⎛ 2 ⎞ L

Σ M hinge = 0 = − F1 ⋅ (D − y 1 ) + F2 ⋅ = − F1 ⋅ ⎜ D − ⋅ D ⎟ + F2 ⋅
2 ⎝ 3 ⎠ 2

D ρ ⋅ g ⋅ w ⋅ D2 D L L
F1 ⋅ = ⋅ = F2 ⋅ = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ D ⋅ w ⋅ L ⋅
3 2 3 2 2

ρ⋅ g ⋅ w ⋅ D3 ρ⋅ g ⋅ D ⋅ w ⋅ L2
=
6 2

D = 3 ⋅ L = 3 × 1.5 m

D = 2.6 m
 Problem 3.47 [Difficulty: 3]

3.47 The gate AOC shown is 1.8 m wide and is hinged along O. A
B
Neglecting the weight of the gate, determine the force in bar AB. 1m
The gate is sealed at C.

3.6 m

Water
C
1.8
2.4 m m

Given: Gate AOC, hinged along O, has known width; Weight of gate may be neglected. Gate is sealed at C.

b = 1.8 m  

Find: Force in bar AB.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: dp
= ρ⋅g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards)
dh
FR = p c ⋅ A (Hydrostatic Force)
I (Location of line of action)
y ' = y c + xx
A ⋅ yc
∑ Mz = 0 (Rotational equilibrium)
Assumptions: (1) Static fluid
(2) Incompressible fluid
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts at free surface of water and on
outside of gate FAB
(4) No resisting moment in hinge at O L1
(5) No vertical resisting force at C  
h1⬘
Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation:    p = ρ⋅g⋅h L1
F1
L2
The free body diagram of the gate is shown here:

F1 is the resultant of the distributed force on AO x 2⬘

F2

F2 is the resultant of the distributed force on OC

FAB is the force of the bar

Cx is the sealing force at C

First find the force on AO: F1 = pc ⋅ A1 = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h c1 ⋅ b ⋅ L1

 kg m
F1 = 1000 3
× 9.81 2 × 1.8 m × 1.8 m × 3.6 m F1 = 114.4 kN
m s

( 3.6 m )
2
I xx b ⋅ L13 L2
h '1 = h c1 + = h c1 + = h c1 + 1 h '1 = 1.8 m + h '1 = 2.4 m
A ⋅ h c1 12 ⋅ b ⋅ L1 ⋅ h c1 12 ⋅ h c1 12 × 1.8 m

kg m
Next find the force on OC: F2 = 1000 3
× 9.81 2 × 3.6 m × 1.8 m × 1.8 m F2 = 114.4 kN
m s

Since the pressure is uniform over OC, the force acts at the centroid of OC, i.e., x '2 = 1 m

Summing moments about the hinge gives: FAB ⋅ ( L1 + L3 ) − F1 ⋅ ( L1 − h '1 ) + F2 ⋅ x '2 = 0 FAB
L1

F1 ⋅ ( L1 − h '1 ) − F2 ⋅ x '2
h1⬘

Solving for the force in the bar: FAB = L1

L1 + L3
F1
L2

x2⬘
Substituting in values: F2

1
FAB = ⎡114.4 kN × ( 3.6 − 2.4 ) m − 114.4 kN × 1 m ⎤⎦
3.6 m + 1 m ⎣

FAB = 5 kN Thus bar AB is in compression

 Problem 3.48 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Gate shown with fixed width, bass of gate is negligible.

Gate is in equilibrium.
b = 3⋅ m

Find: Water depth, d

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: dp
= ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards)
dh
FR = pc⋅ A (Hydrostatic Force)

Ixx
y' = yc + (Location of line of action)
A⋅ yc

ΣMz = 0 (Rotational equilibrium)

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid

(2) Incompressible fluid
M
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts at free surface of water and on
outside of gate
h
Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation: p = ρ ⋅ g⋅ h y

d
d d l
FR = pc⋅ A = ρ⋅ g⋅ hc⋅ A hc = A = b⋅
2 sin ( θ)
L
2
ρ⋅ g⋅ b⋅ d θ
Therefore, FR = To find the line of application of this force:
2⋅ sin ( θ)

Ixx 3
b⋅ l
y' = yc + Since Ixx = and A = b⋅ l it follows that
A⋅ yc 12

3 2
b⋅ l l
y' = yc + = yc + where l is the length of the gate in contact with the water (as seen in diagram)
12⋅ b⋅ l⋅ yc 12⋅ yc
 2
d l d d d 2⋅ sin ( θ) 2⋅ d
l and d are related through: l= Therefore, yc = = and y' = + ⋅ =
sin ( θ) 2 2⋅ sin ( θ) 2⋅ sin ( θ) 2 12⋅ d 3⋅ sin ( θ)
( sin ( θ) )

The free body diagram of the gate is shown here:

T

d FR
Summing moments about the hinge gives: y’
T⋅ L − ( l − y') ⋅ FR = 0 where T = M⋅ g

Solving for l: l=
d
=
M⋅ g⋅ L
+ y' So upon further substitution we get: θ
sin ( θ) FR Ahoriz

2
A vertical
d = ⎛⎜
2⋅ M⋅ g⋅ L 2⋅ d ⎞ d 2⋅ M⋅ L⋅ ( sin ( θ) )
⋅ sin ( θ) + ⋅ sin ( θ) or =
2 3 ⋅ sin ( θ) ⎟ 3 2
⎝ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ b⋅ d ⎠ ρ ⋅ b⋅ d

1
1
3
3 ⎡ 3
2⎤
d = ⎡⎢
6⋅ M⋅ L 2⎤ 1 m 1
Solving for d: ⋅ ( sin ( θ) ) ⎥ Substituting in values: d = ⎢6 × 2500⋅ kg × 5⋅ m × × ⋅× ( sin ( 60⋅ deg) ) ⎥
⎣ ρ⋅ b ⎦ ⎣ 999 kg 3m ⎦

d = 2.66 m
 Problem 3.49

3.49 The face of a dam is vertical to a depth of 8.5m below the

water surface then slopes at 45° to the vertical. If the depth of
water is 18m what is the resultant force per meter acting on the
whole face?

Solution:

From the problem,

h2  18.0 m
h1  h2  8.0 m
=18.0 m  8.0 m
=10.0 m
10
x
tan 45
 10 m

Vertical force  weight of water above the surface.

Fv   h  h2  x  0.5h1  x 

Substitute corresponding values in the above expression

Fv  9810   8.0 10.0  0.5 10 10.0 
 1275.3 kN/m

The horizontal force = fore on the projection of the surface on to a vertical plane.
1
Fh   gh 2
2

Substitute corresponding values in the above expression

Fh  0.5 1000  9.81182
 1589220 kN/m

The resultant force is,

FR  Fv2  Fh2

Substitute corresponding values in the above expression

 FR  1275.32  15892202
 2.5256 1012
 1589.22 kN

Hence, the resultant force is 1589.22 kN .

 Problem 3.50 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Block hinged and floating

Find: SG of the wood

Solution:
dp
Basic equation = ρ⋅ g ΣMz = 0
dh
Ixx
Computing equations FR = pc⋅ A y' = yc +
A⋅ yc

Assumptions: Static fluid; ρ = constant; patm on other side; no friction in hinge

For incompressible fluid p = ρ ⋅ g⋅ h where p is gage pressure and h is measured downwards

The force on the vertical section is the same as that on a rectangle of height d and width L

Hence
2 Mg
d ρ ⋅ g⋅ L ⋅ d
F1 = pc⋅ A = ρ⋅ g⋅ yc⋅ A = ρ⋅ g⋅ ⋅ d⋅ L = y’
2 2
y
The location of this force is F1
x
Ixx 3
d L⋅ d 1 2 2 F2
y' = yc + = + × × = ⋅d
A⋅ yc 2 12 L⋅ d d 3

The force on the horizontal section is due to constant pressure, and is at the centroid

F2 = p ( y = d) ⋅ A = ρ⋅ g⋅ d⋅ L⋅ L

L L
Summing moments about the hinge ΣMhinge = 0 = −F1⋅ ( d − y') − F2⋅ + M⋅ g⋅
2 2

F1⋅ ⎛⎜ d −
2 ⎞ L 3 L
Hence ⋅ d⎟ + F2⋅ = SG⋅ ρ⋅ L ⋅ g⋅
⎝ 3 ⎠ 2 2

4 2 3 3
SG⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ L ρ ⋅ g⋅ L ⋅ d d 2 L 1 ⎛ d⎞ d 1 ⎛ 0.5 ⎞ 0.5
= ⋅ + ρ⋅ g⋅ d⋅ L ⋅ SG = ⋅⎜ ⎟ + SG = ⋅⎜ ⎟ + SG = 0.542
2 2 3 2 3 ⎝ L⎠ L 3 ⎝ 1 ⎠ 1
 Problem 3.51 [Difficulty: 4]

Given: Various dam cross-sections

Find: Which requires the least concrete; plot cross-section area A as a function of α

Solution:
For each case, the dam width b has to be large enough so that the weight of the dam exerts enough moment to balance the
moment due to fluid hydrostatic force(s). By doing a moment balance this value of b can be found

a) Rectangular dam

Straightforward application of the computing equations of Section 3-5 yields

D 1 2
FH = p c ⋅ A = ρ⋅ g ⋅ ⋅ w⋅ D = ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ D ⋅ w
2 2 FH
D
Ixx 3
D w⋅ D 2
y' = y c + = + = ⋅D y mg
A⋅ y c 2 D 3
12⋅ w⋅ D⋅
2 O

D
so y = D − y' = b
3

Also m = ρcement⋅ g ⋅ b ⋅ D⋅ w = SG ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ b ⋅ D⋅ w

b
Taking moments about O
∑ M0. = 0 = −FH⋅y + 2 ⋅m⋅g
⎛ 1 ⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ D2⋅ w⎞ ⋅ D = b ⋅ ( SG⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ b⋅ D⋅ w)
so ⎜2
⎝ ⎠ 3 2

D
Solving for b b=
3 ⋅ SG

2
D
The minimum rectangular cross-section area is A = b⋅ D =
3 ⋅ SG

2 2
D D 2
For concrete, from Table A.1, SG = 2.4, so A= = A = 0.373 ⋅ D
3 ⋅ SG 3 × 2.4
b) Triangular dams
FV x
Instead of analysing right-triangles, a general analysis is made, at the end of D
FH
which right triangles are analysed as special cases by setting α = 0 or 1.

Straightforward application of the computing equations of Section 3-5 yields y

m 1g m 2g

O
D 1 2
FH = p c⋅ A = ρ⋅ g ⋅ ⋅ w⋅ D = ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ D ⋅ w αb
2 2 b

Ixx 3
D w⋅ D 2
y' = y c + = + = ⋅D
A⋅ y c 2 D 3
12⋅ w⋅ D⋅
2
D
so y = D − y' =
3

α⋅ b ⋅ D
⋅ α⋅ b = b ⋅ ⎛⎜ 1 −
1 2 α⎞
Also FV = ρ⋅ V⋅ g = ρ⋅ g ⋅ ⋅w = ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ α⋅ b ⋅ D⋅ w x = ( b − α⋅ b ) +
2 2 3 ⎝ 3⎠

For the two triangular masses

2⋅ α ⎞
⋅ α⋅ b = b ⋅ ⎛⎜ 1 −
1 1
m1 = ⋅ SG ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ α⋅ b ⋅ D⋅ w x 1 = ( b − α⋅ b ) +
2 3 ⎝ 3 ⎠
1 2
m2 = ⋅ SG ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ ( 1 − α) ⋅ b ⋅ D⋅ w x2 = ⋅ b ( 1 − α)
2 3

Taking moments about O

∑ M0. = 0 = −FH⋅y + FV⋅x + m1⋅g⋅x1 + m2⋅g⋅x2

−⎛⎜ ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ D ⋅ w⎞ ⋅ + ⎛⎜ ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ α⋅ b ⋅ D⋅ w⎞ ⋅ b ⋅ ⎛⎜ 1 − ⎞ ...
1 2 D 1 α
so =0
⎝2 ⎠ 3 ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛
+ ⎜ ⋅ SG ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ α⋅ b ⋅ D⋅ w ⋅ b ⋅ ⎜ 1 −
2⋅ α ⎞ ⎡ 1
+ ⎢ ⋅ SG ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ ( 1 − α) ⋅ b ⋅ D⋅ w⎤⎥ ⋅ ⋅ b ( 1 − α)
2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎣ 2 ⎦ 3

D
Solving for b b=
(3⋅α − α2) + SG⋅(2 − α)
For a right triangle with the hypotenuse in contact with the water, α = 1 , and

D D
b= = b = 0.477 ⋅ D
3 − 1 + SG 3 − 1 + 2.4

b⋅ D 2 2
The cross-section area is A= = 0.238 ⋅ D A = 0.238 ⋅ D
2

For a right triangle with the vertical in contact with the water, α = 0, and
 D D
b= = b = 0.456 ⋅ D
2 ⋅ SG 2 ⋅ 2.4

b⋅ D 2 2
The cross-section area is A= = 0.228 ⋅ D A = 0.228 ⋅ D
2

2 2
b⋅ D D D
For a general triangle A= = A=
2
2⋅ (3⋅α − α2) + SG⋅(2 − α) 2⋅ (3⋅α − α2) + 2.4⋅(2 − α)
2
D
The final result is A=
2
2 ⋅ 4.8 + 0.6⋅ α − α

The dimensionless area, A /D 2, is plotted

Alpha A /D 2
0.0 0.2282 Dam Cross Section vs Coefficient
0.1 0.2270
Dimensionless Area A /D 2

0.240
0.2 0.2263
0.238
0.3 0.2261
0.4 0.2263 0.236
0.5 0.2270
0.234
0.6 0.2282
0.7 0.2299 0.232
0.8 0.2321 0.230
0.9 0.2349
0.228
1.0 0.2384
0.226
Solver can be used to
0.224
find the minimum area
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Alpha A /D 2 Coefficient
0.300 0.2261

From the Excel workbook, the minimum area occurs at α = 0.3

2
D 2
Amin = A = 0.226 ⋅ D
2
2 ⋅ 4.8 + 0.6 × 0.3 − 0.3

The final results are that a triangular cross-section with α = 0.3 uses the least concrete; the next best is a right triangle with the
vertical in contact with the water; next is the right triangle with the hypotenuse in contact with the water; and the cross-section
requiring the most concrete is the rectangular cross-section.
 Problem 3.52 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Geometry of dam

Find: Vertical force on dam

Assumption: Water is static and incompressible

Solution:
dp
Basic equation: = ρ⋅ g
dh

For incompressible fluid p = patm + ρ⋅ g⋅ h where h is measured downwards from the free surface

The force on each horizontal section (depth d = 0.5 m and width w = 3 m) is

( )
F = p⋅ A = patm + ρ⋅ g⋅ h ⋅ d⋅ w

Hence the total force is

⎣ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ⎦)
FT = ⎡patm + patm + ρ⋅ g⋅ h + patm + ρ⋅ g⋅ 2⋅ h + patm + ρ⋅ 3⋅ g⋅ h + patm + ρ⋅ g⋅ 4⋅ h ⎤ ⋅ d⋅ w

where we have used h as the height of the steps

(
FT = d⋅ w⋅ 5⋅ patm + 10⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ h )
⎛ N⋅ s ⎞⎟
2
FT = 0.5⋅ m × 3⋅ m × ⎜ 5 × 101 × 10 ⋅
3 N kg m
+ 10 × 999⋅ × 9.81⋅ × 0.5⋅ m ×
⎜ 2 3 2 kg⋅ m ⎟
⎝ m m s ⎠

FT = 831⋅ kN
 Problem 3.53 [Difficulty: 2]

3.53 For the dam shown, what is the vertical force of the water
1m

1m
on the dam? 1m

Top

1m1m 2m 1m1m 1m 1m

1m

Water 1m

1m

1m

1m

Front Side

Given: Geometry of dam.

