Terms Used in the Thesis

1.1 Fluid

Fluid is a substance that is continuously deform or flow when subjected to

external shearing force. There are three states of substance such as solids,
liquids and gases that are fluids. Liquids and gases have same properties.

1.2 Fluid Mechanics

The study of effects of forces on fluids. Fluids may be in rest or in motion. If

the fluid is in rest condition then it is known as static fluid and if the fluid is in
motion then it is known as dynamic fluid.
1.3 Static Fluid

Fluid is at rest is known as static fluid.

For example,

water in a glass.

1.4 Dynamic Fluid

Fluid dynamics mechanism of fluids that describe the flow of fluids at motion. It
has several parts or we can say several areas including aerodynamics which is the
study of air and other gases in motion and one is hydrodynamics which can be
expressed as the study of liquid in motion.

1.5 Characteristics of Fluid

 It has no definite shape of its own but conform to the shape of the containing
vessel.
 Even a small amount of shear force exerted on a fluid will cause it to undergoes
a deformation which continues as long as the force continues to be applied.
1.6 Properties of Fluid

1.6.1 Density

It is intensive property of fluid. Density is defined as mass per unit volume, i.e.

m
ρ= .
v

1.6.2 Specific Weight

Weight per unit volume is known as specific weight, i.e.

w
Specific weight = v .

1.6.3 Specific Volume

Volume per unit mass of fluid is known as specific volume, i.e.

V
Specific volume = m .

1.6.4 Specific Gravity

Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a

given reference material.

1.6.5 Viscosity

Which offer to the resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another
adjacent layer of fluid. Viscosity of liquids decreases when temperature
increases and viscosity of gases increases with increase in temperature.

1.7 Types of Fluid

1.7.1 Ideal Fluid

An ideal fluid is one which has no viscosity, no surface tension and
incompressible. Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluid which exist
have same viscosity.

1.7.2 Real Fluid

A real fluid is one which has viscosity, surface tension and compressible.
Naturally available all fluids are real fluid. For examples water, air, petrol etc.

1.7.3 Newtonian Fluid

A real fluid in which shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear
strain or velocity gradient is known as Newtonian fluid

du
τ =µ .
dy

µ is dynamic viscosity.

1.7.4 Non-Newtonian Fluid

A real fluid in which shear stress is not directly proportional to the rate of shear
strain or velocity gradient is known as non-Newtonian fluid. i.e.

du
τ ≠µ .
dy

for example, blood, ink etc.

1.8 Flow

When fluid is in a motion then it is known as fluid flow.

For example, motion of water in a pipe.

1.8.1 Steady Flow

A steady flow is a flow in which velocity, pressure, density etc. does not change
at a point with time.
 1.8.2 Unsteady Flow

Unsteady flow is a flow in which velocity, pressure, density etc. changes at a

point with time.

1.8.3 Uniform Flow

Uniform flow is defined as the type of flow in which the velocity at any given
point does not change with respect to time.

1.8.4 Non-Uniform Flow

Non-Uniform flow is defined as the type of flow in which the velocity at any
given point change with respect to time.

1.8.5 Laminar Flow

It is defined as the flow in which the fluid particles move along well-defined
path or stream line, all streamlines are straight and parallel, i.e.

Inertial Force
Reynolds Number = ,
Viscous Force

ρVL
ℜ= .
μ

where,

 Re is the Reynolds number

 ρ is the density of the fluid
 V is the velocity of flow
 L characteristic linear dimension
 μ is the viscosity of the fluid
Re is Reynold’s number and Re ˂ 2000

1.8.6 Turbulent Flow

It is defined as the flow in which fluid particles moves randomly or zig zag way.

Re greater than 4000.

1.8.7 Compressible Flow

A flow in which density of fluid change from point to point. In this density does
not remain constant, i.e.

mass
Density= .
volume

1.8.8 Incompressible Flow

A flow in which density of fluid does not change from point to point. In this
density remain constant.

1.8.9 Rotational Flow

A type of flow in which fluid particles rotates about their own axis while
moving along the streamline.

