BTI1133

Manufacturing Processes
LECTURE 11 – MILLING, BROACHING, SAWING, FILING AND GEAR
MANUFACTURING

Reference: Kalpakjian, S. & Schmid, S. Chapter 24: Manufacturing Engineering Technology in SI Units, 7th Edition

Ann Suhaimi, Semester I 2022/2023

Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Milling and Milling Machines
3. Planing and Shaping
4. Broaching and Broaching Machines
5. Sawing
6. Filing
7. Gear Manufacturing by Machining
Introduction
Machining operations can produce many other parts with more complex shapes
Complex shapes need to be produced to very close tolerances and a fine surface
finish
Die casting and precision forging can achieve such goals to some degree
Milling and Milling Machines
Milling is machining operation for a variety of configurations with the
use of a milling cutter
Milling and Milling Machines:
Peripheral Milling
The axis of cutter rotation is parallel to the workpiece surface
The cutter body has a number of teeth along its circumference
When the cutter is longer than the width of the cut, the process is
called slab milling

Conventional Milling and Climb Milling

The cutter rotation can be clockwise
or counter-clockwise
Milling and Milling Machines:
Peripheral Milling
Conventional Milling and Climb Milling
In conventional milling (also called up milling), the maximum chip thickness is at the
end of the cut
Advantages are:
1. Tooth engagement is not
a function of workpiece’s
surface characteristics
2. Contamination or scale (oxide layer) on the surface does not adversely affect tool
life
In climb milling (also called down milling), cutting starts at the surface of the
workpiece where the chip is thickest
Milling and Milling Machines:
Peripheral Milling
Milling Parameters
The cutting speed in peripheral milling is the surface speed of the
cutter is
Milling and Milling Machines:
Peripheral Milling
Milling Parameters
The approximate undeformed chip thickness (chip depth of cut) is

Feed per tooth is determined from

The cutting time, t, is given by

The material-removal rate (MRR) is
Milling and Milling Machines:
Peripheral Milling
Milling Parameters
Milling and Milling Machines:
Peripheral Milling
EXAMPLE 24.1
Material-removal Rate, Power, Torque, and Cutting Time in Slab
Milling
A slab-milling operation is being carried out on a 300-mm-long, 100-mm-
wide annealed mild-steel block at a feed f 0.25 mm/tooth and a depth
of cut d 3.0 mm. The cutter is D=50 mm in diameter, has 20 straight
teeth, rotates at 100rpm and, by definition, is wider than the block to
be machined. Calculate the material-removal rate, estimate the power
and torque required for this operation, and calculate the cutting time.
Milling and Milling Machines:
Peripheral Milling
Solution
Material-removal Rate, Power, Torque, and Cutting Time in Slab
Milling
The linear speed of the workpiece is

The material-removal rate is

The power required is

Milling and Milling Machines:
Peripheral Milling
Solution
Material-removal Rate, Power, Torque, and Cutting Time in Slab
Milling
The torque acting on the cutter spindle is

The cutting time is

Milling and Milling Machines:
Face Milling
In face milling, the cutter is mounted on a spindle having an axis of
rotation perpendicular to the workpiece surface
As the relative motion between the cutter teeth and the workpiece,
face milling leaves feed marks on the machined surface
Milling and Milling Machines:
Face Milling
Lead angle of the insert in face milling has a direct influence on the
undeformed chip thickness
As lead angle increases, the undeformed chip thickness decreases
and the length of contact increases
Cutter diameter and their position relative to the milled surface will
determine the angle at which an insert enters and exits the workpiece
Milling and Milling Machines:
Face Milling
The same insert may engage the workpiece at different angles,
depending on the relative positions of the cutter and the workpiece
width
The first contacts are at an angle and away from the tip of the insert
Milling and Milling Machines:
Face Milling
EXAMPLE 24.2
Material-removal Rate, Power Required, and Cutting Time in Face Milling
Assume that D = 150 mm, w = 60 mm, l = 500 mm, d = 3 mm, v = 0.6 m /min and N =
100 rpm. The cutter has 10 inserts, and the workpiece material is a high-strength
aluminum alloy. Calculate the material-removal rate, cutting time, and feed per tooth,
and estimate the power required.
Milling and Milling Machines:
Face Milling
Solution
Material-removal Rate, Power Required, and Cutting Time in Face
Milling
The material-removal rate is