Find: Vertical force on dam.

Assumptions: (1) Water is static and incompressible.

(2) Since we are asked for the force of the water, all pressures will be written as gage.

Solution:

dp
Basic equation: = ρ⋅g
dh

For incompressible fluid p = ρ⋅g ⋅h where p is gage pressure and h is measured downwards from the free
surface.

The force on each horizontal section (depth d and width w) is

F = p⋅A = ρ⋅g ⋅h ⋅d ⋅ w (Note that d and w will change in terms of x and y for each section
of the dam!)

Hence the total force is (allowing for the fact that some faces experience an upwards (negative) force)

FT = p ⋅ A = ∑ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h ⋅ d ⋅ w = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ d ⋅ ∑ h ⋅ w

Starting with the top and working downwards

kg m N ⋅ s2
FT = 1000 3
× 9.81 2 ×1 m × (1 m × 4 m ) + ( 2 m × 2 m ) − ( 3 m × 2 m ) − ( 4 m × 4 m )  ×
m s kg ⋅ m

FT = −137 kN The negative sign indicates a net upwards force (it's actually a buoyancy effect on the three middle
sections).
 Problem 3.54 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Parabolic gate, hinged at O has a constant width.

−2
b = 1.5⋅ m a = 1.0⋅ m D = 1.2⋅ m H = 1.4⋅ m
Find: (a) Magnitude and moment of the vertical force on the gate due to water
(b) Horizontal force applied at A required to maintain equilibrium

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: dp
= ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards)
dh

ΣMz = 0 (Rotational equilibrium)

⌠
⎮
Fv = ⎮ p dAy (Vertical Hydrostatic Force)
⌡
⌠
⎮
x'⋅ Fv = ⎮ x dFv (Moment of vertical force)
⌡
⌠
⎮
y'⋅ FH = ⎮ y dFH (Moment of Horizontal Hydrostatic Force)
⌡

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid y

x’ FA
(2) Incompressible fluid
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts at free surface of water
and on outside of gate H
FV
Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation: p = ρ ⋅ g⋅ h
FH y’
(a) The magnitude and moment of the vertical component of hydrostatic force: x
Oy
Ox
⌠
⎮ ⌠
⎮ 3 2
Fv = p dAy = ρ⋅ g⋅ h⋅ b dx where h = D − y x = a⋅ y dx = 3⋅ a⋅ y ⋅ dy
⎮ ⎮
⌡ ⌡
D D
Substituting back into the relation for the force:
⌠ 2 ⌠
Fv = ⎮ ρ⋅ g⋅ ( D − y) ⋅ b⋅ 3⋅ a⋅ y dy = 3⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ b⋅ a⋅ ⎮
⌡0 ⌡0
(D⋅ y2 − y3) dy

⎛ D4 D4 ⎞ D
4
Evaluating the integral: Fv = 3⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ b⋅ a⋅ ⎜ − ⎟ = ρ⋅ g⋅ b⋅ a⋅
⎝ 3 4 ⎠ 4
Substituting values we calculate the force: y
x’ FA
4 2
kg m 1 ( 1.2⋅ m) N⋅ s
Fv = 999⋅ × 9.81⋅ × 1.5⋅ m × 1.0⋅ × × FV H
3 2 2 4 kg⋅ m
m s m
FH y’
x
Fv = 7.62⋅ kN Oy
Ox

⌠ ⌠
⎮ ⎮
To find the associated moment: x'⋅ Fv = ⎮ x dFv = ⎮ x⋅ p dAy Using the derivation for the force:
⌡ ⌡

D D
⌠ 3 2 2 ⌠
x'⋅ Fv = ⎮ a⋅ y ⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ ( D − y) ⋅ b⋅ 3⋅ a⋅ y dy = 3⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ a ⋅ b⋅ ⎮ (D⋅ y5 − y6) dy Evaluating the integral:
⌡0 ⌡0

2 ⎛ D7 D ⎞
7
3 D
7
x'⋅ Fv = 3⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ a ⋅ b⋅ ⎜ − ⎟ = ⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ a2⋅ b⋅ D7 = ρ⋅ g⋅ a2⋅ b⋅ Now substituting values into this equation:
⎝ 6 7 ⎠ 42 14

2 7 2
× ⎛⎜
kg m 1.0 ⎞ ( 1.20⋅ m) N⋅ s
x'Fv = 999⋅ × 9.81⋅ × 1.5⋅ m × × x'Fv = 3.76⋅ kN⋅ m
2⎟
(positive indicates
3 2 14 kg⋅ m
m s ⎝ ⎠
m counterclockwise)

(b) Horizontal force at A to maintain equilibrium: we take moments at O:

( )
1
x'⋅ FV + y'⋅ FH − H⋅ FA = 0 Solving for the force at A: FA = ⋅ x'⋅ Fv + y'⋅ FH
H

To get the moment of the horizontal hydrostatic force:

D D
⌠
⎮
⌠
⎮
⌠
⎮ ⌠ ⌠ 2
y'⋅ FH = ⎮ y dFH = ⎮ y⋅ p dAx = ⎮ y⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ h⋅ b dy = ρ⋅ g⋅ b⋅ ⎮ y⋅ ( D − y) dy = ρ⋅ g⋅ b⋅ ⎮ D⋅ y − y dy ( )
⌡ ⌡ ⌡ ⌡0 ⌡0

⎛D D ⎞ D
3 3 3
Evaluating the integral: y'⋅ FH = ρ⋅ g⋅ b⋅ ⎜ − ⎟ = ρ⋅ g⋅ b⋅ Now substituting values into this equation:
⎝ 2 3 ⎠ 6

3 2
kg m ( 1.20⋅ m) N⋅ s
y'FH = 999⋅ × 9.81⋅ × 1.5⋅ m × × y'FH = 4.23⋅ kN⋅ m (counterclockwise)
m
3
s
2 6 kg⋅ m

1 1
Therefore: FA = ⋅ ⋅ ( 3.76⋅ kN⋅ m + 4.23⋅ kN⋅ m) FA = 5.71⋅ kN
1.4 m
 Problem 3.55 [Difficulty: 2]

3.55 Liquid concrete is poured into the form (R = 0.313 m). The
form is w = 4.25 m wide normal to the diagram. Compute the
magnitude of the vertical force exerted on the form by the
concrete, and specify its line of action.

Given: Liquid concrete is poured into the form shown:

R = 0.313m w = 4.25 m SG C = 2.5 (Table A.1, App. A)

Find: Magnitude and line of action of the vertical force on the form.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

dp
Governing Equations: = ρ⋅g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards)
dh

Fv = ∫ p dA y (Vertical Hydrostatic Force)

x ' ⋅ Fv = ∫ x dFv (Moment of Vertical Force)

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid

(2) Incompressible fluid
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts at free surface of concrete
and on outside of gate

Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation: p = ρ⋅ g ⋅ h

Fv = ∫ p dA y = ∫ ρ⋅ g ⋅ h ⋅ sin ( θ ) dA where dA = w ⋅ R ⋅ dθ and h = R − y = R − R ⋅ sin ( θ )

π π
Fv = ∫ 2 ρ ⋅ g ( R − R ⋅ sin ( θ ) ) ⋅ w ⋅ R ⋅ sin ( θ ) dθ = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ w ⋅ R 2 ⋅ ∫ 2 sin ( θ ) − ( sin ( θ ) )  dθ
2
Therefore,
0 0  

 π    π
Evaluating the integral: Fv = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ w ⋅ R 2 ⋅  − ( 0 − 1) −  − 0 + ( 0 − 0)  = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ w ⋅ R 2 ⋅ 1 − 
  4    4

kg
The density of concrete is: ρ = 2.5 × 1000
m3

kg m 2  π
Substituting values we calculate the force: Fv = 2.5 ×1000 3
× 9.81 2 × ( 0.313 m ) × 4.25 m ×  1 − 
m s  4
Fv = 2.19 kN
To find the line of action: x ' ⋅ Fv = ∫ x dF v = ∫ x ⋅ p dA y Using the derivation for the force:

π
R ⋅ cos ( θ ) ⋅ρ⋅ g ⋅ ( R − R ⋅ sin ( θ ) ) ⋅ w ⋅ R ⋅ sin ( θ ) dθ = ρ⋅ g ⋅ w ⋅ R 3 ⋅ ∫ 2 sin ( θ ) ⋅ cos ( θ ) − ( sin ( θ ) ) ⋅ cos ( θ )  dθ
2
x '⋅ Fv = ∫
0  

 1 1 R3
Evaluating the integral: x ' ⋅ Fv = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ w ⋅ R 3 ⋅  −  = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ w ⋅ Therefore the line of action of the force is:
 2 3 6

R3
ρ⋅ g ⋅ w ⋅
x '⋅ Fv 6 R 0.313 m
x' = = = Substituting values: x' = x ' = 0.243 m
Fv  π  π  π
ρ⋅ g ⋅ w ⋅ R 2 ⋅ 1 −  6 ⋅ 1 −  6 1 − 
 4  4  4
 Problem 3.56 [Difficulty: 2]

3.56 An open tank is filled with water to the depth indicated.

Atmospheric pressure acts on all outer surfaces of the tank.
Determine the magnitude and line of action of the vertical Water
component of the force of the water on the curved part of the 3m
tank bottom.  1.2 m
3m
3.6 m

Given: Open tank as shown. Width of curved surface b = 3 m.

Find: (a) Magnitude of the vertical force component on the curved surface.
(b) Line of action of the vertical component of the force.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

dp
Governing Equations: =γ (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards)
dh

Fv = − ∫ p dA y (Vertical Hydrostatic Force)

x ' ⋅ Fv = ∫ x dFv (Moment of Vertical Force)

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid

(2) Incompressible fluid
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts at free surface of water
and on outside of wall
1
Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation: p = γ ⋅ h We can define along the surface h = L − (R 2 − x 2 ) 2

We also define the incremental area on the curved surface as: dAy = b ⋅ dx Substituting these into the force
equation we get:

⎡ 2 2⎤
( ) ⎛ π⎞
1
Fv = − ∫ p dA y = − ∫ ⋅ b dx = −γ ⋅ b ⋅ ∫ L − R 2 − x 2 dx = −γ ⋅ b ⋅ R ⋅ ⎜ L − R ⋅ ⎟
R R
⎢ L − (R 2
− x ) ⎥
0 γ .⎣ ⎦ 0 ⎝ 4⎠

⎡ N ⎧ π ⎫⎤
Fv = − ⎢9800 3 × 3 m × 1.2 m × ⎨3 m − 1.2 m × ⎬ ⎥ Fv = 72,590 N
⎣ m ⎩ 4 ⎭⎦

To find the line of action of the force: x '⋅ Fv = ∫ x dFv where (

dFv = −γ ⋅ b ⋅ L − R 2 − x 2 ⋅ dx )
Therefore:
x' =
x '⋅ Fv
Fv
=
⎛
1
π ⎞ ∫0
R
( )
⋅ x ⋅ γ ⋅ b ⋅ L − R 2 − x 2 dx =
⎛
1
π ⎞ ∫0
⋅
R
( )
L ⋅ x − x ⋅ R 2 − x 2 dx
γ ⋅b⋅R ⋅⎜L − R ⋅ ⎟ R ⋅⎜L − R ⋅ ⎟
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 4⎠

Evaluating the integral: 4 ⎛1 1 ⎞ 4⋅ R2 ⎛ L R⎞ 4⋅ R ⎛ L R⎞

x' = ⋅ ⎜ ⋅ L ⋅ R2 − ⋅ R3 ⎟ = ⋅⎜ − ⎟ = ⋅⎜ − ⎟
R ⋅(4⋅ L − π ⋅ R) 2⎝ 3 ⎠ R ⋅ (4 ⋅ L − π ⋅ R) ⎝ 2 3 ⎠ 4 ⋅ L − π ⋅ R ⎝ 2 3 ⎠

4 × 1.2 m ⎛ 3 m 1.2 m ⎞
Substituting known values: x' = ⋅⎜ − ⎟ x′ = 0.64 m
4 × 3 m − π× 1.2 m ⎝ 2 3 ⎠
 Problem 3.57 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Gate formed in the shape of a circular arc has width w. Liquid is water;
depth h = R

Find: (a) Magnitude of the net vertical force component due to fluids acting on the gate
(b) Line of action of the vertical component of the force

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: dp
= ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - y is positive downwards)
dy
⌠
⎮
Fv = −⎮ p dAy (Vertical Hydrostatic Force)
⌡

⌠
⎮
x'⋅ Fv = ⎮ x dFv (Moment of vertical force)
⌡
Assumptions: (1) Static fluid
(2) Incompressible fluid
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts at free surface of water
and on outside of gate

Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation: p = ρ ⋅ g⋅ y

Instead of y, we use θ as our variable of integration: y = R⋅ sin ( θ)

Therefore, dy = R⋅ cos ( θ) ⋅ dθ In addition, dAy = w⋅ R⋅ sin ( θ) ⋅ dθ

π π
⌠2 ⌠2 2
⎮ 2 ⎮ 2 2 π π ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ R ⋅ w
Therefore, Fv = −⎮ ρ⋅ g⋅ R⋅ sin ( θ) ⋅ w⋅ R⋅ sin ( θ) dθ = −ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ ⎮ ( sin ( θ) ) dθ = −ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ Fv = −
⌡0 ⌡0 4 4
(negative indicates downward)

⌠
⎮
To find the line of action of the vertical component of the force: x'⋅ Fv = x dFv where x = R⋅ cos ( θ) and the elemental force is
⎮
⌡

2 2
dFv = −ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ ( sin ( θ) ) ⋅ dθ Substituting into the above integral yields:

π π
x'⋅ Fv ⌠2 ⌠2
4 ⎮ 4⋅ R ⎮ 4⋅ R 1 4⋅ R
⋅ ⎮ −( R⋅ cos ( θ) ) ⋅ ⎡⎣ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ ( sin ( θ) ) ⎤⎦ dθ =
2 2 2
x' = =− ⋅ ⎮ ( sin ( θ) ) ⋅ cos ( θ) dθ = ⋅ x' =
Fv 2 ⌡0 π ⌡0 π 3 3⋅ π
π ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ R ⋅ w
 Problem 3.58 [Difficulty: 3]

3.58 A dam is to be constructed using the cross-section 0.7 m

A = 0.4 m
B = 0.9 m2
shown. Assume the dam width is w = 50 m. For water Water
height H = 2.5 m. Calculate the magnitude and line of
action of the vertical force of water on the dam face. Is it xy – Ay = B
possible for water forces to overturn this dam? Under what 3m H = 2.5 m
circumstances will this happen?
y
x

2.2 m 0.5 m

Given: Dam with cross-section shown. Width of dam w = 50 m.

