1 

Overview
An intersection is the area shared by the joining or crossing of two or
more roads. Since the main function of an intersection is to enable the
road user to make a route choice, it is a point of decision. Hence the
problems that are encountered by the motorist while passing through an
intersection must be recognized and the design should be in such a way
that the driving task is as simple as possible.

Intersection is also a point of large number of major conflicts, besides

a point of decision. These conflicts may be due to the crossing
maneuvers of vehicles moving in different directions. Good intersection
design results from a minimization of the magnitude and characteristics
of the conflicts and a simplification of driver route selection process.

2 Classification of Intersection
Intersections are classified depending upon the treatment of crossing
conflicts as follows (i) At Grade Intersection and (ii) Grade Separated
Intersection.

2.1 Grade Separated Intersection

It is a bridge that eliminates crossing conflicts at intersections by vertical

separation of roadways in space. Grade separated intersection are
otherwise known as Interchanges. Grade separated intersections cause
less hazard and delay than grade intersections. Route transfer at grade
separations is accommodated by interchange facilities consisting of
ramps. Interchange ramps are classified as Direct, Semi-Direct and
Indirect. Interchanges are described by the patterns of the various
turning roadways or ramps. The interchange configurations are designed
in such a way to accommodate economically the traffic requirements of
flow, operation on the crossing facilities, physical requirements of the
topography, adjoining land use, type of controls, right-of-way and
direction of movements.

The ultimate objective of grade separated intersections is to eliminate

all grade crossing conflicts and to accommodate other intersecting
maneuvers by merging, diverging and weaving at low relative speed.
The relative speed of the conflicting vehicle streams is an important
factor affecting the significance of a conflict. The benefit of providing for
low relative speed is twofold. First, events unfold more slowly allowing
more judgement time and second, in case of an impact the total relative
energy to be absorbed are less and hence, the damage is less. In
addition, when relative speed is low, the average motorist will accept a
smaller time gap space between successive vehicles to complete his
move. This condition increases roadway capacity.

2.2 Classification of Grade Separated Intersection

One of the distinctions made in type of interchange is between the

directional and the non directional interchange. Directional interchanges
are those having ramps that tend to follow the natural direction of
movement. Non directional interchanges require a change in the natural
path of traffic flow. A comprehensive classification plan for grade
separated intersection design which includes all possible geometric
patterns has not yet been developed. The design and operational
characteristics of each of the major interchange types are mentioned as
follows and are discussed in the following sections.

1. Underpass
2. Overpass
3. Trumpet Interchange
4. Diamond Interchange
5. Cloverleaf Interchange
6. Partial Cloverleaf Interchange
7. Directional Interchange
8. Bridged Rotary
2.2.1 Underpass

An underpass or a tunnel is an underground passageway, completely

enclosed except for openings for ingress and egress, commonly at each
end. A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic. If an
underpass is constructed for pedestrians and/or cyclists beneath a road
or railway, allowing them to reach the other side in safety, then such a
construction is termed as a Subway. These are constructed when it is
necessary for pedestrians to cross a railroad or a limited-access
highway. Subways may also be constructed for the benefit of wildlife
2.2.2 Overpass

An overpass also known as a flyover, is a bridge, road, railway or similar

structure that crosses over another road or railway. A pedestrian
overpass allows pedestrians safe crossing over busy roads without
impacting traffic. And Railway overpasses are used to replace at-grade
crossing as a safer alternative. Overpasses allows for unobstructed rail
traffic flow from mixing with vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Stack
interchanges are made up of many overpasses.

2.2.3 Trumpet Interchange

Trumpet interchanges have been used where one highway terminates at

another highway. These involve at least one loop ramp connecting traffic
either entering or leaving the terminating expressway with the far lanes
of the continuous highway. These interchanges are useful for highways
as well as toll roads, as they concentrate all entering and exiting traffic
into a single stretch of roadway, where toll booths can be installed.
Trumpets are suitable at the locations where the side road exists on only
one side of the freeway, and traffic is relatively low. Each entrance and
exit consists of acceleration or deceleration lanes at each end. It
requires only one bridge and is the most traditional way of grade
separating a three way junction. The principal advantages are low
construction cost and are useful for highways as well as toll roads. But
the limitations in employing trumpet interchanges are it leaves a
redundant patch of the land within the loop, Disorienting to navigate for
those driving in the direction that uses the loop. Moreover scaling down
the interchange often results in a more dangerous suffers congestion
from articulated lorries that have tipped over.
2.2.4 Diamond Interchange