1.8.10 Ir-rotational Flow

A type of flow in which fluid particles does not rotates about their own axis
while moving along the streamline.

1.8.11 One Dimensional Flow

A flow in which velocity is a function of time and one rectangular space co-
ordinate only.
1.8.12 Two-Dimensional flow

In this flow velocity is the function of time and two rectangular space co-
ordinates only.

1.8.13 Three-Dimensional flow

In this flow velocity is the function of time and three rectangular space co-
ordinates.
Flow over a sheet or plate:

When the liquid flows at the speed of sound from the top of a thin sharp flat
plate at a low incident angle at low Reynolds number. Then a laminar boundary
layer will be formed on the leading edge of the plate. And since there is an
adhesive boundary layer, the plate will have a hypothetical boundary layer to
create a curved shock wave at the top edge of the plate. The shock layer is the
area between the plate surface and the boundary layer. This shock layer will be
further subdivided into viscid and inviscid flow layers according to match
number, Reynolds number and surface temperature values. However, if the
entire layer is sticky, it is called an integrated shock layer.

Reynolds number;

R e x =ρU x / μ

Flow over a linear stretching sheet:

1. Introduction
The flow in the boundary layer of an incompressible viscous fluid on
moving solid surfaces has been investigated by Saccades . Due to the
entrainment of the ambient fluid, this boundary layer is quite different
from that in Blasius flow past a flat plate. Erickson, Fan and Fox
extended this problem to the case in which the transverse velocity at the
moving surface is non-zero, with heat and mass transfer in the boundary
layer being considered. These investigations have a bearing on the
problem of a polymer sheet extruded continuously from a die. It is often
tacitly assumed that the sheet is inextensible, but situations may arise in
the polymer industry in which it is necessary to deal with a stretching
plastic sheet, as pointed out by McCormack and Crane. Dangberg and
 Fancher investigated the non-similar solution for the flow in the
boundary layer past a wall that is stretched with a velocity proportional to
the distance along the wall, the free-stream velocity being constant.
Gupta and Gupta analyzed the heat and mass transfer corresponding to
the similarity solution for the boundary layer over a stretching sheet
subjected to suction or blowing. All the above investigations were
restricted to flows of Newtonian fluids. However, of late non-Newtonian
fluids have become more and more important industrially. The laminar
boundary layer on an inextensible continuous flat surface moving with a
constant velocity in its own plane in a non-Newtonian fluid characterized
by a power-law model (Ostwald-de Waele fluid) was studied by Fox,
Erickson and Fan using both exact and approximate methods. Apart from
the limitations of the above power-law model, which does not exhibit any
elastic properties (such as normal-stress differences in shear flow), in
certain polymer processing applications one deals with flows of a
viscoelastic fluid over a stretching sheet. This provides the motivation for
the present study in which the flow of a class of viscoelastic fluids past a
stretching sheet is examined. These are the incompressible second-order
fluids whose constitutive equation based on the postulate of gradually
fading memory was given by Coleman and Noll as

2
T =− pl + μ A 1+ α 1 A 2 +α 2 A1 1.1

where T is the stress tensor, p is the pressure, and μ , α 1 , α 2 are material constants
with α 1 < 0 and A1∧ A 2 are defined as

A1= ( gvad v ) +¿ 1.2

d
A2= A1 + A1 . grad v+(grad v)t . A1 1.3
dt
Coleman and Noll showed that the model (1.1) exhibits normal-stress
differences in shear flow and approximates a simple fluid in the sense of
 retardation. This model is applicable to some dilute polymer solutions at
low rates of shear.