Find: (a) Magnitude and line of action of the vertical force component on the dam.
(b) If it is possible for the water to overturn dam.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

dp
Governing Equations: = ρ⋅g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards from
dh
free surface)

Fv = ∫ p dA y (Vertical Hydrostatic Force)

FH = pc ⋅ A (Horizontal Hydrostatic Force)

x '⋅ Fv = ∫ x dFv (Moment of Vertical Force)

Ixx
h ' = hc + (Line of Action of Vertical Force)
hc ⋅A

∑ Mz = 0 (Rotational Equilibrium)

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid

(2) Incompressible fluid
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts at free surface of water
and on outside of dam

Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation: p = ρ⋅g⋅h

xB xB
Into the vertical force equation: Fv = ∫ p dA y = ∫ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h ⋅ b dx=ρ ⋅ g ⋅ b ⋅ ∫ (H − y) dx
xA xA

0.9 m 2
From the definition of the dam contour: x⋅ y − A⋅ y = B Therefore: y = B and x A = + 0.9 m x A = 0.76 m
x −A 2.5 m
xB  B    xB − A 
Into the force equation: Fv = ρ⋅ g ⋅ b ⋅ ∫  H −  dx = ρ⋅ g ⋅ b ⋅ H ⋅ ( xB − xA ) − B⋅ ln   Substituting known values:
xA
 x−A   xA − A 
 kg m  2  2.2 − 0.4   N ⋅ S
2
Fv = 999 × 9.81 × 50 m ×  2.5 m × ( 2.2 − 0.76 ) m − 0.9 m × ln   Fv = 1.05 × 106 N
m3 S2   0.76 − 0.4   kg ⋅ m

To find the line of action of the force: where  B 

Therefore:
x′ ⋅ Fv = ∫ x dFv dFv = ρ⋅ g ⋅ b ⋅  H −  ⋅ dx
 x−A

x '⋅Fv 1 xB  B  1 xB  B⋅ x 
Fv ∫x A ∫
x' = = ⋅ x ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ b ⋅  H −  dx = ⋅ H⋅x −  dx
Fv  x−A  x −A  xA
 x−A
H ⋅ ( x B − x A ) − B ⋅ ln  B 
 xA − A 

H⋅ x 2 −x 2 −B⋅ x −x −BA  x −A 
2( B A )
( B A ) ⋅ ⋅ ln  B 
 xA −A 
Evaluating the integral: x′ = Substituting known values we get:
 xB −A 
H⋅( xB −xA )−B⋅ ln  
 xA −A 

2.5 m  2.2 − 0.4 

x' = × ( 2.22 − 0.762 ) m 2 − 0.9 m 2 × ( 2.2 − 0.76 ) m − 0.9 m 2 × 0.4 m × ln   x' = 1.61 m
2  0.76 − 0.4 

To determine whether or not the water can overturn the dam, we need the horizontal force and its line of action:

H ρ ⋅ g ⋅ b ⋅ H2
FH = pc ⋅ A = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ⋅H⋅b =
2 2

1 kg m 2
Substituting values: FH = × 999 3 × 9.81 2 × 50m × ( 2.5m ) FH = 1.53 × 106 N
2 m S

I xx H b ⋅ H3
For the line of action: h ' = hc + where hc = A = H⋅b I xx =
hc ⋅ A 2 12

H b ⋅ H3 2 1 H H 2 2
Therefore: h' = + ⋅ ⋅ = + = ⋅H h' = ⋅ 2.5 m h ' = 1.67 m
2 12 H b ⋅ H 2 6 3 3

Taking moments of the hydrostatic forces about the origin:

M w = FH ⋅ ( H − h' ) − Fv ⋅ x ' Mw = 1.53 ×106 N × ( 2.5 − 1.67) m −1.05 ×106 N ×1.61m M w = −0.4206 ×106 N ⋅ m

The negative sign indicates that this is a clockwise moment about the origin. Since the weight of the dam will also
contribute a clockwise moment about the origin, these two moments should not cause the dam to tip to the left.

Therefore, the water cannot overturn the dam.

 Problem 3.59 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Tainter gate as shown w = 35⋅ m

Find: Force of the water acting on the gate

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: dp
= ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards from
dh free surface)

dF = p ⋅ dA (Hydrostatic Force)

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid

(2) Incompressible fluid
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts at free surface of water
and on outside of gate

Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation:

p = ρ⋅ g⋅ h = ρ⋅ g⋅ R⋅ sin( θ)

Resolving the hydrostatic force into horizontal and vertical components:

dFH = dF⋅ cos ( θ) = p⋅ dA⋅ cos ( θ) = ρ⋅ g⋅ R⋅ sin ( θ) ⋅ w⋅ R⋅ dθ⋅ cos ( θ) since dA = w⋅ R⋅ dθ

θ1
⌠
where θ1 = asin ⎛⎜
2 10⋅ m ⎞
Integrating this expression: FH = ⎮ ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ sin ( θ) ⋅ cos ( θ) dθ ⎟ = 30⋅ deg
⌡0 ⎝ 20⋅ m ⎠

30⋅ deg 2 2
2 ⌠ 2 ( sin ( 30⋅ deg) ) ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w
FH = ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ ⎮ sin ( θ) ⋅ cos ( θ) dθ = ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ = Substituting known values:
⌡0 2 8

2
1 kg m 2 N⋅ s 7
FH = × 999⋅ × 9.81⋅ × ( 20⋅ m) × 35⋅ m × FH = 1.715 × 10 ⋅ N
8 3 2 kg⋅ m
m s

2 2
Similarly, we can calculate the vertical component of the hydrostatic force: dFv = dF⋅ sin ( θ) = p⋅ dA⋅ sin ( θ) = ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ ( sin ( θ) ) ⋅ dθ

30⋅ deg
2 ⌠ 2 2 ⎛π 3⎞
F v = ρ ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w ⋅ ⎮ ( sin ( θ) ) dθ = ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ ⎜ − ⎟ Substituting known values:
⌡0 ⎝ 12 8 ⎠

2
⎛π 3⎞ kg m 2 N⋅ s 6
Fv = ⎜ − ⎟ × 999⋅ 3 × 9.81⋅ 2 × ( 20⋅ m) × 35⋅ m × Fv = 6.21 × 10 ⋅ N
⎝ 12 8 ⎠ m s
kg ⋅m
Now since the gate surface in contact with the water is a circular arc, all elements dF of the force, and hence the line of action of the resulta
must pass through the pivot. Thus:

Magnitude of the resultant force:

FR =
2
FH + Fv
2
FR = (1.715 × 107⋅ N)2 + (6.21 × 106⋅ N)2 FR = 1.824 × 10 N
7

The line of action of the force:

⎛ Fv ⎞ ⎛ 6.21 × 106⋅ N ⎞
α = atan ⎜ ⎟ α = atan ⎜ ⎟ α = 19.9⋅ deg
⎝ FH ⎠ ⎜ 1.715 × 107⋅ N ⎟
⎝ ⎠
The force passes through the pivot at an
angle α to the horizontal.
 Problem 3.60 [Difficulty: 4]

Given: Sphere with different fluids on each side

Find: Resultant force and direction

Solution:
The horizontal and vertical forces due to each fluid are treated separately. For each, the horizontal force is equivalent to that
on a vertical flat plate; the vertical force is equivalent to the weight of fluid "above".

For horizontal forces, the computing equation of Section 3-5 is FH = pc⋅ A where A is the area of the equivalent vertical
plate.
For vertical forces, the computing equation of Section 3-5 is FV = ρ⋅ g⋅ V where V is the volume of fluid above the curved
surface.
kg
The data is For water ρ = 999⋅
3
m
For the fluids SG1 = 1.6 SG2 = 0.8

For the weir D = 3⋅ m L = 6⋅ m

(a) Horizontal Forces

FH1 = pc⋅ A = ⎛⎜ ρ1⋅ g⋅ ⎟⎞ ⋅ D⋅ L = ⋅ SG1⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ D ⋅ L

D 1 2
For fluid 1 (on the left)
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
2
1 kg m 2 N⋅ s
FH1 = ⋅ 1.6⋅ 999⋅ ⋅ 9.81⋅ ⋅ ( 3⋅ m) ⋅ 6⋅ m⋅ FH1 = 423⋅ kN
2 3 2 kg⋅ m
m s

FH2 = pc⋅ A = ⎛⎜ ρ2⋅ g⋅ ⎟⎞ ⋅ ⋅ L = ⋅ SG2⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ D ⋅ L

D D 1 2
For fluid 2 (on the right)
⎝ 4⎠ 2 8

2
1 kg m 2 N⋅ s
FH2 = ⋅ 0.8⋅ 999⋅ ⋅ 9.81⋅ ⋅ ( 3⋅ m) ⋅ 6⋅ m⋅ FH2 = 52.9⋅ kN
8 3 2 kg⋅ m
m s

The resultant horizontal force is FH = FH1 − FH2 FH = 370⋅ kN

(b) Vertical forces

For the left geometry, a "thought experiment" is needed to obtain surfaces with fluid "above"
 2
π⋅ D
4
Hence FV1 = SG1⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ ⋅L
2

2 2
kg m π⋅ ( 3⋅ m) N⋅ s
FV1 = 1.6 × 999⋅ × 9.81⋅ × × 6⋅ m × FV1 = 333⋅ kN
3 2 8 kg⋅ m
m s

(Note: Use of buoyancy leads to the same result!)

For the right side, using a similar logic

2
π⋅ D
4
FV2 = SG2⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ ⋅L
4

2 2
kg m π⋅ ( 3⋅ m) N⋅ s
FV2 = 0.8 × 999⋅ × 9.81⋅ × × 6⋅ m × FV2 = 83.1⋅ kN
3 2 16 kg⋅ m
m s

The resultant vertical force is FV = FV1 + FV2 FV = 416⋅ kN

Finally the resultant force and direction can be computed

2 2
F = FH + FV F = 557⋅ kN

⎛ FV ⎞
α = atan ⎜ ⎟ α = 48.3⋅ deg
⎝ FH ⎠
 Problem 3.61 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Cylindrical weir as shown; liquid is water

Find: Magnitude and direction of the resultant force of the water on the weir

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: dp
= ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards from
dh free surface)
⎯→ ⎯
→
dFR = −p ⋅ dA (Hydrostatic Force)

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid

(2) Incompressible fluid
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts on free surfaces and on the
first quadrant of the cylinder

Using the coordinate system shown in the diagram at the right: h1 y

θ x
D1
⎯
→→ ⌠ →→ ⌠ ⌠ h2
⎮ ⎮ ⎮ D2
FRx = FR⋅ i = −⎮ p dA⋅ i = −⎮ p ⋅ cos ( θ + 90⋅ deg) dA = ⎮ p ⋅ sin( θ) dA
⌡ ⌡ ⌡

⎯
→→ ⌠ →→ ⌠
⎮ ⎮
FRy = FR⋅ j = −⎮ p dA⋅ j = −⎮ p⋅ cos ( θ) dA Now since dA = L⋅ R⋅ dθ it follows that
⌡ ⌡

3⋅ π 3⋅ π
⌠ 2 ⌠ 2
⎮ ⎮
FRx = ⎮ p⋅ L⋅ R⋅ sin ( θ) dθ and FRy = −⎮ p⋅ L⋅ R⋅ cos ( θ) dθ
⌡0 ⌡0

Next, we integrate the hydrostatic pressure equation: p = ρ ⋅ g⋅ h Now over the range 0≤θ≤π h1 = R ( 1 − cos ( θ) )
3⋅ π
Over the range π≤θ≤ h2 = −R⋅ cos ( θ)
2

Therefore we can express the pressure in terms of θ and substitute into the force equations:

3⋅ π 3⋅ π
⌠ 2 π ⌠ 2
⎮ ⌠ ⎮
FRx = ⎮ p⋅ L⋅ R⋅ sin ( θ) dθ = ⎮ ρ⋅ g⋅ R⋅ ( 1 − cos ( θ) ) ⋅ L⋅ R⋅ sin ( θ) dθ − ⎮ ρ⋅ g⋅ R⋅ cos ( θ) ⋅ L⋅ R⋅ sin ( θ) dθ
⌡0 ⌡0 ⌡π

3⋅ π
π ⌠ 2
2 ⌠ 2 ⎮
FRx = ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ L⋅ ⎮ ( 1 − cos ( θ) ) ⋅ sin ( θ) dθ − ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ L⋅ ⎮ cos ( θ) ⋅ sin ( θ) dθ
⌡0 ⌡π
 ⎡ 3⋅ π ⎤
⎢ π ⌠ 2 ⎥
2 ⎢⌠ ⎮ ⎥ 2 ⎛ 1⎞ 3 2
FRx = ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ L⋅ ⎮ ( 1 − cos ( θ) ) ⋅ sin ( θ) dθ − ⎮ cos ( θ) ⋅ sin ( θ) dθ = ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ L⋅ ⎜ 2 − ⎟ = ⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ L
⎢⌡ ⌡ ⎥ ⎝ 2⎠ 2
⎣ 0 π ⎦
2
3 kg m 2 N⋅ s
Substituting known values: FRx = × 999⋅ × 9.81⋅ × ( 1.5⋅ m) × 6⋅ m × FRx = 198.5⋅ kN
2 3 2 kg⋅ m
m s

Similarly we can calculate the vertical force component:

3⋅ π ⎡ 3⋅ π ⎤
⌠ 2 ⎢ π ⌠ 2 ⎥
⎮ ⎢⌠ ⎮ ⎥
FRy = −⎮ p⋅ L⋅ R⋅ cos ( θ) dθ = − ⎮ ρ⋅ g⋅ R⋅ ( 1 − cos ( θ) ) ⋅ L⋅ R⋅ cos ( θ) dθ − ⎮ ρ⋅ g⋅ R⋅ cos ( θ) ⋅ L⋅ R⋅ cos ( θ) dθ
⌡0 ⎢⌡ ⌡ ⎥
⎣ 0 π ⎦

⎡ 3⋅ π ⎤
⎢ π ⌠ 2 ⎥
2 ⎢⌠ ⎮ 2 ⎥
( cos ( θ) ) dθ = ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ L⋅ ⎛⎜ +
2 π 3⋅ π π ⎞ 3⋅ π 2
FRy = −ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ L⋅ ⎮ ( 1 − cos ( θ) ) ⋅ cos ( θ) dθ − ⎮ − ⎟ = ⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ L
⎢⌡ ⌡ ⎥ ⎝ 2 4 2 ⎠ 4
⎣ 0 π ⎦

2
3⋅ π kg m 2 N⋅ s
Substituting known values: FRy = × 999⋅ × 9.81⋅ × ( 1.5⋅ m) × 6⋅ m × FRy = 312⋅ kN
4 3 2 kg⋅ m
m s

Now since the weir surface in contact with the water is a circular arc, all elements dF of the force, and hence the line of action of the
resultant force, must pass through the pivot. Thus:

2 2
Magnitude of the resultant force: FR = ( 198.5⋅ kN) + ( 312⋅ kN) FR = 370⋅ kN

α = atan ⎛⎜
312⋅ kN ⎞
The line of action of the force: ⎟ α = 57.5⋅ deg
⎝ 198.5⋅ kN ⎠
 Problem 3.62 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Cylindrical log floating against dam

Find: (a) Mass per unit length of the log (b) Contact force per unit length between log and dam

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: dp
= ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards from
dh free surface)
⎯
→ ⎯
→
dF = p ⋅ dA (Hydrostatic Force)

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid

(2) Incompressible fluid dFH
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts on free surfaces and on the R = D/2
first quadrant of the log dFV
dF θ
h
Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation: p = ρ⋅ g⋅ h = ρ⋅ g⋅ R⋅ ( 1 − cos ( θ) )

Resolving the incremental force into horizontal and vertical components:

2
dF = p ⋅ dA = p ⋅ w⋅ R⋅ dθ = ρ⋅ g⋅ R⋅ ( 1 − cos ( θ) ) ⋅ w⋅ R⋅ dθ = ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ ( 1 − cos ( θ) )

2 2
dFH = dF⋅ sin( θ) = ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ ( 1 − cos ( θ) ) ⋅ dθ⋅ sin( θ) dFv = dF⋅ cos ( θ) = ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ ( 1 − cos ( θ) ) ⋅ dθ⋅ cos ( θ)

Integrating the expression for the horizontal force will provide us with the contact force per unit length:
3⋅ π 3⋅ π
⌠ 2 ⌠ 2 2
⎮ 2 ⎮
( sin( θ) − sin( θ) ⋅ cos ( θ) ) dθ = ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ ⎛⎜ − + 1 ⎞⎟ =
2 2 1 ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w
FH = ⎮ ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ ( 1 − cos ( θ) ) ⋅ sin( θ) dθ = ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ ⎮
⌡0 ⌡0 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2