The cutting time is

The feed per tooth is

The power is
Milling and Milling Machines:
End Milling
End milling is versatile and capability to produce various profiles and
curved surfaces
An end mill has a straight shank or tapered shank which is mounted
into the spindle of the milling machine
End milling can produce a variety of surfaces at any depth, such as
curved, stepped, and pocketed
Milling and Milling Machines:
End Milling
High-speed End Milling
High-speed end milling has applications as the milling
of large aluminum-alloy aerospace components and
honeycomb structures with high spindle speeds
Machines must have high stiffness and accuracy
The production of cavities in metalworking dies (die
sinking) can be done
The machines have four-axis
or five-axis movements
Milling and Milling Machines:
Other Milling Operations and Milling Cutters

In straddle milling, two or more cutters are mounted on an arbor and

are used to machine two parallel surfaces on the workpiece
Form milling produces curved profiles using cutters that have
specially shaped teeth
Slotting and slitting operations are performed with circular cutters
Milling and Milling Machines:
Other Milling Operations and Milling Cutters

Slitting saws are thin and T-slot cutters are used to mill T-slots
A slot is first milled with an end mill and the cutter machines will then
complete profile of the T-slot in one pass
Shell mills are hollow inside and are mounted on a shank which allows
the same shank to be used for different-sized cutters
Milling and Milling Machines:
Toolholders
Arbor cutters are mounted on an arbor for peripheral, face, straddle
and form milling
In shank-type cutters, the cutter and the shank are made in one
piece
Hydraulic toolholders and arbors are available
Stiffness of cutters and toolholders is important for surface quality and
in reducing vibration and chatter during milling operations
Milling and Milling Machines:
Milling Process Capabilities
Milling process capabilities include surface finish, dimensional
tolerances, production rate, and cost considerations
Milling and Milling Machines:
Milling Process Capabilities
Milling and Milling Machines:
Design and Operating Guidelines for Milling
Additional factors relevant to milling operations include:
1. Standard milling cutters should be used as much as possible
2. Chamfers should be specified
3. Internal cavities and pockets with sharp corners should be avoided
4. Proper clearance should be provided in the design for milling cutters
5. Workpieces should be rigid to minimize deflections
Milling and Milling Machines:
Design and Operating Guidelines for Milling
Guidelines for avoiding vibration and chatter in milling:
1. Cutters should be mounted as close to the spindle base
2. Toolholders and fixturing devices should be rigid
3. Tool shape and process conditions should be modified and cutters with
fewer cutting teeth
Milling and Milling Machines:
Milling Machines
Milling machines are among the most versatile and useful machine
tools
Standard milling machines are now being replaced with computer
controls and machining centers
Column-and-knee-type Machines
Column-and-knee-type machines are common milling machines
Milling and Milling Machines:
Milling Machines
Bed-type Milling Machines
The worktable replaces the knee
and can move only longitudinally

Other Types of Milling Machines

Planer-type milling machines are
equipped with several heads and
cutters to mill different surfaces
Computer numerical-control (CNC)
machines are for low
production quantities
Planing and Shaping
Planing
A simple machining operation where flat surfaces are produced along
the length of the workpiece
Usually done on large workpieces
Due to reciprocating motion of the
workpiece, the non-cutting time
elapsed is significant
Chips produced can be long which
interfere the planing operation and
becoming a safety hazard
Planing and Shaping
Shaping
Same as planing except that
1. it is the tool, and not the workpiece
2. workpieces are smaller
In a horizontal shaper, the cutting tool travels back and forth along a
straight path
Vertical shapers (slotters) are used to machine notches, keyways,
and dies
Broaching and Broaching Machines

Similar to shaping with a long multiple-tooth cutter and is used to

machine internal and external surfaces
In a broach the total depth of material removed in one stroke is the
sum of the depths of cut of each tooth of the broach
Broaching and Broaching Machines

Broaches
The rake (hook) angle depends on the material cut
Too small a clearance angle causes rubbing of the teeth against the
broached surface
The pitch of the teeth depends on factors such as the length of the
workpiece (length of cut), tooth strength, and size and shape of chips
Broaching and Broaching Machines

Broaches
The pitch for a broach to cut a surface of length is

Broaches are available with various tooth profiles, including some with
chip breakers
Broaching and Broaching Machines

Turn Broaching
Used for broaching the bearing surfaces of crankshafts and similar parts
Turn broaching is a combination of shaving and skiving

Broaching Machines
Simple in construction, have only linear motions, and actuated hydraulically, crank,
screw or rack
The force required to pull or push the broach depends on strength of the workpiece
material, total depth and width of cut, cutting speed, tooth profile, and cutting fluids
Broaching and Broaching Machines

Process Parameters
Majority of broaches are coated with titanium nitride for improved tool
life and surface finish
Ceramic inserts are used for finishing operations in some applications
Smaller, high-speed steel blanks for broaches can be made with
powder-metallurgy techniques for better control of quality
Broaching and Broaching Machines