2. Calculation
We consider the flow of a Newtonian fluid over a stretching sheet placed
on the plane y = 0. Fhe flow being confined to y > 0. Two equal and
opposite forces are applied along the x-axis so that the wall is stretched
whilst ‘keeping the origin fixed (Figure 1). The steady two-dimensional
boundary layer equations for this fluid flow are given by:
Continuity Equation:
∂u ∂ v
+ =0 2.1
∂x ∂ y

Momentum Equation:
2
∂u ∂u ∂u
u +v =ν 2 2.2
∂x ∂y ∂y
Where
v=μ/ϱ is the kinematic viscosity and μ is the dynamic
viscosity of the fluid.
In deriving these equations, it was assumed that in addition to the usual
boundary layer approximations the contribution due to the normal
stresses is of the same order of magnitude as that due to the shear
stresses. Thus, both v and k are O ( δ 2) , δ being the boundary layer
thickness.
The boundary conditions are
u=cx , v=0 at y=0
u → 0 as y → ∞ , c> 0 2.3
The flow is caused solely by the stretching of the wall, the free stream
velocity being zero. Equation (2.1) and (2.2) have the similarity solution
' 1 /2
u=cx f ( η ) , v=−( νc ) f ( η ) 2.4
where the similarity variable q is given by
 y 2.5
1 /2
η=( c /ν )

When u=cx
cx f ' ( η )=cx
At y=0
cx f ' ( 0 )=cx
f ' ( 0 ) =1
As
1
2
v=−( νc ) f ( η )
−√ νc f ( η ) =0
At y=0 , v=0
f ( 0 )=0
At y → ∞ , u →0
'
η → ∞, cx f ( η ) →0
f ' ( η ) → 0 ,η → ∞
'
f ( ∞ )=0
Now taking partial derivative of u w.r.t x
∂u
=c f ' ( η )
∂x
Now taking partial derivative of u w.r.t y
∂u ∂η
=cx f ' ' ( η )
∂y ∂y

As, ∂ η = c
∂y √ ν
∂u
∂y
''
=cx f ( η )
c
ν √
Taking again partial derivative

√
2
∂u c '' ' ( ) ∂ η
=cx f η
∂y
2
ν ∂y

√ √
2
∂u c '' ' ( ) c
=cx f η
∂y
2
ν ν

√
2 2
∂u c
2
=cx 2 f '' ' ( η )
∂y ν
 2 2
∂ u c x ' '' ( )
2
= f η
∂y ν
Now from momentum equation 2.2

[ √ ]
2
c '' c x '' '
cx f ( η ) [ c f ( η ) ]+ [−√ cν f ( η ) ] cx
' '
f ( η ) =ν f (η )
ν ν

2
c 2 x ( f ' ( η ) ) −cx

2
√ c2 ν
ν
f ( η ) f ' ' ( η )=c2 x f ' ' ' ( η )

c x ( f ( η ) ) −c xf ( η ) f ( η )=c x f ( η )
2 ' 2 '' 2 '' '

Dividing by c 2 x on both sides

2
( f ' ( η )) −f ( η ) f ' ' ( η )=f ' '' ( η )

Clearly velocity components u and v given in (2.4) satisfy continuity

equation (2.1) and hence velocity field represents the possible fluid
motion. Moreover, substituting these values of the components into (2.2)
gives
'2
f −f f =f
'' ' ''
(2.6)
where a prime denotes differentiation with respect to η.
Finally, the boundary conditions (2.3) are transformed to
f ' ( 0 ) =1 , f ( 0 )=0 , f ' ( ∞ )=0 (2.7)
Eq. (2.6) is an equation of 3rd order with the three boundary conditions.

Flow over a nonlinear stretching sheet:

1. Introduction
The study of two-dimensional boundary layer flow, heat, and mass transfer over
a nonlinear stretching surface is very important as it finds many practical
applications in different areas. Some industrial applications of viscous flow over
a stretching sheet are aerodynamic extrusion of plastic sheets, condensation
process of metallic plate in a cooling bath, and extrusion of a polymer sheet
from a dye.