FH 2
ρ⋅ g⋅ R
Therefore: =
w 2
Integrating the expression for the vertical force will provide us with the mass per unit length of the log:

3⋅ π 3⋅ π
⌠ 2 ⌠ 2
⎮ 2 ⎮
( 1 − cos ( θ) ) ⋅ cos ( θ) dθ = ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ ⎛⎜ −1 −
2 2 3⋅ π ⎞
Fv = ⎮ ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ ( 1 − cos ( θ) ) ⋅ cos ( θ) dθ = ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ w⋅ ⎮ ⎟
⌡0 ⌡0 ⎝ 4 ⎠

Fv Fv Fv
= −ρ⋅ g⋅ R ⋅ ⎛⎜ 1 +
2 3⋅ π ⎞ m m
Therefore: ⎟ From a free-body diagram for the log: ΣFy = 0 − ⋅g − =0 =−
w ⎝ 4 ⎠ w w w w⋅ g

= ρ⋅ R ⋅ ⎛⎜ 1 +
m 2 3⋅ π ⎞
Solving for the mass of the log: ⎟
w ⎝ 4 ⎠
 Problem 3.63 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Curved surface, in shape of quarter cylinder, with given radius R and width w; water stands to depth H.
R = 0.750⋅ m w = 3.55⋅ m H = 0.650⋅ m

Find: Magnitude and line of action of (a) vertical force and (b) horizontal force on the curved
surface

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: dp
= ρ⋅ g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards from
dh free surface)
⌠
⎮
Fv = ⎮ p dAy (Vertical Hydrostatic Force)
⌡

FH = pc⋅ A (Horizontal Hydrostatic Force)

⌠
⎮
x'⋅ Fv = ⎮ x dFv (Moment of vertical force)
⌡
Ixx
h' = hc + (Line of action of horizontal force)
hc⋅ A

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid dF

(2) Incompressible fluid
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts on free surface of the
water and on the left side of the curved surface R H
θ h
Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation: p = ρ ⋅ g⋅ h

From the geometry: h = H − R⋅ sin ( θ) y = R⋅ sin ( θ) x = R⋅ cos ( θ) dA = w⋅ R⋅ dθ x’

FV dF

θ1 = asin ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ θ1 = asin ⎛⎜
H 0.650 ⎞
⎟ θ1 = 1.048⋅ rad
⎝R⎠ ⎝ 0.750 ⎠ h’
R FH H
θ y’
Therefore the vertical component of the hydrostatic force is:

1 θ
⌠
⎮ ⌠
⎮ ⌠
Fv = p dAy = ρ⋅ g⋅ h⋅ sin ( θ) dA = ⎮ ρ⋅ g⋅ ( H − R⋅ sin ( θ) ) ⋅ sin ( θ) ⋅ w⋅ R dθ
⎮ ⎮ ⌡0
⌡ ⌡

( )
θ
⌠ 1 ⎡ ⎛ θ1 sin 2⋅ θ1 ⎞⎤
Fv = ρ⋅ g⋅ w⋅ R⋅ ⎮ ⎡⎣H⋅ sin ( θ) − R⋅ ( sin ( θ) ) ⎤⎦ dθ = ρ⋅ g⋅ w⋅ R⋅ ⎢H⋅ 1 − cos θ1 − R⋅ ⎜
( ( ))
2
− ⎟⎥
⌡0 ⎣ ⎝2 4 ⎠⎦
 2
Fv = 999⋅
kg
× 9.81⋅
m ⎡
× 3.55⋅ m × 0.750⋅ m × ⎢0.650⋅ m × ( 1 − cos ( 1.048⋅ rad) ) − 0.750⋅ m × ⎜
⎛ 1.048 − sin ( 2 × 1.048⋅ rad) ⎞⎤ × N⋅ s
⎟⎥
m
3
s
2 ⎣ ⎝ 2 4 ⎠⎦ kg⋅ m

Fv = 2.47⋅ kN

To calculate the line of action of this force:

1 θ
⌠ 2⌠ ⎡
⎮
⎣H⋅ sin ( θ) ⋅ cos ( θ) − R⋅ ( sin ( θ) ) ⋅ cos ( θ)⎤⎦ dθ
2
x'⋅ Fv = ⎮ R⋅ cos ( θ) ⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ h⋅ sin ( θ) dA = ρ⋅ g⋅ w⋅ R ⋅ ⎮
⌡ ⌡0

Evaluating the integral: x'⋅ Fv = ρ⋅ g⋅ w⋅ R ⋅ ⎡⎢ ⋅ sin θ1 − ⋅ sin θ1 ⎥⎤

( ( )) ( ( ))
2 H 2 R 3
Therefore we may find the line of action:
⎣ 2 3 ⎦

x'⋅ Fv ρ ⋅ g⋅ w ⋅ R
2
⎡H 3⎤
( ( )) ( ( )) ( )
2 R 0.650
x' = = ⋅ ⎢ ⋅ sin θ1 − ⋅ sin θ1 ⎥ Substituting in known values: sin θ1 =
Fv Fv ⎣ 2 3 ⎦ 0.750

kg m 2 1 ⎡ 0.650⋅ m ⎛ 0.650 ⎞ 2 0.750⋅ m ⎛ 0.650 ⎞ 3⎤ N⋅ s2

1
x' = 999⋅ × 9.81⋅ × 3.55⋅ m × ( 0.750⋅ m) × ⋅ ×⎢ ×⎜ ⎟ − ×⎜ ⎟ ⎥×
2.47 × 10 N ⎣ 2 ⎝ 0.750 ⎠ ⎝ 0.750 ⎠ ⎦ kg⋅ m
3 2 3 3
m s
x' = 0.645 m
2
H ρ⋅ g⋅ H ⋅ w
For the horizontal force: FH = pc⋅ A = ρ⋅ g⋅ hc⋅ H⋅ w = ρ⋅ g⋅ ⋅ H⋅ w =
2 2

2
1 kg m 2 N⋅ s
FH = × 999⋅ × 9.81⋅ × ( 0.650⋅ m) × 3.55⋅ m × FH = 7.35⋅ kN
2 3 2 kg⋅ m
m s

Ixx 3
w⋅ H
For the line of action of the horizontal force: h' = hc + where Ixx = A = w⋅ H Therefore:
hc⋅ A 12

Ixx 3
w⋅ H 2 1
H H H 2 2
h' = hc + = + ⋅ ⋅ = + = ⋅H h' = × 0.650⋅ m h' = 0.433 m
hc⋅ A 2 12 H w⋅ H 2 6 3 3
 Problem 3.64 [Difficulty: 3]

3.64 A curved submerged surface, in the shape of a quarter

cylinder with radius R = 0.3 m is shown. The form can
withstand a maximum vertical load of 1.6 kN before breaking.
The width is w = 1.25 m. Find the maximum depth H to which
the form may be filled. Find the line of action of the vertical
force for this condition. Plot the results over the range of
concrete depth 0 ≤ H ≤ R.

Given: Curved surface, in shape of quarter cylinder, with given radius R and width w; liquid concrete
stands to depth H.

R = 1.25 m w = 0.3 m Fv max = 1.6 kN SG = 2.50 From Table A.1, App A

Find: (a) Maximum depth of concrete to avoid cracking.

(b) Line of action on the form.
(c) Plot the vertical force and line of action over H ranging from 0 to R.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

dp
Governing Equations: = ρ⋅g (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards from free surface)
dh
FV = ∫ p dA y (Vertical Hydrostatic Force)
x ' ⋅ FV = ∫ x dFV (Moment of Vertical Force)

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid

(2) Incompressible fluid
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts on free surface of the concrete

Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation: p = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h

From the geometry: y = R ⋅ sin(θ) x = R ⋅ cos(θ) h=y−d d=R−H dA = w ⋅ R ⋅ dθ

Therefore the vertical component of the hydrostatic force is:

π
d
FV = ∫ p dA y = ∫ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h ⋅ sin(θ) dA = ∫ 2 ρ ⋅ g ⋅ (R ⋅ sin(θ) − d) ⋅ sin(θ) ⋅ w ⋅ R dθ where θ1 = a sin  
θ1
R

π
 π θ sin(2.θ1 )  
Fv = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ w ⋅ R ⋅ ∫ 2  R ⋅ (sin( θ )) 2 − d ⋅ (sin( θ ))  d θ = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ w ⋅ R ⋅  R ⋅ − 1 +  − d ⋅ cos ( θ1 )  In terms of H:
θ1
 4 2 4  

R−H R 2 − (R − H)2 2 ⋅ R ⋅ H - H2 2 ⋅ (R − H) ⋅ 2 ⋅ R ⋅ H − H 2
sin ( θ1 ) = cos ( θ1 ) = = sin ( 2 ⋅ θ1 ) = 2 ⋅ sin ( θ1 ) ⋅ cos ( θ1 ) =
R R R R2

   H   This equation can be

  π a sin  1 − R  (R − H ) ⋅ 2 ⋅ R ⋅ H - H 2  2 ⋅ R ⋅ H - H 2  solved iterative for H:
FV = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ w ⋅ R ⋅  R ⋅ −   +  − (R − H ) ⋅
 4 2 2R 2  R 
    H = 0.236 m.
   
To calculate the line of action of this force:

π
x '⋅ FV = ∫ x ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h ⋅ sin(θ) dA = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ R 2 ⋅ w ⋅∫ 2  R ⋅ (sin(θ))2 ⋅ cos(θ) − d ⋅ sin(θ) ⋅ cos(θ)  dθ
θ1  

R  3 d 2
Evaluating the integral:
 3 
( ( ))
x '⋅ Fv = ρ⋅ g ⋅ R 2 ⋅ w ⋅  ⋅  1 − sin θ
1  − ⋅ cos θ1 
 2
( ( ))


x '⋅ Fv ρ ⋅g ⋅R2 ⋅w R  3 d 2
Therefore we may find the line of action: x'=
Fv
=
Fv
⋅  ⋅  1 − sin θ
 3 
1( ( ))  2
( ( ))
 − ⋅ co s θ1 


0.3 − 0.236
Substituting in known values: ( )
sin θ = = 0.213 cos θ = 1 − 0.2132 = 0.977
( )
1 0.3 1

 kg  m 1  0.3 m  0.064 m 
x ' =  2.5 × 1000 2
 × 9.81 2 × (0.3 m ) × 1.25 m × × × 1 − (0.213)3  − × (0.977) 2 
 3
m  s 1.6 × 10 3
N  3   2 

x ' = 0.118 m

We may use the equations we developed above to plot the vertical force and line of action as a function of the height
of the concrete in the
 Problem 3.65 [Difficulty: 3]

3.65 The2 cross-sectional shape−1of a canoe is modeled by the curve

y = ax , where a = 3.89 m and the coordinates are in feet.
Assume the width of the canoe is constant at w = 0.6 m over its
entire length L = 5.25 m. Set up a general algebraic expression
relating the total mass of the canoe and its con- tents to distance d
between the water surface and the gun- wale of the floating
canoe. Calculate the maximum total mass allowable without
swamping the canoe.

Given: Model cross section of canoe as a parabola. Assume constant width W over entire length L.

y = a ⋅ x2 a = 3.89 m −1 W = 0.6 m L = 5.25 m

Find: Expression relating the total mass of canoe and contents to distance d. Determine maximum
allowable total mass without swamping the canoe.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: dp (Hydrostatic Pressure - h is positive downwards from free surface)

= ρ ⋅g
dh

Fv = ∫ p dA y
(Vertical Hydrostatic Force)

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid.

(2) Incompressible fluid.
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts on free surface of the water and inner
surface of the canoe.

At any value of d the weight of the canoe and its contents is balanced by the net vertical force of the water on the
canoe.

Integrating the hydrostatic pressure equation: p = ρ⋅ g ⋅ h

Fv = ∫ p dA y = ∫ ρ⋅ g ⋅ h ⋅ L dx where h = (H − d) − y

To determine the upper limit of integration we remember that y = a·x2 At the surface

y=H–d Therefore, x = H − d and so the vertical force is:

a
 2 
3
3

( H − d ) − a ⋅ x 2  dx = 2 ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ L ⋅  ( H − d ) − a ⋅  ( H − d )  
H−d H−d 2
FV = 2 ⋅ ∫ a
ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ( H − d ) − a ⋅ x 2  ⋅ L dx = 2 ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ L ⋅ ∫ a
     
0   0
a 3  a  

 
3
( H − d ) 2 ⋅ 1 − 1  = 4 ⋅ρ⋅ g ⋅ L ⋅ 3
4 ⋅ρ⋅ L 3
Upon simplification: FV = 2 ⋅ρ⋅ g ⋅ L ⋅   ( H − d) 2 = M ⋅ g or M = ⋅ ( H − d) 2
a 3 3 a 3 a
where M is the mass of the canoe.
 4 kg m 3
The limit for no swamping is d=0, and so: M = × 999 × 5.25 m × × ( 0.35 m ) 2 M = 734 kg
3 m3 3.89

4 kg m 3
This leaves us no margin, so if we set d = 0.05 m we get M= × 999 × 5.25 m × × ( 0.30 m ) 2
3 m3 3.89
M = 583 kg

Clearly the answer is highly dependent upon the allowed risk of swamping!
 Problem 3.66 [Difficulty: 4]

3.66 A canoe is represented by a right semicircular cylinder,

with R = 0.35 m and L = 5.25 m. The canoe floats in water that
is d = 0.245 m deep. Set up a general algebraic expression for
the total mass (canoe and contents) that can be floated, as a
function of depth. Evaluate for the given conditions. Plot the
results over the range of water depth 0 ≤ d ≤ R.

Given: Canoe, modeled as a right semicircular cylindrical shell, floats in water of depth d. The shell has
outer radius R and leng

R = 0.35 m L = 5.25 m d = 0.245 m

Find: (a) General expression for the maximum total mass that can be floated, as a function of depth.
(b) Evaluate for the given conditions.
(c) Plot for range of water depth between 0 and R.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

dp
Governing Equations: = ρ⋅g (Hydrostatic Pressure - y is positive downwards from free surface)
dy
Fv = ∫ p dA y (Vertical Hydrostatic Force)

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid.

(2) Incompressible fluid.
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts on free surface of the liquid.

y is a function of θ for a given depth d: y = d − (R − R ⋅ cos(θ)) = d − R + R ⋅ cos(θ)

(R − d) 
The maximum value of θ: θmax = a cos  
 R 

A free-body diagram of the canoe gives: ∑ Fy = 0 = M ⋅ g − Fv where Fv is the vertical force of the water on
the canoe.

θmax θmax
Fv = ∫ p dA y = ∫ p ⋅ cos ( θ ) dA = ∫ ρ⋅ g ⋅ y ⋅ L ⋅ R ⋅ cos(θ)dθ = 2 ⋅ρ⋅ g ⋅ L ⋅ R ⋅ ∫ (d − R + R ⋅ cos(θ)) ⋅ cos(θ) dθ
−θ max 0

θmax   θmax sin ( 2 ⋅ θmax )  

Fv = 2 ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ L ⋅ R ⋅ ∫ (d − R) ⋅ cos(θ) + R ⋅ (cos(θ))  dθ = 2 ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ L ⋅ R ⋅ ( d − R ) ⋅ sin ( θmax ) + R ⋅  2 +
2

 4  
0


Fv  θ sin ( 2 ⋅ θ max )  
Since M= it follows that M = 2 ⋅ρ⋅ L ⋅ R ⋅ ( d − R ) ⋅ sin ( θ max ) + R ⋅  max + 
g   2 4  
For R = 0.35 m L = 5.25 m and d = 0.245 m we can determine the mass:
 ( 0.35 − 0.245 ) 
θmax = a cos   θmax = 72.5° = 0.403π
 0.35 

kg   0.403π sin(2 × 72.5o )  

M = 2 × 999 × 5.25 m × 0.35 m ×  ( 0.245 − 0.35 ) m × sin(72.5) + 0.35 m ×  + 
m3   2 4 
M = 631 kg

When we enter the values of d/R into the expressions for θmax and M, we get the following graph:
 Problem 3.67 [Difficulty: 4]

3.67 A glass observation room is to be installed at the corner of

the bottom of an aquarium. The aquarium is filled with seawater
to a depth of 10 m. The glass is a segment of a sphere, radius
1.5 m, mounted symmetrically in the corner. Compute the
magnitude and direction of the net force on the glass structure.