The diamond Interchange is the simplest form of grade separated

intersection between two roadways. The conflicts between through and
crossing traffic are eliminated by a bridge structure. This particular
intersection has four one way ramps which are essentially parallel to the
major artery. The left turn crossing movement conflicts are considerably
reduced by eliminating the conflict with the traffic in opposite direction.
All the remaining left turn conflicts, merging and diverging maneuver
conflicts take place at the terminal point of each ramp. Limitation in
application of this design depends on the operations of these terminals.
So, it is suitable for locations where the volume of left turn traffic is
relatively low.

The diamond interchange requires a minimum amount of land and is

economical to construct. Also,a diamond interchange generally requires
less out-of-the-way travel and vehicle operating costs are less than
those on most other types of interchanges. The single point of exit from
the major roadway eases the problem of signing. This type of
interchange requires the least of right-of-way. With these advantages,
the diamonds appear to be the ideal solution to an intersection problem.
But there might be chances of occurrence of conflicts at the locations
where ramps meet the grade separated cross street are to be
considered foe high ramp volumes. Improper design of signal timings at
cross streets may result in the inadequacy of capacity for certain flows.
2.2.5 Cloverleaf Interchange

The full clover interchange eliminates all crossing movement conflicts by

the use of weaving sections. This weaving section is a critical element of
cloverleaf design. It replaces a crossing conflict with a merging, followed
some distance farther by a diverging conflict. There are two points of
entry and exit on each through roadway. The first exit is provided before
the cross road structure allows right turn movements. The second exit,
immediately after the cross road structure, allows for left turn
movements. A weaving section is created between the exit and entry
points near the structure. Sufficient length and capacity is to be provided
to allow for a smooth merging and diverging operation.

Cloverleaf design requires only one bridge. In this respect, it is the

cheapest form providing for elimination of all crossing maneuvers at
grade. Although full cloverleaf interchanges eliminate the undesirable
crossing movements of diamond interchanges, they have the
disadvantages of greater travel distances, higher operating costs,
difficult merging sections, circuity of travel, large areas for loops, sight
distances to exits at the other side of the bridge, confusion caused by
turning right to go left and large rights-of-way occasioned by the radius
requirements necessary for satisfactory speeds on the ramps.

A variation of the cloverleaf configuration is the cloverleaf with

collector-distributor roads. With the collector-distributor roadway, main
roadway operations are much the same as in diamond interchange. For
each direction of travel, there is a single point for exits and a single point
for entrances. Speed change, detailed exit directional signing and the
storage and weaving problems associated with a cloverleaf are
transferred to the collector-distributor road, which can be designed to
accommodate greater relative speed differences or encourage smaller
ones. Although this configuration improves the operational
characteristics of a cloverleaf interchange, the disadvantages of greater
travel distances and the requirement of extra right-of-way are still
present. The use of a cloverleaf with collector-distributor roads is
appropriate at junctions between a freeway and an expressway where a
diamond interchange would not adequately serve traffic demand.
2.2.6 Partial Cloverleaf Interchange

This is another variation of the cloverleaf configuration. Partial clover leaf

or parclo is a modification that combines some elements of a diamond
interchange with one or more loops of a cloverleaf to eliminate only the
more critical turning conflicts. This is the most popular freeway -to-
arterial interchange. Parclo is usually employed when crossing roads on
the secondary road will not produce objectionable amounts of hazard
and delay. It provides more acceleration and deceleration space on the
freeway.

2.2.7 Directional Interchange

A Directional interchange provides direct paths for left turns. These

interchanges contain ramps for one or more direct or semi direct left
turning movements. Interchanges of two freeways or interchanges with
one or more very heavy turning movements usually warrant direct
ramps, which have higher speeds of operation and higher capacities,
compared to loop ramps. Some designers do not favor entrance of
merging traffic in the left lane, which is a characteristic of most direct-
connection bridges. The principal limitations of this type of interchange is
higher cost of construction and requirement relatively large amount of
land when compared to the diamond interchanges and in some cases
than cloverleaf interchange. Various combinations of directional, semi
directional and loop ramps may be appropriate for certain conditions.
They are the basic patterns that use the least space, have the fewest or
least complex structures, minimize internal weaving and appropriate for
the common terrain and traffic conditions.