During the manufacture of these sheets, the melt issues from a slit and is
subsequently stretched to achieve the desired thickness. The final products of
desired characteristics are notably influenced by the stretching rate, the rate of
the cooling in the process, and the process of stretching. Viscous dissipation
changes the temperature distributions by playing a role like an energy source,
which leads to affecting heat transfer rates. The merit of the effect of viscous
dissipation depends on whether the sheet is being cooled or heated. The
problem of nonlinear stretching sheet for different cases of fluid flow has also
been analyzed by different researchers. Sakiadis initiated the study of boundary
layer flow over a continuous solid surface moving with constant speed as result
of ambient fluid movement; this boundary flow is generally different from
boundary layer flow over a semi-infinite flat plate. Erickson studied this
problem to the case in which the transverse velocity at the moving surface is
nonzero with the effects of heat and mass transfer being taken in to account.
Danberg and Fansler, using non similar solution method, studied the flow inside
the boundary layer past a wall that is stretched with a velocity proportional to
the distance along the wall. P. S. Gupta A. S. Gupta, using similar solution
method, analyzed heat and mass transfer in the boundary layer over a stretching
sheet subject to suction or blowing. The laminar boundary layer on an
inextensible continues flat surface moving with a constant velocity in a non-
Newtonian fluid characterized by a power-law model is studied by Fox et al.
using both exact and approximate methods. Rajagopal et al. studied the flow
behavior of viscoelastic fluid over stretching sheet and gave an approximate
solution to the flow field. Recently Troy et al. presented an exact solution for
Rajagopal problem. Vajravelu and Roper studied the flow and heat transfer in a
viscoelastic fluid over a continues stretching sheet with power law surface
temperature, including the effects of viscous dissipation, internal heat
generation or absorption, and work due to deformation in the energy equation.
Vajravelu studied the flow and heat transfer characteristics in a viscous fluid
over a nonlinearly stretching sheet without heat dissipation effect. Cortell has
worked on viscous flow and heat transfer over a nonlinearly stretching sheet.
Raptis and Perdikis studied viscous flow over a nonlinear stretching sheet in the
presence of a chemical reaction and magnetic field. Abbas and Hayat addressed
the radiation effects on MHD flow due to a stretching sheet in porous space.
Cortell investigated the influence of similarity solution for flow and heat
transfer of a quiescent fluid over a nonlinear stretching surface. Awang and
Hashim obtained the series solution for flow over a nonlinearly stretching sheet
with chemical reaction and magnetic field. In the present paper an analysis is
carried out to study the flow and heat transfer phenomenon in a viscous fluid
over a nonlinearly stretching sheet by considering the effects of heat dissipation.
In order to arrive nonlinear ordinary deferential equations, stream function is
defined differently (compared to the linear stretching case) and these nonlinear
deferential equations along with pertinent boundary condition are solved.

2. calculation

We consider the flow of a Newtonian fluid over a non linear stretching sheet
placed on the plane y = 0. Fhe flow being confined to y > 0. Two equal and
opposite forces are applied along the x-axis so that the wall is stretched whilst
‘keeping the origin fixed.The steady two-dimensional boundary layer equations
for this fluid flow are given by:
Continuity Equation:

∂u ∂ v
+ =0
∂x ∂ y
2.1

Momentum Equation:

∂u ∂u ∂2 u
u +v =ν 2 2.2
∂x ∂y ∂y

Where

v=μ/ϱ is the kinematic viscosity and μ is the dynamic viscosity of the

fluid.

In deriving these equations, it was assumed that in addition to the usual

boundary layer approximations the contribution due to the normal stresses is of
the same order of magnitude as that due to the shear stresses. Thus, both v and k
are O ( δ 2) , δ being the boundary layer thickness.

The boundary conditions are

n
u=c x , v=0 at y=0
u → 0 as y → ∞ , c> 0 2.3

The flow is caused solely by the stretching of the wall, the free stream

velocity being zero. Equation (2.1) and (2.2) have the similarity solution

u=c x n f ' ( η )