Given: Geometry of glass observation room.

Find: Resultant force and direction.

Assumptions: Water in aquarium is static and incompressible.

Solution:
The x, y and z components of force due to the fluid are treated separately. For the x, y components, the horizontal
force is equivalent to that on a vertical flat plate; for the z component, (vertical force) the force is equivalent to the
weight of fluid above.

For horizontal forces, the computing equation of Section 3-5 is FH = pc ⋅ A where A is the area of the equivalent
vertical plate.

For the vertical force, the computing equation of Section 3-5 is FV = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ V where V is the volume of fluid above
the curved surface.
kg
The data are For water ρ = 999
m3
For the fluid (Table A.2) SG = 1.025

For the aquarium R = 1.5 m H = 10 m

(a) Horizontal Forces

Consider the x component

4⋅R
The center of pressure of the glass is yc = H − yc = 9.36 m
3⋅ π
π⋅ R2
Hence FHx = pc ⋅ A = ( SG ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ yc ) ⋅
4

π (1.5m )
2
kg m
FHx = 1.025 × 999 3 × 9.81 2 × 9.36 m × FHx = 166 kN
m s 4

The y component is of the same magnitude as the x component

FHy = FHx FHy = 166 kN

The resultant horizontal force (at 45° to the x and y axes) is

FH = FHx 2 + FHy 2 FH = 235 kN

(b) Vertical forces

The vertical force is equal to the weight of fluid above (a volume defined by a rectangular column minus a segment
of a sphere).

4 ⋅ π ⋅ R3
π⋅R2
3
The volume is V= ⋅H − V = 15.9 m3
4 8
Then
kg m
FV = SG ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ V FV = 1.025 × 999 × 9.81 3 × 15.9 m3
m3 s

FV = 160 kN

Finally the resultant force and direction can be computed

F = FH2 + FV2 F = 284 kN

⎛F ⎞
α = atan ⎜ V ⎟ α = 34.2 ⋅ deg
⎝ FH ⎠
Note that α is the angle the resultant force makes with the horizontal.
 Problem 3.68 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Data on sphere and weight

Find: SG of sphere; equilibrium position when freely floating

T
Solution: FB

Basic equation F B = ρ ⋅ g⋅ V and ΣFz = 0 ΣFz = 0 = T + FB − W

V
where T = M⋅ g M = 10⋅ kg FB = ρ⋅ g⋅ W = SG⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ V
2

W
V M 1
Hence M⋅ g + ρ⋅ g⋅ − SG⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ V = 0 SG = +
2 ρ⋅ V 2

3
m 1 1
SG = 10⋅ kg × × + SG = 0.9
1000⋅ kg 3 2
0.025⋅ m

2
Weight SG⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ V kg m N⋅ s N
The specific weight is γ = = = SG⋅ ρ⋅ g γ = 0.9 × 1000⋅ × 9.81⋅ × γ = 8829⋅
Volume V 3 2 kg⋅ m 3
m s m

For the equilibriul position when floating, we repeat the force balance with T = 0

FB − W = 0 W = FB with FB = ρ⋅ g⋅ Vsubmerged

2
π⋅ h
From references (trying Googling "partial sphere volume") Vsubmerged = ⋅ ( 3⋅ R − h)
3

1 1
3 3
R = ⎛⎜
3⋅ V ⎞
R = ⎛⎜ ⋅ 0.025⋅ m ⎞⎟
3 3
where h is submerged depth and R is the sphere radius ⎟ R = 0.181 m
⎝ 4⋅ π ⎠ ⎝ 4⋅ π ⎠
2
π⋅ h 2 3⋅ SG⋅ V
Hence W = SG⋅ ρ⋅ g⋅ V = FB = ρ⋅ g⋅ ⋅ ( 3⋅ R − h) h ⋅ ( 3⋅ R − h) =
3 π

3
2 3⋅ 0.9⋅ .025⋅ m 2
h ⋅ ( 3⋅ 0.181⋅ m − h) = h ⋅ ( 0.544 − h) = 0.0215
π

This is a cubic equation for h. We can keep guessing h values, manually iterate, or use Excel's Goal Seek to find h = 0.292⋅ m
 Problem 3.69 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Specific gravity of a person is to be determined from measurements of weight in air and the met weight when
totally immersed in water.

Find: Expression for the specific gravity of a person from the measurements.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equation: Fbuoy = ρ⋅ g⋅ Vd (Buoyant force is equal to weight of displaced fluid)

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid

(2) Incompressible fluid
Fnet
Taking a free body diagram of the body: ΣFy = 0 Fnet − M⋅ g + Fbuoy = 0
Fbuoy

Fnet is the weight measurement for the immersed body.

Fnet = M⋅ g − Fbuoy = M⋅ g − ρw⋅ g⋅ Vd However in air: Fair = M⋅ g

Fair − Fnet Mg
Therefore the weight measured in water is: Fnet = Fair − ρw⋅ g⋅ Vd and Vd =
ρw⋅ g

Now in order to find the specific gravity of the person, we need his/her density:

(Fair − Fnet)
( )
ρ
Fair = M⋅ g = ρ⋅ g⋅ Vd = ρ⋅ g⋅ Simplifying this expression we get: Fair = F − Fnet
ρw ⋅ g ρw air

⎛ ρ ⎞
⎜ρ ⎟
Fair = ⎝
w4C ⎠
( Fair − Fnet) = ⋅ (Fair − Fnet)
SG
Now if we call the density of water at 4 deg C ρw4C then:
⎛ w ⎞
ρ SGw
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ρw4C ⎠

Fair
Solving this expression for the specific gravity of the person SG, we get: SG = SGw⋅
F air − Fnet
 Problem 3.70 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Iceberg floating in seawater

Find: Quantify the statement, "Only the tip of an iceberg shows (in seawater)."

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: Fbuoy = ρ⋅ g⋅ Vd (Buoyant force is equal to weight of displaced fluid)

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid

(2) Incompressible fluid

Taking a free body diagram of the iceberg: ΣFz = 0 −M⋅ g + Fbuoy = 0 Mg

M⋅ g = Fbuoy = ρsw⋅ g⋅ Vd But the mass of the iceberg is also: M = ρice⋅ Vtot
Fbuoy
ρice SGice
Combining these expressions: ρice⋅ Vtot⋅ g = ρsw⋅ g⋅ Vd Vd = Vtot⋅ = Vtot⋅
ρsw SGsw

⎛ SGice ⎞
The volume of the iceberg above the water is: Vshow = Vtot − Vd = Vtot⋅ ⎜ 1 − ⎟
⎝ SGsw ⎠

Vshow SGice
Therefore we may define a volume fraction: VF = = 1−
Vtot SGsw

0.917
Substituting in data from Tables A.1 and A.2 we get: VF = 1 − VF = 0.1054 Only 10% of the iceberg is above water
1.025
 Problem 3.71 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Experiment performed by Archimedes to identify the material conent of King

Hiero's crown. The crown was weighed in air and in water.

Find: Expression for the specific gravity of the crown as a function of the weights in water and air.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: F b = ρ ⋅ g⋅ V d (Buoyant force is equal to weight of displaced fluid)

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid

(2) Incompressible fluid Ww

Taking a free body diagram of the body: ΣFz = 0 Ww − M⋅ g + Fb = 0

Ww is the weight of the crown in water.

Mg
Fb
Ww = M⋅ g − Fbuoy = M⋅ g − ρw⋅ g⋅ Vd However in air: Wa = M⋅ g

Therefore the weight measured in water is: Ww = Wa − ρw⋅ g⋅ Vd

Wa − Ww M M⋅ ρw⋅ g Wa
so the volume is: Vd = Now the density of the crown is: ρc = = = ⋅ρ
ρw ⋅ g Vd Wa − Ww Wa − Ww w

ρc Wa Wa
Therefore, the specific gravity of the crown is: SG = = SG =
ρw Wa − Ww Wa − Ww

Note: by definition specific gravity is the density of an object divided by the density of water at 4 degrees Celsius, so the measured
temperature of the water in the experiment and the data from tables A.7 or A.8 may be used to correct for the variation in density of the
water with temperature.
 Problem 3.72 [Difficulty: 2]

Open-Ended Problem Statement: Gas bubbles are released from the regulator of a submerged
Scuba diver. What happens to the bubbles as they rise through the seawater?

Discussion: Air bubbles released by a submerged diver should be close to ambient pressure at the
depth where the diver is swimming. The bubbles are small compared to the depth of submersion, so each
bubble is exposed to essentially constant pressure. Therefore the released bubbles are nearly spherical in
shape.

The air bubbles are buoyant in water, so they begin to rise toward the surface. The bubbles are quite light,
so they reach terminal speed quickly. At low speeds the spherical shape should be maintained. At higher
speeds the bubble shape may be distorted.

As the bubbles rise through the water toward the surface, the hydrostatic pressure decreases. Therefore the
bubbles expand as they rise. As the bubbles grow larger, one would expect the tendency for distorted
bubble shape to be exaggerated.
 Problem 3.73 [Difficulty: 2]

3.73 Hot-air ballooning is a popular sport. According to a recent

article, “hot-air volumes must be large because air heated to 65°C
over ambient lifts only 0.29 kg/m3 compared to 1.06 and 1.14 for
helium and hydrogen, respectively”. Check these statements for
sea-level conditions. Calculate the effect of increasing the hot-air
maximum temperature to 121°C above ambient.

Given: Balloons with hot air, helium and hydrogen. Claim lift per cubic meter of 0.29, 1.06, and 1.14 kg/m3
for respective gases, with the air heated to 65°C over ambient.

Find: (a) Evaluate the claims of lift per unit volume.

(b) Determine change in lift when air is heated to 121°C over ambient.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: L = ρa⋅g⋅V – ρg⋅g⋅V (Net lift force is equal to difference in weights of air and gas)
p = ρ⋅R⋅T (Ideal gas equation of state)

Assumptions: (1) Static fluid

(2) Incompressible fluid
(3) Ideal gas behavior

L  ρg 
The lift per unit volume may be written as: LV = = g ⋅ (ρa − ρg ) = ρa ⋅ g ⋅ 1 −  now if we take the
V  ρa 
ideal gas equation and we take into account that the pressure inside and outside the balloon are equal:
L  R ⋅T   R ⋅T 
= ρa ⋅ g ⋅  1 − a a  = γ a ⋅  1 − a a 
V  R g ⋅ Tg   R g ⋅ Tg 
 
kg N⋅M
At standard conditions the specific weight of air is: γ a = 1.23 3 the gas constant is: R a = 286.9
m kg ⋅ k
and Ta = 288 k

N⋅m kg  286.9 
For helium: R g = 2077 Tg = Ta and therefore: LVHe = 1.23 3
× 1 − 
kg ⋅ k m  2077 
kg
LVHe = 1.06
m3

N⋅m kg  286.9 
For hydrogen: R g = 4124 Tg = Ta and therefore: LVH 2 = 1.23 3
× 1 − 
kg ⋅ k m  4124 
kg
LVH 2 = 1.14 ⋅
m3
For hot air at 65°C above ambient:

kg  288 
R g = R a Tg = Ta + 65 and therefore: LVair 65 = 1.23 × 1 − 
m3  288 + 65 
kg
LVair65 = 0.23
m3
The agreement with the claims stated above is good.

For hot air at 121°C above ambient:

kg  288 
R g = R a Tg = Ta + 121 and therefore: LVair121 = 1.23 3
× 1 − 
m  288 + 121 
kg
LVair121 = 0.36
m3

LVair121
= 1.565 Air at ∆T of 121°C gives 57% more lift than air at ∆T of 65°C!
LVair 65
 Problem 3.7 [Difficulty: 2] 

3.74 Hydrogen bubbles are used to visualize water flow streaklines

in the video. Flow Visualization. A typical hydrogen bubble
diameter is d = 0.025 mm. The bubbles tend to rise slowly in water
because of buoyancy; eventually they reach terminal speed relative
to the water. The drag force of the water on a bubble is given by FD
= 3πμVd, where μ is the viscosity of water and V is the bubble
speed relative to the water. Find the buoyancy force that acts on a
hydrogen bubble immersed in water. Estimate the terminal speed of
a bubble rising in water.

Given: Data on hydrogen bubbles.

Find: Buoyancy force on bubble; terminal speed in water.

Solution:
π
Basic equation FB = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ V = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ⋅ d 3 and ∑ Fy = M ⋅ a y ∑ Fy = 0 = FB − FD − W for terminal speed
6
3
kg m π ⎛ 1m ⎞
FB = 10 3 × 9.81 2 × × ⎜ 0.025 mm × 3
3
⎟ FB = 8.03 × 10−11 N
m s 6 ⎝ 10 mm ⎠
where we have ignored W, the weight of the bubble (at
For terminal speed FB − FD − W = 0 FD - 3 ⋅ π ⋅μ ⋅ V ⋅ d = FB
STP most gases are about 1/1000 the density of water) 
FB N ⋅s
Hence V= with μ = 1.01× 10 −3 from Table A.7 at 20°C
3⋅ π ⋅μ ⋅ d m2

1 1 m2 1 103 mm
V = 8.03 × 10−11 N × × ⋅ × ×
3π 1.01 × 10−3 N ⋅ s 0.025 mm 1m

m mm
V = 3.4 × 10−4 V = 20.4
s min
As noted by Professor Kline in the film “Flow Visualization”, bubbles rise slowly!
 Problem 3.75 [Difficulty: 2] 

3.74 Hydrogen bubbles are used to visualize water flow streaklines

in the video. Flow Visualization. A typical hydrogen bubble
diameter is d = 0.025 mm. The bubbles tend to rise slowly in water
because of buoyancy; eventually they reach terminal speed relative
to the water. The drag force of the water on a bubble is given by FD
= 3πμVd, where μ is the viscosity of water and V is the bubble
speed relative to the water. Find the buoyancy force that acts on a
hydrogen bubble immersed in water. Estimate the terminal speed of
a bubble rising in water.

Given: Data on hydrogen bubbles.

Find: Buoyancy force on bubble; terminal speed in water.

Solution:
π
Basic equation FB = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ V = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ⋅ d 3 and ∑ Fy = M ⋅ a y ∑ Fy = 0 = FB − FD − W for terminal speed
6
3
kg m π ⎛ 1m ⎞
FB = 10 3 × 9.81 2 × × ⎜ 0.025 mm × 3
3
⎟ FB = 8.03 × 10−11 N
m s 6 ⎝ 10 mm ⎠
where we have ignored W, the weight of the bubble (at
For terminal speed FB − FD − W = 0 FD - 3 ⋅ π ⋅μ ⋅ V ⋅ d = FB
STP most gases are about 1/1000 the density of water) 
FB N ⋅s
Hence V= with μ = 1.01× 10 −3 from Table A.7 at 20°C
3⋅ π ⋅μ ⋅ d m2

1 1 m2 1 103 mm
V = 8.03 × 10−11 N × × ⋅ × ×
3π 1.01 × 10−3 N ⋅ s 0.025 mm 1m

m mm
V = 3.4 × 10−4 V = 20.4
s min
As noted by Professor Kline in the film “Flow Visualization”, bubbles rise slowly!
 Problem 3.76 [Difficulty: 4]

Given: Spherical balloon filled with helium lifted a payload of mass M=230 kg.
At altitude, helium and air were in thermal equilibrium. Balloon diameter is
120 m and specific gravity of the skin material is 1.28.