Design Considerations
Broaching requires certain guidelines:
1. Parts should be designed so that they can be clamped securely
2. Use of standardized parts is important for broaches
3. Balanced cross sections are preferable
4. Chamfers are preferred
5. Inverted or dovetail splines should be avoided
6. Broaching blind holes should be avoided
Broaching and Broaching Machines

EXAMPLE 24.3
Broaching Internal Splines
Example of a part with internal splines that were produced by
broaching
Sawing
Cutting tool is a blade (saw) having a series of small teeth, each tooth
removing a small amount of material with each stroke or movement of
the saw
Can be used for all metallic and nonmetallic materials and is capable
of producing various shapes
Sawing
A wide variety of sizes, tooth forms, tooth spacing, and blade
thicknesses and widths are available
Saw blades are made from high-carbon and high-speed steels
Carbide or high-speed steel-tipped steel blades are used to saw
harder materials
Sawing
Types of Saws
Hacksaws have straight blades and reciprocating motions
Hand hacksaw blades are thinner and shorter than power hacksaw
blades
Circular saws are used for high-production-rate sawing, a process
called cutting off
Band saws have continuous, long, flexible blades and have a
continuous cutting action
Vertical band saws are used for straight and contour cutting of flat
sheets
Sawing
Friction Sawing
Friction sawing is a process in which a mild-steel blade or disk rubs
against the workpiece
Frictional energy is converted into heat, which rapidly softens a narrow
zone in the workpiece
Heat generated in the workpiece produces a heat-affected zone on the
cut surfaces
Friction sawing process is suitable for hard, ferrous metals and
reinforced plastics but not for nonferrous metals
Filing
Filing involves the small-scale removal of material from a surface,
corner, edge, hole or burrs
Files can have many tooth forms and grades of coarseness
Filing machines with automatic features are available for high
production rates
Band files consist of file segments that are riveted to a flexible steel
band
Rotary files and burs are
used for deburring and
removing scale from surfaces
Gear Manufacturing by Machining

Casting, forging, extrusion, drawing, thread rolling, and powder

metallurgy can be used to manufacture gears
The dimensional accuracy and surface finish required for gear teeth
depend on the intended use
Poor gear-tooth quality contributes to inefficient energy transmission,
vibration and noise
Gear Manufacturing by Machining:
Form Cutting
Cutting tool is similar to a form-milling cutter made in the shape of the
space between the gear teeth
Each cutter is designed to cut a range of numbers of teeth
Precision of the form-cut tooth profile depends on the accuracy of the
cutter and on the machine and its stiffness
It is a slow operation
Broaching can be used to machine
gear teeth and is particularly suitable
for producing internal teeth
Gear Manufacturing by Machining:
Gear Generating
Cutting tool used may be a:
1. Pinion-shaped cutter
2. Rack shaper
3. Hob
Gear Manufacturing by Machining:
Cutting Bevel Gears
Straight bevel gears are roughed out in one cut with a form cutter on
machines that index automatically
The cutters will reciprocate across the face of the bevel gear as does
the tool on a shaper
Spiral cutter is a face-milling cutter with a number of straight-sided
cutting blades protruding from its periphery
Gear Manufacturing by Machining:
Cutting Bevel Gears
Burnishing
Surface finish of gear teeth is improved by burnishing
The resulting cold working of the tooth surfaces improves the surface
finish, induces compressive residual stresses and fatigue life

Grinding, Honing, and Lapping

For the highest dimensional accuracy, tooth spacing and form, and
surface finish, gear teeth subsequently may be ground, honed, and
lapped
Gear Manufacturing by Machining:
Cutting Bevel Gears
Grinding, Honing, and Lapping
In form grinding, the shape of the grinding wheel is identical to that of
the tooth spacing
In generating, the grinding wheel acts in a manner similar to the gear
generating cutter
The honing tool is a plastic gear impregnated with fine abrasive
particles
Gear Manufacturing by Machining:
Cutting Bevel Gears
Grinding, Honing, and Lapping
Design Considerations and Economics of Gear
Machining
Design considerations for gear-cutting:
1. Wide gears are more difficult to machine than narrow ones
2. Gears should be machined prior to their assembly on shafts
3. Sufficient clearance should be provided between gear teeth and
flanges
4. Blank design is important for proper fixturing and to ease cutting
operations
5. Spur gears are easier to machine than helical gears
6. Dimensional tolerances and standardized gear shapes are specified
by industry standards
Design Considerations and Economics of Gear
Machining
Economics
The cost of gears increases with improved surface finish and quality
The higher the number, the higher is the dimensional accuracy of the
gear teeth