( ) [ ( n−1
n+1 ) ]
1/2
cν ( n+1 )
2.4 v=− x (n−1) /2 f ( η )+ '
η f (η) 2.5
2

where the similarity variable η is given by

( )
1/ 2
( n−1) /2 c ( n+ 1 )
η=x y 2.6
2ν
When u=c x n
n ' n
c x f ( η ) =c x

At y=0
n ' n
c x f ( 0 ) =c x
f ' ( 0 ) =1

As

( ) [ ( n−1
n+1 ) ]
1/2
cν ( n+1 )
v=− x (n−1) /2 f ( η )+ '
η f (η)
2

At y=0

( ) [ ( ) ]
1/2
cν ( n+1 ) n−1
v=− x (n−1) /2 f ( 0 )+ (0 ) f ' (0 )
2 n+1

Now

( )
1/2
cν ( n+1 )
v=− x ( n−1) /2 [ f ( η ) +0 ]
2

So

( )
1/2
cν ( n+1 )
v=− x (n−1) /2 f ( η )
2

We know that ; At y=0 , v=0

( )
1 /2
cν ( n+1 )
0=− x (n−1) /2 f ( η )
2
 f ( 0 )=0

At y → ∞, u →0

η → ∞ , c xn f ' ( η) → 0
'
f ( η ) → 0 ,η → ∞
f ' ( ∞ )=0

Now taking partial derivative of u w.r.t x

∂u '
=nc x (n−1) f ( η )
∂x

2.7

We also taking partial derivative of u w.r.t y

∂u n '' ∂η 2.8
=c x f ( η )
∂y ∂y

So we taking partial derivative of η w.r.t y

( )
1/2
∂η c ( n+1 )
=x ( n−1)/ 2
∂y 2ν

∂η
So we put ∂ y in equation 2.8

( )
1/ 2
∂u c ( n+1 )
=c x n f ' ' ( η ) x (n−1) /2
∂y 2ν

Now

( )
1 /2
∂u c ( n+1 )
=c x ( 3 n−1) /2 f ' ' ( η )
∂y 2ν

∂u
Now taking partial derivative of ∂ y w.r.t y

( )
1/ 2
∂2 u c ( n+1 ) ∂η
=c x (3 n−1) /2 f ' ' ' ( η )
∂y
2
2ν ∂y
 ∂η
Now we putting the equation of ∂ y which is given above

( ) ( )
2 1/ 2 1 /2
∂u c ( n+1 ) c ( n+1 )
=c x (3 n−1) /2 f ' ' ' ( η ) x (n −1 )/ 2
∂y
2
2ν 2ν

So we simplyfy
2 ( 2 n−1)
∂2 u c ( n+1 )
= x f ' '' ( η )
∂y
2
2ν

Now we solve the momentum equation;

2
∂u ∂u ∂u
u +v =ν 2
∂x ∂y ∂y

So ,we drive all equation then put in momentum equation;

[( ) [ ( ) ]] ( )
1 /2 1/ 2 ( 2 n−1
n ' ( n−1 ) ' cν ( n+1 ) ( n−1) / 2 n−1 ' ( 3 n−1 ) / 2 ' ' c ( n+1 ) c 2 ( n+ 1 )
c x f ( η ) nc x f (η)+ − x f (η)+ η f ( η) c x f (η) =ν x
2 n+1 2ν 2ν

Now

[( ) ( ) ( ) ] ( )
1 /2 1 /2 1/ 2
❑ cν ( n+1 ) cν ( n+1 ) n−1 c ( n+ 1 ) c
nc x
2 ( 2 n−1 )
( f ( η )) + −
'
x
( n−1) /2
f ( η )− x
( n−1 ) / 2 '
η f (η) c x
( 3 n−1 ) / 2 ''
f (η) =
2 2 n+1 2ν

Now

( ) ( ) ( ) ( n−1
n+1 )
1 /2 1/ 2 1 /2
❑ cν ( n+1 ) c ( n+ 1 ) cν ( n+1 )
nc 2 x (2 n−1 ) ( f ' ( η )) − x (n−1) /2 f ( η ) c x (3 n−1 )/ 2 f '' ( η ) − x( n−1) /2 '
η f (η) c x ( 3 n−1
2 2ν 2

So

( ) ( ) ( n−1
n+1 )
1/ 2 1/ 2
❑ cν ( n+1 ) c ( n+ 1 ) cν ( n+1 ) c ( n+ 1 )
nc x2 ( 2 n−1 )
( f ( η )) −c
'
x ( 3 n−1) /2 ( n−1) /2
x ''
f ( η ) f ( η )−c x (3 n−1) /2 x( n−1)/ 2
2 2ν 2 2ν