Find: The altitude to which the balloon rose.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: Fbuoy = ρ⋅ g⋅ Vd (Buoyant force is equal to mass of displaced fluid)

p = ρ⋅ R ⋅ T (Ideal gas equation of state)

Assumptions: (1) Static, incompressible fluid

(2) Static equilibrium at 49 km altitude D
(3) Ideal gas behavior
t

Taking a free body diagram of the balloon and payload: ΣFz = Fbuoy − MHe⋅ g − Ms⋅ g − M⋅ g = 0
z
M
Substituting for the buoyant force and knowing that mass is density times volume:

ρair⋅ g⋅ Vb − ρHe⋅ g⋅ Vb − ρs⋅ g⋅ Vs − M⋅ g = 0 ρair⋅ Vb − ρHe⋅ Vb − ρs⋅ Vs − M = 0

π 3 2
The volume of the balloon: Vb = ⋅ D The volume of the skin: V s = π⋅ D ⋅ t Substituting these into the force equation:
6

⋅ ⎛ π⋅ ρs⋅ t⋅ D + M⎞
6 2
ρair − ρHe = From the ideal gas equation of state and remembering that pressure and temperature of the air
3 ⎝ ⎠
π⋅ D and helium are equal:

⋅ ⎛ π⋅ ρs⋅ t⋅ D + M⎞ ⋅
p 6 2 1
= Substituting known values and consulting Appendix A for gas constants:
T 3 ⎝ ⎠ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
π⋅ D
⎜R − R ⎟
⎝ air He ⎠

2
× ⎡π × 1280⋅ × 0.013⋅ 10 ⋅ m × ( 120⋅ m) + 230⋅ kg⎤⎥ ×
p 6 1 kg −3 2 1 N⋅ m Pa⋅ m − 4 kPa
= × ⋅ × = 3.616 × 10 ⋅
T π ( 120⋅ m) 3 ⎢ 3 1 1 kg⋅ K N K
⎣ m ⎦ −
287 2080

To determine the altitude, we need to check this ratio against data from Table A.3. We find that
the ratio of pressure to temperature matches the result above at:
h = 48.3⋅ km
 Problem 3.77 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Geometry of block and rod

F hinge,y
(L + c)/2 Fhinge,x
Find: Angle for equilibrium L/2
c
a
Assumptions: Water is static and incompressible θ
F BR
Solution:
F BB
WR
Basic ΣM Hinge = 0 FB = ρ⋅ g ⋅ V (Buoyancy) L
equations

WB
The free body diagram is as shown. FBB and F BR are the buoyancy of the
block and rod, respectively; c is the (unknown) exposed length of the rod

Taking moments about the hinge

( L + c)
(WB − FBB)⋅ L⋅ cos( θ) − FBR⋅
L
⋅ cos( θ) + WR⋅ ⋅ cos( θ) = 0
2 2

with WB = M B⋅ g FBB = ρ⋅ g ⋅ VB FBR = ρ⋅ g ⋅ ( L − c) ⋅ A WR = M R⋅ g

( L + c)
(MB − ρ⋅ VB)⋅ L − ρ⋅ A⋅ ( L − c)⋅
L
Combining equations + MR⋅ = 0
2 2

We can solve for M B ( 2

ρ⋅ A⋅ L − c ) = 2⋅⎛⎜ MB − ρ⋅VB + 12 ⋅MR⎞ ⋅L
2
⎝ ⎠
⎡
( ) + ρ⋅VB − 12 ⋅MR ⎛ a ⎞ ⎤⎥ + ρ⋅ V − 1 ⋅ M
2
ρ⋅ A a ρ⋅ A
⋅ ⎢L −
2 2 2
MB = ⋅ L −c and since c= MB = ⎜ sin( θ) B 2 R
2⋅ L sin( θ) 2⋅ L ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦

⎛ m ⎞ × 1 ⋅ ⎡⎢( 5⋅ m) 2 − ⎛ 0.25⋅ m ⎞ ⎤⎥ + 1000⋅ kg × 0.025 ⋅ m3 − 1 × 1.25⋅ kg

2 2
1 kg 2
MB = × 1000⋅ × 20⋅ cm × ⎜ 100 ⋅ cm ⎜ sin( 12⋅ deg)
2
m
3 ⎝ ⎠ 5⋅ m ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ m
3 2

M B = 29.1 kg
 Problem 3.78

3.78 The stem of a glass hydrometer used to measure specific gravity

is 7 mm in diameter. The distance between marks on the stem is 3
mm for 0.2 increment of specific gravity. Calculate the magnitude
and direction of the error introduced by the surface tension if the
hydrometer floats in Kerosene. (Assume the contact angle between
kerosene and glass is 0o)

Given: Glass hydrometer used to measure SG of liquids stem has diameter of D = 7mm,
distance between marks on stem is d = 3mm per 0.2 mm per 0.2 SG. Hydrometer
floats in kerosene (Assume zero contact angle between glass and kerosene)

To find: Magnitude of error introduced by the surface tension.

Solution:

We will apply the hydrometer equations to this system.

Governing Equations:

Fbuoy    g  Vd  Buoyant force is rqual to weight of displaced fluid 

Assumptions:

1) Static fluid
2) Incompressible fluid
3) Zero contact angle between ethyl alcohol and glass
The surface tension will cause the hydrometer to sink h lower into the liquid. Thus for this
change:

F z  Fbuoy  F  0

The change in buoyant force is:


Fbuoy    g  V =   g   D2  h
4

The force due to surface tension is:

F   D cos     D
Thus,

×g× ×D 2 ×Δh =  D  upon simplification 
4

×g× ×D×Δh  
4
solving for h :
4
h 
×g×D
mN
from table A.2,SG = 1.43 and fromtable A.4   26.8
m
Therefore,
N m3 s2 1 Kg×m
h  4  26.8 103    3
 2
m 1430Kg 9.81m 7 10 s N
h  1.1103 m

So the change in specific gravity will be

0.2
ΔSG  1.1103 m 
3 103 m
ΔSG  0.0733

From the diagram, surface tension acts to cause the hydrometer to float lower in the liquid.
Therefore, surface tension in an indicated specific gravity smaller than the actual specific gravity
 Problem 3.79 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Geometry of rod

(L + c)/2
Find: How much of rod is submerged; force to lift rod out of water L/2
c
a
Solution: θ
Basic equations ΣM Hinge = 0 FB = ρ⋅ g ⋅ V (Buoyancy) FBR

The free body diagram is as shown. FBR is the buoyancy of the rod; c is WR
L
the (unknown) exposed length of the rod

Taking moments about the hinge

( L + c) L
−FBR⋅ ⋅ cos( θ) + WR⋅ ⋅ cos( θ) = 0
2 2

with FBR = ρ⋅ g ⋅ ( L − c) ⋅ A WR = M R⋅ g

( L + c) L
Hence −ρ⋅ A⋅ ( L − c) ⋅ + M R⋅ = 0
2 2

We can solve for c ( 2

ρ⋅ A⋅ L − c
2) = MR⋅ L

2 L⋅ M R
c= L −
ρ⋅ A

3 2
100 ⋅ cm ⎞
× ⎛⎜
2 m 1 1
c = ( 5 ⋅ m) − 5 ⋅ m × × ⋅ × 1.25⋅ kg
1000⋅ kg 20 2 ⎝ 1⋅ m ⎠
cm

c = 4.68 m

Then the submerged length is L − c = 0.323 m

To lift the rod out of the water requires a force equal to half the rod weight (the reaction also takes half the weight)

2
1 1 m N⋅ s
F= ⋅ MR⋅ g = × 1.25⋅ kg × 9.81⋅ × F = 6.1 N
2 2 2 kg⋅ m
s
 Problem 3.80 [Difficulty: 2]

y
FB
x
H = 60 cm

W
θ

h = 5 cm

Given: Data on river

Find: Largest diameter of log that will be transported

Solution:
Basic equation FB = ρ⋅ g ⋅ Vsub and ΣFy = 0 ΣFy = 0 = FB − W

where FB = ρ⋅ g ⋅ Vsub = ρ⋅ g ⋅ Asub ⋅ L W = SG⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ V = SG⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ A ⋅ L

2
R
From references (e.g. CRC Mathematics Handbook) Asub = ⋅ ( θ − sin ( θ) ) where R is the radius and θ is
2 the included angle

2
R 2
Hence ρ⋅ g ⋅ ⋅ ( θ − sin ( θ) ) ⋅ L = SG⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ π⋅ R ⋅ L
2

θ − sin( θ) = 2 ⋅ SG ⋅ π = 2 × 0.8 × π

This equation can be solved by manually iterating, or by using a good calculator, or by using Excel's Goal Seek

θ = 239 ⋅ deg

R + R⋅ cos⎛⎜ π −
θ⎞
From geometry the submerged amount of a log is H − h and also
⎝ 2⎠

H − h = R + R⋅ cos⎛⎜ π −
θ⎞
Hence
⎝ 2⎠

H− h ( 0.6 − 0.05) ⋅ m
Solving for R R= R = R = 0.369 m
1 + cos⎛⎜ 180deg −
θ⎞
1 + cos⎡⎢⎛⎜ 180 −
239 ⎞
⋅ deg⎤⎥
⎝ 2⎠ ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
D = 2⋅ R D = 0.737 m
 Problem 3.81 [Difficulty: 4]

3.81 A sphere of radius 25 mm, made from material

of specific gravity of SG = 0.95, is sub merged in a tank
of water. The sphere is placed over a hole of radius H = 0.75 m R = 25 mm
1.88 mm, in the tank bottom. When the sphere is
released, will it stay on the bottom of the tank or float
to the surface?

a = 1.88 mm

Given: Data on sphere and tank bottom

Find: Expression for SG of sphere at which it will float to surface;

minimum SG to remain in position

Assumptions: (1) Water is static and incompressible

(2) Sphere is much larger than the hole at the bottom of the tank

Solution:

Basic equations FB = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ V and ∑F y = FL − FU + FB − W

Where FL = p atm ⋅ π ⋅ a 2 FU =  p atm + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ( H − 2 ⋅ R )  ⋅ π ⋅ a 2

4
FB = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Vnet Vnet = ⋅ π ⋅ R3 − π ⋅ a2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ R
3

4
W = SG ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ V with V= ⋅ π ⋅ R3
3

Now if the sum of the vertical forces is positive, the sphere will float away, while if the sum is zero or negative the
sphere will stay at the bottom of the tank (its weight and the hydrostatic force are greater than the buoyant force).

Hence

4  4
∑F y= patm ⋅ π ⋅ a 2 −  patm + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ( H − 2 ⋅ R )  ⋅ π ⋅ a 2 + ρ ⋅ g ⋅  ⋅ π ⋅ R 3 − 2 ⋅ π ⋅ R ⋅ a 2  − SG ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ⋅ π ⋅ R 3
 3  3
 4 
This expression simplifies to ∑ Fy = π ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ (1 − SG ) ⋅ 3 ⋅ R 3 − H ⋅ a 2 
m 4  
3 2
kg  m   m
ΣFy = π × 1000 × 9.81 ×  × (1 − 0.95 ) ×  25 mm ×  − 0.75m ×  1.88 mm ×  
m3 s2  3  1000 mm   1000 mm  
 
∑F y = − 0.064 N Therefore, the sphere stays at the bottom of the tank.
 Problem 3.82 [Difficulty: 4]

3.82 A cylindrical timber, with D = 0.3 m and L = 4 m, is

weighted on its lower end so that it floats vertically with 3 m
submerged in seawater. When displaced vertically from its
equilibrium position, the timber oscillates or “heaves” in a
vertical direction upon release. Estimate the frequency of
oscillation in this heave mode. Neglect viscous effects and water
motion.

Given: Cylindrical timber, D = 0.3 m and L = 4 m, is weighted on the lower end so that is floats vertically
with 3m submerge in sea water When displaced vertically from equilibrium, the timber oscillates
in a vertical direction upon release.

Find: Estimate the frequency of the oscillation. Neglect viscous forces or water motion.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: F
buoy
= ρ⋅g ⋅V
d
(Buoyant force is equal to weight of displaced fluid)

D = 0.3m
Assumptions: (1) Static fluid
(2) Incompressible fluid
(3) Atmospheric pressure acts everywhere
(4) Viscous effects and water motion are negligible.

At equilibrium: ∑ Fy = F − M⋅g = 0 M = ρ⋅A⋅d d = 3m

buoy L (Equilibrium
Depth)

Once the timber is displaced: d2y

∑ Fy = F − M ⋅g = M ⋅
buoy
dt 2
d2 y d2 y
ρ ⋅ g ⋅ A ⋅ (d − y) − M ⋅ g = M ⋅ ρ⋅g ⋅A⋅d − ρ⋅g ⋅A⋅ y − ρ⋅A⋅d ⋅g = M ⋅
dt 2 dt 2

d2 y d2 y ρ ⋅ g ⋅ A d2 y g
Thus we have the equation: M ⋅ + ρ⋅g ⋅A⋅ y = 0 or + ⋅y = 0 + ⋅y = 0
dt 2 dt 2 ρ⋅g ⋅d dt 2 d

g
This ODE describes simple harmonic motion with the natural frequency ω described by: ω2 =
d

g 9.81 m 1
Solving for ω: ω= ω= × ω = 1.81 rad s
d s2 3m
1
1.81
ω s
To express this as a frequency: f = f= f = 0.288Hz
2⋅π 2⋅π
 Problem 3.83 [Difficulty: 3]

3.83 You are in the Bermuda Triangle when you see a bubble
plume eruption (a large of air bubbles, similar to a foam) off to the Water rushing in!
0.3 m
side of the boat. Do you want to head toward it and be part of the
action? What is the effective density of the water and air bubbles in 2.1 m
the drawing on the right that will cause the boat to sink? Your boat 608

is 3 m long, and weight is the same both cases. Sea water Sea water
and air
bubbles

Floating Sinking

Given: Data on boat

Find: Effective density of water/air bubble mix if boat sinks Floating Sinking
H = 2.4 m
Solution:
h = 2.1 m
Basic equations FB = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ V and ∑ Fy = 0

We can apply the sum of forces for the "floating" free body θ = 608

∑ Fy = 0 = FB − W where FB = SG sea ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Vsubfloat

1  2⋅h  L ⋅h2 (Table A.2)

V s u bflo at = ⋅h ⋅ ⋅L = S G s ea = 1 .0 2 4
2  tan ⋅ θ  tan ( θ )

SG sea ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ L ⋅ h 2
Hence W= (1)
tan ( θ )

We can apply the sum of forces for the "sinking" free body

∑ Fy = 0 = FB − W where 1  2⋅H  L ⋅ H2
FB = SG mix ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Vsub Vsub sin k = ⋅ H ⋅ ⋅L =
2  tan⋅ θ  tan ( θ )

SG mix ⋅ρ ⋅ g ⋅ L ⋅ h 2
Hence W= (2)
tan ( θ )

S G sea ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ L ⋅ h 2 S G m ix ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ L ⋅ h 2
Comparing Eqs. 1 and 2 W = =W =
tan ( θ ) tan ( θ )

2 2
 h   2.1 
S G m ix = S G sea ⋅   S G m ix = 1.024 ×   SG m ix = 0.785
H  2.4 

kg kg
The density is ρ = SG ⋅ρ ρ = 0.785 × 10 3 ρ = 785
mix mix mix m3 mix m3
 Problem 3.84 [Difficulty: 2]

FB
F
20 cm
D = 10 cm
8 cm
2 cm
y
W
x

Given: Data on inverted bowl and dense fluid

Find: Force to hold in place

Assumption: Fluid is static and incompressible

Solution:
Basic equations FB = ρ⋅ g ⋅ V and ΣFy = 0 ΣFy = 0 = FB − F − W

Hence F = FB − W

For the buoyancy force FB = SG fluid ⋅ ρH2O⋅ g ⋅ Vsub with Vsub = Vbowl + Vair

For the weight W = SG bowl⋅ ρH2O⋅ g ⋅ Vbowl

Hence ( )
F = SGfluid⋅ ρH2O⋅ g ⋅ Vbowl + Vair − SG bowl⋅ ρH2O⋅ g ⋅ Vbowl

( )
F = ρH2O⋅ g ⋅ ⎡SG fluid⋅ Vbowl + Vair − SGbowl⋅ Vbowl⎤
⎣ ⎦

⎡ ⎡ 3
π⋅ ( 0.1⋅ m)
2⎤ ⎛ 3 ⎞⎤ 2
F = 999⋅
kg
× 9.81⋅
m
× ⎢15.6 × ⎢0.9⋅ L ×
m
+ ( 0.08 − 0.02) ⋅ m⋅ ⎥ − 5.7 × ⎜ 0.9⋅ L × m ⎥ × N ⋅ s
m
3
s
2 ⎣ ⎣ 1000⋅ L 4 ⎦ ⎝ 1000⋅ L ⎠⎦ kg⋅ m

F = 159.4 N
 Problem 3.85 [Difficulty: 4]

Open-Ended Problem Statement: In the “Cartesian diver” child's toy, a miniature “diver” is
immersed in a column of liquid. When a diaphragm at the top of the column is pushed down, the diver
sinks to the bottom. When the diaphragm is released, the diver again rises. Explain how the toy might
work.

Discussion: A possible scenario is for the toy to have a flexible bladder that contains air. Pushing
down on the diaphragm at the top of the liquid column would increase the pressure at any point in the
liquid. The air in the bladder would be compressed slightly as a result. The volume of the bladder, and
therefore its buoyancy, would decrease, causing the diver to sink to the bottom of the liquid column.

Releasing the diaphragm would reduce the pressure in the water column. This would allow the bladder to
expand again, increasing its volume and therefore the buoyancy of the diver. The increased buoyancy
would permit the diver to rise to the top of the liquid column and float in a stable, partially submerged
position, on the surface of the liquid.
 Problem 3.86 [Difficulty: 4]

Open-Ended Problem Statement: Consider a conical funnel held upside down and submerged
slowly in a container of water. Discuss the force needed to submerge the funnel if the spout is open to the
atmosphere. Compare with the force needed to submerge the funnel when the spout opening is blocked by a
rubber stopper.

Discussion: Let the weight of the funnel in air be Wa. Assume the funnel is held with its spout vertical
and the conical section down. Then Wa will also be vertical.

Two possible cases are with the funnel spout open to atmosphere or with the funnel spout sealed.
With the funnel spout open to atmosphere, the pressures inside and outside the funnel are equal, so no net
pressure force acts on the funnel. The force needed to support the funnel will remain constant until it first
contacts the water. Then a buoyancy force will act vertically upward on every element of volume located
beneath the water surface.

The first contact of the funnel with the water will be at the widest part of the conical section. The buoyancy
force will be caused by the volume formed by the funnel thickness and diameter as it begins to enter the
water. The buoyancy force will reduce the force needed to support the funnel. The buoyancy force will
increase as the depth of submergence of the funnel increases until the funnel is fully submerged. At that
point the buoyancy force will be constant and equal to the weight of water displaced by the volume of the
material from which the funnel is made.

If the funnel material is less dense than water, it would tend to float partially submerged in the water. The
force needed to support the funnel would decrease to zero and then become negative (i.e., down) to fully
submerge the funnel.

If the funnel material were denser than water it would not tend to float even when fully submerged. The
force needed to support the funnel would decrease to a minimum when the funnel became fully submerged,
and then would remain constant at deeper submersion depths.
With the funnel spout sealed, air will be trapped inside the funnel. As the funnel is submerged gradually
below the water surface, it will displace a volume equal to the volume of the funnel material plus the
volume of trapped air. Thus its buoyancy force will be much larger than when the spout is open to
atmosphere. Neglecting any change in air volume (pressures caused by submersion should be small
compared to atmospheric pressure) the buoyancy force would be from the entire volume encompassed by
the outside of the funnel. Finally, when fully submerged, the volume of the rubber stopper (although small)
will also contribute to the total buoyancy force acting on the funnel.
 Problem 3.87 [Difficulty: 4]

Open-Ended Problem Statement: A proposed ocean salvage scheme involves pumping air
into “bags” placed within and around a wrecked vessel on the sea bottom. Comment on the practicality of
this plan, supporting your conclusions with analyses.

Discussion: This plan has several problems that render it impractical. First, pressures at the sea bottom
are very high. For example, Titanic was found in about 12,000 ft of seawater. The corresponding pressure
is nearly 6,000 psi. Compressing air to this pressure is possible, but would require a multi-stage compressor
and very high power.

Second, it would be necessary to manage the buoyancy force after the bag and object are broken loose from
the sea bed and begin to rise toward the surface. Ambient pressure would decrease as the bag and artifact
rise toward the surface. The air would tend to expand as the pressure decreases, thereby tending to increase
the volume of the bag. The buoyancy force acting on the bag is directly proportional to the bag volume, so
it would increase as the assembly rises. The bag and artifact thus would tend to accelerate as they approach
the sea surface. The assembly could broach the water surface with the possibility of damaging the artifact
or the assembly.

If the bag were of constant volume, the pressure inside the bag would remain essentially constant at the
pressure of the sea floor, e.g., 6,000 psi for Titanic. As the ambient pressure decreases, the pressure
differential from inside the bag to the surroundings would increase. Eventually the difference would equal
sea floor pressure. This probably would cause the bag to rupture.

If the bag permitted some expansion, a control scheme would be needed to vent air from the bag during the
trip to the surface to maintain a constant buoyancy force just slightly larger than the weight of the artifact in
water. Then the trip to the surface could be completed at low speed without danger of broaching the surface
or damaging the artifact.
 Problem 3.88 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Cylindrical container rotating as in Example 3.10

R = 0.25⋅ m h o = 0.3⋅ m f = 2 ⋅ Hz

Find: (a) height of free surface at the entrance

(b) if solution depends on ρ

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: (Hydrostatic equation)

Assumptions: (1) Incompressible fluid

(2) Atmospheric pressure acts everywhere

In order to obtain the solution we need an expression for the shape of the free surface in terms of ω, r, and h o. The required
expression was derived in Example 3.10. The equation is:

( ω⋅ R)
2 ⎡1 2⎤
⋅⎢ ⎛r⎞⎥
z = ho − − ⎜R
2⋅ g ⎣2 ⎝ ⎠⎦

rad rad
The angular velocity ω is related to the frequency of rotation through: ω = 2 ⋅ π⋅ f ω = 2⋅ π × 2⋅ = 12.57 ⋅
s s
2
( ω⋅ R)
Now since h1 is the z value which corresponds to r = 0: h1 = ho −
4⋅ g

2 2
× ⎛⎜ 12.57 ⋅ × 0.25⋅ m⎞ ×
1 rad s
Substituting known values: h 1 = 0.3⋅ m − h 1 = 0.05 m
4 ⎝ s ⎠ 9.81⋅ m

The solution is independent of ρ because the equation of the free surface is independent of ρ as well.
 Problem 3.89 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: U-tube accelerometer

Find: Acceleration in terms of h and L

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: (Hydrostatic equation in x-direction)

(Hydrostatic equation in y-direction)

Assumptions: (1) Incompressible fluid

(2) Neglect sloshing
(3) Ignore corners
(4) Both ends of U-tube are open to atmosphere

In the coordinate system we are using, we can see that: ax = a ay = 0 g x = 0 g y = −g

∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p
Thus, = − ρa = − ρg Now if we evaluate ∆p from left to right in the U-tube: dp = dx + dy
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

∂p ∂p
We may also write this expression as: ∆p = ∆x + ∆y ∆p = ( −ρ⋅ g ) ⋅ ( −b ) + ( −ρ⋅ a) ⋅ ( −L) + ( −ρ⋅ g ) ⋅ ( b + h ) = 0
∂x ∂y

a⋅ L
Simplifying this expression: ∆p = ρ⋅ a⋅ L − ρ⋅ g ⋅ h = 0 Solving for h: h=
g
 Problem 3.90 [Difficulty: 2]

3.90  The U-tube shown is filled with water at T = 20°C. It is A D

sealed at A and open to the atmosphere at D. The tube is rotated
about vertical axis AB at 1600 rpm. For the dimensions shown,
H = 300 mm Water
would cavitation occur in the tube?
ω

B C

L = 75 mm

Given: Spinning U-tube sealed at one end.

Find: Maximum angular speed for no cavitation.
Assumptions: (1) Water is incompressible
(2) Constant angular velocity
r r
Solution: Basic equation −∇p + ρg = ρa

⎛ ∂ ⎞ V2 ∂
In components −⎜ p ⎟ = ρ ⋅ a r = −ρ ⋅ = − ρ ⋅ ω2 ⋅ r p = −ρ ⋅ g
⎝ ∂r ⎠ r ∂z

∂ p D − pC = −ρ ⋅ g ⋅ H
Between D and C, r = constant, so p = −ρ ⋅ g and so (1)
∂z

Between B and A, r = constant, so ∂ and so pA − pB = − ρ ⋅ g ⋅ H (2)

p = −ρ ⋅ g
∂z

∂ pC L
Between B and C, z = constant, so
∂r
p = −ρ ⋅ ω 2 ⋅ r and so ∫ pB
1 dp = ∫0
ρ ⋅ ω2 ⋅ r dr

L2
Integrating pC − pB = ρ ⋅ ω 2 ⋅ (3)
2

Since p D = patm , then from Eq 1 pC = patm + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ H

L2 L2
From Eq. 3 pB = pC − ρ ⋅ ω 2 ⋅ so p B = p atm + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ H − ρ ⋅ ω 2 ⋅
2 2

From Eq. 2 pA = pB − ρ ⋅ g ⋅ H so L2
p A = p atm − ρ ⋅ ω 2 ⋅
2

Thus the minimum pressure occurs at point A (not B). Substituting known data to find the pressure at A:

2 ⋅ π ⋅ rad
2 2
N kg ⎛ rev min ⎞ 1 ⎛ m ⎞
p A = 101.3 × 10 3 − 10 3 3 × ⎜ 1600 ⋅ × × ⎟ × × ⎜ 75 mm × ⎟ = 22.3 kPa
m2 m ⎝ min rev 60 ⋅ s ⎠ 2 ⎝ 1000 mm ⎠

At 20°C from steam tables, the vapor pressure of water is p V = 2.34 kPa
which less than the pressure at A.
Therefore, cavitation does not occur. 
 Problem 3.91 [Difficulty: 2]

ω
d

c R

Given: Centrifugal manometer consists of pair of parallel disks that rotate to develop a
radial pressure difference. There is no flow between the disks.

Find: (a) an expression for the pressure difference, ∆p, as a function of ω, R, and ρ.
(b) find ω if ∆p = 8 µm H2O and R = 50 mm

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: G G
− ∇ p + ρg = ρa (Hydrostatic equation)

∂p
− + ρ g r = ρa r (Hydrostatic equation in radial direction)
∂r

Assumptions: (1) Incompressible fluid

(2) Standard air between disks
(3) Rigid body motion
(4) Radial direction is horizontal

2 2
V ( r⋅ ω) 2
For rigid body motion: ar = − =− = −r⋅ ω In addition, since r is horizontal: gr = 0
r r

∂p
Thus, the hydrostatic equation becomes: = ρ rω 2
∂r

We can solve this expression by separating variables and integrating:

R 2 2
2⌠ ρ⋅ ω ⋅ R
∆p = ρ⋅ ω ⋅ ⎮ r dr Evaluating the integral on the right hand side: ∆p =
⌡ 2
0

2 ⋅ ∆p
Solving for the rotational frequency: ω= The pressure differential can be expressed as: ∆p = ρ⋅ g ⋅ ∆h
2
ρ⋅ R

ρw g ⋅ ∆h
Therefore: ω= 2⋅ ⋅
ρair 2
R

999 m −6 1 rad
Substituting in values: ω = 2× × 9.81⋅ × 8 × 10 ⋅m × ω = 7.16⋅
(50 × 10− 3⋅m)
1.225 2 2 s
s
 Problem 3.92 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Rectangular container of base dimensions 0.4 m x 0.2 m and a height of 0.4 m is filled with water to a depth of d =
0.2 m. Mass of empty container is M c = 10 kg. The container slides down an incline of θ = 30 deg with respect to
the horizontal. The coefficient of sliding friction is 0.30.

Find: The angle of the water surface relative to the horizontal. y

x
Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system. α

Governing Equations: G G θ
− ∇p + ρg = ρa (Hydrostatic equation)
G G
F = Ma (Newton's Second Law)

Assumptions: (1) Incompressible fluid

(2) Rigid body motion

∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p
Writing the component relations: − = ρa x = − ρa x − − ρg = ρa y = − ρ (g + a y )
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y

∂p ∂p
We write the total differential of pressure as: dp = dx + dy Now along the free surface of the water dp = 0. Thus:
∂x ∂y

∂p ∂x
α = atan⎛⎜ − ⎞
dy a x and dy
=− =− To determine the acceleration components we analyze a free-body diagram:
dx ∂p ∂y g + ay ⎝ dx ⎠

kg
M = M c + M w = M c + ρw⋅ Vw M = 10⋅ kg + 999 ⋅ × 0.4⋅ m × 0.2⋅ m × 0.2⋅ m M = 25.98 kg
3
m
2
m N⋅ s
ΣFy' = 0 = N − M ⋅ g ⋅ cos( θ) N = M ⋅ g ⋅ cos( θ) N = 25.98 ⋅ kg × 9.81⋅ × cos( 30⋅ deg) × N = 220.7 N
2 kg⋅ m
s

N y
ΣFx' = M ⋅ ax' = M ⋅ g ⋅ sin( θ) − Ff = M ⋅ g ⋅ sin( θ) − μ⋅ N ax' = g ⋅ sin( θ) − μ⋅ x
M
F f = µN
m 1 kg⋅ m m y’
ax' = 9.81⋅ × sin( 30⋅ deg) − 0.30 × 220.7 ⋅ N × × ax' = 2.357
2 25.98 ⋅ kg 2 2
θ
N
s N⋅ s s x’
Mg
Now that we have the acceleration in the x'-y' system, we transform it to the x-y system: ax = ax'⋅ cos( θ) ay = −ax'⋅ sin( θ)

m m m m
ax = 2.357 ⋅ × cos( 30⋅ deg) ax = 2.041 ay = −2.357 ⋅ × sin( 30⋅ deg) ay = −1.178
2 2 2 2
s s s s

α = atan⎛⎜ ⎞
2.041
Thus, α = 13.30 ⋅ deg
⎝ 9.81 − 1.178 ⎠
 Problem 3.93 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Cubical box with constant acceleration

Find: Slope of free surface; pressure along bottom of box

Solution: Basic equation

∂ ∂ ∂
In components − p + ρ⋅ g x = ρ⋅ ax − p + ρ⋅ g y = ρ⋅ ay − p + ρ⋅ g z = ρ⋅ az
∂x ∂y ∂z

We have ax = ax gx = 0 ay = 0 g y = −g az = 0 gz = 0

∂ ∂ ∂
Hence p = −SG⋅ ρ⋅ ax (1) p = −SG⋅ ρ⋅ g (2) p =0 (3)
∂x ∂y ∂z

From Eq. 3 we can simplify from p = p ( x , y , z) to p = p( x , y)

∂ ∂
Hence a change in pressure is given by dp = p ⋅ dx + p ⋅ dy (4)
∂x ∂y
∂
p
∂x ax 0.25⋅ g
∂ ∂ dy
At the free surface p = const., so dp = 0 = p ⋅ dx + p ⋅ dy or =− =− =−
∂x ∂y dx ∂ g g
p
∂y
dy
Hence at the free surface = −0.25
dx

x
The equation of the free surface is then y=− +C and through volume conservation the fluid rise in the rear
4 balances the fluid fall in the front, so at the midpoint the
free surface has not moved from the rest position

L L L 1 L 5 5 x
For size L = 80⋅ cm at the midpoint x = y= (box is half filled) =− ⋅ +C C= ⋅L y= ⋅L −
2 2 2 4 2 8 8 4

Combining Eqs 1, 2, and 4 dp = −SG ⋅ ρ⋅ ax ⋅ dx − SG ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ dy or p = −SG ⋅ ρ⋅ ax ⋅ x − SG ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ y + c

5 5 5
We have p = p atm when x=0 y= ⋅L so p atm = −SG⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ ⋅ L + c c = p atm + SG ⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ ⋅ L
8 8 8

p ( x , y ) = p atm + SG⋅ ρ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⋅ g ⋅ L − ax ⋅ x − g ⋅ y⎞ = p atm + SG⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⋅ L −

5 5 x
−y
⎝8 ⎠ ⎝8 4
On the bottom y = 0 so
2
N⋅ s
p ( x , 0 ) = p atm + SG⋅ ρ⋅ g ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⋅ L − ⎞ = 101 + 0.8 × 1000⋅ × 9.81⋅ × ⎛⎜ × 0.8⋅ m − ⎞ ×
5 x kg m 5 x kPa
×
⎝8 4⎠
m
3 kg⋅ m
s
2 ⎝8 4⎠ 3
10 ⋅ Pa

p ( x , 0 ) = 105 − 1.96⋅ x (p in kPa, x in m)

 Problem 3.94 [Difficulty: 3]

3.94 Gas centrifuges are used in one process to produce enriched

uranium for nuclear fuel rods. The maximum peripheral speed of a
gas centrifuge is limited by stress considerations to about 300 m/s.
Assume a gas centrifuge containing uranium hexafluoride gas,
with molecular gas Mm = 352, and ideal gas behavior. Develop an
expression for the ratio of maximum pressure to pressure at the
centrifuge axis. Evaluate the pressure ratio for a gas temperature of
325°C.

Given: Gas centrifuge, with maximum peripheral speed Vmax =300 m/s contains
uranium hexafluoride gas (M = 352 kg/kmol) at 325°C.

Find: (a) Ratio of maximum pressure to pressure at the centrifuge axis. Vmax = ωr2
(b) Evaluate pressure ratio at 325°C.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

r2

Governing Equations: −∇p + ρ g = ρ a

(Hydrostatic equation)

∂p
− + ρ g r = ρ ar (Hydrostatic equation radial component)
∂r

Assumptions: (1) Incompressible fluid

(2) Rigid body motion
(3) Ideal gas behavior, constant temperature

2
V 2 ( r ⋅ ω) ∂p p
For rigid body motion: ar = = = − r ⋅ ω2 Thus: = − ρar = rω 2
r r ∂r Rg T

Separating variables and integrating:

p2 1 ω2 r2 p  ω2 r2 2 p  Vmax 2
∫p1 p
dp =
Rg ⋅ T
⋅ ∫ r dr
0
ln  2  = ⋅
 p1  R g ⋅ T 2
where we define: Vmax = ω⋅ r2 therefore: ln  2  =
 p1  2 ⋅ R g ⋅ T

 V m ax 2 
 
p
= 2 = e g 
2 ⋅R ⋅T
Solving for the pressure ratio: p ra t
p1

8314 N ⋅ m N⋅m
The gas constant: Rg = ⋅ R g = 23.62
352 kg ⋅ K kg ⋅ K

 
  300 m 2 × 1 × kg⋅K × 1 
  s  2 23.62 N⋅m (325 + 273) K 

Substituting in all known values: p rat = e

p rat = 24.2
 Problem 3.95 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Pail is swung in a vertical circle. Water moves as a rigid body. d

Point of interest is the top of the trajectory. V = 5 m/s
d
Find: (a) Tension in the string
(b) Pressure on pail bottom from the water. R= 1 m
T r
Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

G G
Governing Equations: − ∇ p + ρg = ρa (Hydrostatic equation)

∂p (Hydrostatic equation radial component)

− + ρ g r = ρa r
∂r
Assumptions: (1) Incompressible fluid
(2) Rigid body motion
(3) Center of mass of bucket and water are located at a radius
of 1 m where V = rω = 5 m/s

2
V
Summing the forces in the radial direction: ( )
−T − M b + M w ⋅ g = M b + M w ar ( ) where ar = −
r

⎛V ⎞ 2 2
s kg⋅ m
Thus the tension is: (
T = Mb + Mw ⋅ ⎜
⎝ r
−g)⎠
where: M b = 15⋅ N ×
9.81⋅ m
×
2
M b = 1.529 ⋅ kg
N⋅ s

π 2 kg π 2
and: M w = ρ⋅ V = ρ⋅ ⋅ d ⋅ h M w = 999 ⋅ × × ( 0.4⋅ m) × 0.2⋅ m M w = 25.11 ⋅ kg
4 3 4
m

⎡⎛ m ⎞ 2 m ⎤ N⋅ s
2
Now we find T: T = ( 1.529 + 25.11 ) ⋅ kg × ⎢⎜ 5⋅ ×
1
− 9.81⋅ ⎥ × T = 405 ⋅ N
⎢⎝ s ⎠ 1⋅ m 2⎥ kg⋅ m
⎣ s ⎦

∂p V2 ∂p ⎛V 2 ⎞
If we apply this information to the radial hydrostatic equation we get: − − ρg = − ρ Thus: = ρ ⎜⎜ − g ⎟⎟
∂r r ∂r ⎝ r ⎠
If we assume that the radial pressure gradient is constant throughout the water, then the pressure gradient is equal to:

⎡⎛ m ⎞ 2 m ⎤ N⋅ s
2
p r = 999 ⋅
kg
× ⎢⎜ 5⋅ ×
1
− 9.81⋅ ⎥ × p r = 15.17 ⋅
kPa
3 ⎢⎝ s ⎠ 1⋅ m 2⎥ kg⋅ m m
m ⎣ s ⎦

kPa
and we may calculate the pressure at the bottom of the bucket: ∆p = p r⋅ ∆r ∆p = 15.17 ⋅ × 0.2⋅ m ∆p = 3.03⋅ kPa
m
 Problem 3.96 [Difficulty: 3]

3.96 A partially full can of soda is placed at the outer edge of a

child’s merry-go-round, located R = 1.5 m from the axis of rotation. D = 65 mm
The can diameter and height are 65 mm and 120 mm, respectively.
The can is half full, and the soda has specific gravity SG = 1.05.
Evaluate the slope of the liquid surface in the can if the merry-go-
z
H/2
round spins at 20 rpm. Calculate the spin rate at which the can r H = 120 mm
would spill, assuming no slippage between the can bottom and the
merry-go-round. Would the can most likely spill or slide off the R = 1.5 m SG = 1.05
merry-go-round?

Given: Half-filled soft drink can at the outer edge of a merry-go-round.

rev
ω = 0.3 ⋅
s
Find: (a) Slope of free surface.
(b) Spin rate necessary for spillage.
(c) Likelihood of spilling versus slipping.

Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Governing Equations: − ∇p + ρ g = ρ a



(Hydrostatic equation)
∂p (Hydrostatic equation radial component)
− + ρ g r = ρ ar
∂r
∂p (Hydrostatic equation z component)
− + ρ g z = ρ az
∂z
Assumptions: (1) Incompressible fluid
(2) Rigid body motion
(3) Merry-go-round is horizontal

ar = −
V2
=
( r ⋅ ω )2 = − r⋅ω2 az = 0 gr = 0 g z = − g Thus: ∂p 2
∂p
= − ρ g so
= ρ rω
r r ∂r ∂z
p = p ( r, z )
∂p ∂p dz ∂p ∂r ρ rω 2 rω 2
dp = dr + dz For the free surface the pressure is constant. Therefore: = = − =
∂r ∂z dr ∂p ∂z −ρ g g
2
So the slope at the free surface is  rev m in 2 ⋅ π ⋅ rad  s2 slope = 0.54
slope = 1.5 m ×  20 ⋅ × ×  ×
 m in 60 ⋅ s rev  9.81 m

To spill, the slope must be H 120

slo p e sp = slopesp =
D slopesp = 1.85
65

g dz m 1 rad
Thus, ωsp = ⋅ ωsp = 9.81 2
× × 1.85 ωsp = 3.48 ⋅
r dr s 1.5 m s

This is nearly double the original speed (2.09 rad/s). Now the coefficient of static friction between the can and the
surface of the merry-go-round is probably less than 0.5. Thus the can would not likely spill or tip; it would slide off!
 Problem 3.97 [Difficulty: 4]

3.97 Cast iron or steel molds are used in a horizontal-spindle

machine to make tubular castings such as liners and tubes. A
charge of molten metal is poured into the spinning mold. The radial
acceleration permits nearly uniformly thick wall sections to form.
A steel liner, of length L = 2 m, outer radius r0 = 0.15 m, and inner
radius r1 = 0.10 m, is to be formed by this process. To attain nearly
uniform thickness, the angular velocity should be at least 300 rpm.
Determine (a) the resulting radial acceleration on the inside surface
of the liner and (b) the maximum and minimum pressures on the
surface of the mold.

Given: A steel liner is to be formed in a spinning horizontal mold. To insure uniform thickness
the minimum angular velocity should be at least 300 rpm. For steel, SG = 7.8.

Find: (a) The resulting radial acceleration on the inside surface of the liner. (gravity is
(b) The maximum and minimum pressures on the surface of the mold. downward in
this diagram)
Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

 
Governing Equations: −∇p +ρ g = ρ a (Hydrostatic equation)
∂p
− + ρ g r = ρ ar (Hydrostatic equation radial component)
∂r
1 ∂p
− + ρ g = ρa (Hydrostatic equation transeverse component)
r ∂θ θ θ
∂p
− + ρ g z = ρ az (Hydrostatic equation z component)
∂z

Assumptions: (1) Incompressible fluid

(2) Rigid body motion

V2 (r ⋅ ω) 2
ar = − =− = − r ⋅ ω2 aθ = 0 az = 0 g r = − g ⋅ cos(θ) g θ = g ⋅ sin(θ) gz = 0
r r

2
 rev 2 ⋅ π ⋅ rad min  m
Hence: a r = 0.10 m ×  300 × × ×  a r = 98.7 2 a r = 10.06 g
 min rev 60 ⋅ s  s
∂p ∂p ∂p
Thus: = ρ g r − ρ ar = ρ rω 2 − ρ g cos θ = ρ rgθ − ρ raθ = ρ rg sin θ = ρ g z − ρ az = 0
∂r ∂θ ∂z

∂p ∂p
dp = dr + dθ = (ρ rω 2 − ρ g cosθ )dr + (ρ rg sinθ )dθ
∂r ∂θ

∂p  2
We can integrate to find pressure as a function of r and θ. p ( ri , θ ) = patm  = ρ rω − ρ g cosθ
∂r θ
r
Therefore, we integrate: p − patm = ∫ ( ρ ⋅ r ⋅ ω2 − ρ ⋅ g ⋅ cos (θ) ) dr + f(θ)
ri
p = patm + ρ ⋅ ω2
⋅
(r 2
− ri2 )
− ρ ⋅ g ⋅ cos(θ) ⋅ ( r − ri ) + f(θ) Taking the derivative of pressure with respect to θ:
2
∂p  df
 = ρ (r − ri ) g sin θ + = ρ rg sin θ Thus, the integration function f(θ) is: f (θ) = − ρ⋅ g ⋅ ri ⋅ cos (θ) + C
∂θ r dθ

Therefore, the pressure is: p = patm + ρ ⋅ ω2 ⋅

(r 2
− ri2 )
− ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ( r − ri ) ⋅ cos(θ) − ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ri ⋅ cos (θ) + C
2
The integration constant is determined from the boundary condition: p ( ri , θ ) = patm

patm = patm + ρ⋅ω2 ⋅

(r i
2
− ri2 ) − ρ⋅ g ⋅ ( ri − ri ) ⋅ cos(θ) − ρ⋅ g ⋅ ri ⋅ cos(θ) + C − ρ⋅ g ⋅ ri ⋅ cos (θ) + C = 0 C = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ri ⋅ cos (θ)
2

Therefore, the pressure is: p = p atm + ρ ⋅ ω 2 (r 2

− ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ( r − ri ) ⋅ cos(θ)
⋅
− ri2 )
2
The maximum pressure should occur on the mold surface at θ = π:

 kg   rad 
2
1  kg  m 
 × × ( 0.15 − 0.10 ) m −  7.8 × 999 3  × 9.81 2 × ( 0.15 − 0.10) m ⋅ cos(π)
2 2 2
pmax gage =  7.8 × 999 3  ×  31.3
 m   s  2  m  s 
pmax gage = 51.5 kPa

The minimum pressure should occur on the mold surface at θ = 0:

 kg   rad 
2
1  kg  m 
pmin gage =  7.8 × 999 3  ×  31.3  × × ( 0.152 − 0.102 ) m2 −  7.8 × 999 3  × 9.81 2 × ( 0.15 − 0.10) m ⋅ cos(0)
 m   s  2  m  s 
pmin gage = 43.9 kPa
 Problem 3.98 [Difficulty: 4]

Discussion: A certain minimum angle of inclination would be needed to overcome static friction and start the container
into motion down the incline. Once the container is in motion, the retarding force would be provided by
sliding (dynamic) friction. the coefficient of dynamic friction usually is smaller than the static friction
coefficient. Thus the container would continue to accelerate as it moved down the incline. This acceleration
would procide a non-zero slope to the free surface of the liquid in the container.

In principle the slope could be measured and the coefficent of dynamic friction calculated. In practice several problems would arise.

To calculate dynamic friction coefficient one must assume the liquid moves as a solid body, i.e., that there is no sloshing. This
condition could only be achieved if there were nminimum initial disturbance and the sliding distance were long.

It would be difficult to measure the slope of the free surface of liquid in the moving container. Images made with a video camera or a
digital still camera might be processed to obtain the required slope information.

ΣFy = 0 = N − M ⋅ g ⋅ cos( θ) N = M ⋅ g ⋅ cos( θ)

α ΣFx = M ⋅ ax = M ⋅ g ⋅ sin( θ) − Ff Ff = μk ⋅ N = μk ⋅ M ⋅ g ⋅ cos⋅ ( θ)

Ff = µN Thus the acceleration is:

y
N G G
θ ax = g ⋅ sin( θ) − μk ⋅ g ⋅ cos( θ) Now for a static liquid: − ∇ p + ρg = ρa
x
mg
∂p ∂p
− + ρg sin θ = ρa x = ρ ( g sin θ − µ k g cos θ ) = ρgµ k cos θ
∂x ∂x

∂p ∂p
− − ρg cos θ = ρa x = 0 = − ρg cos θ
∂y ∂y

∂p ∂p
dp = dx + dy
∂x ∂y

dy ∂p ∂x ρgµ k cosθ
For the free surface the pressure is constant. Therefore: =− =− = µk
dx ∂p ∂y − ρg cos θ

So the free surface angle is: ( )

α = atan μk Now since it is necessary to make the container slip along the surface,

( ) ( )
θ > atan μs > atan μk = α

Thus, α < θ, as shown in the sketch above.